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107-434: The IIoT is enabled by technologies such as cybersecurity , cloud computing , edge computing , mobile technologies , machine-to-machine , 3D printing , advanced robotics , big data , internet of things , RFID technology, and cognitive computing . Five of the most important ones are described below: IIoT systems are usually conceived as a layered modular architecture of digital technology. The device layer refers to

214-443: A solution for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions. Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer ( computability theory ) and how efficiently ( computational complexity theory ). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an algorithm that produces

321-539: A 24-hour production plant, due to higher security and efficiency. The majority of automotive manufacturers companies have production plants in different countries, where different components of the same vehicle are built. IIoT makes it possible to connect these production plants to each other, creating the possibility to move within facilities. Big data can be visually monitored which enables companies to respond faster to fluctuations in production and demand. With IIOT support, large amounts of raw data can be stored and sent by

428-488: A Deloitte report states that by implementing an IIOT solution integrating data from multiple internal and external sources (such as work management system, control center, pipeline attributes, risk scores, inline inspection findings, planned assessments, and leak history), thousands of miles of pipes can be monitored in real-time. This allows monitoring of pipeline threats, improving risk management, and providing situational awareness. Benefits also apply to specific processes of

535-587: A big impact on information security in organizations. Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness toward information security within an organization. Information security culture is the "...totality of patterns of behavior in an organization that contributes to the protection of information of all kinds." Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization's information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes. Indeed,

642-476: A colleague, which, when listened to by an attacker, could be exploited. Data transmitted across an "open network" allows an attacker to exploit a vulnerability and intercept it via various methods. Unlike malware , direct-access attacks, or other forms of cyber attacks, eavesdropping attacks are unlikely to negatively affect the performance of networks or devices, making them difficult to notice. In fact, "the attacker does not need to have any ongoing connection to

749-474: A common goal for their work. The terms " concurrent computing ", " parallel computing ", and "distributed computing" have much overlap, and no clear distinction exists between them. The same system may be characterized both as "parallel" and "distributed"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel. Parallel computing may be seen as a particularly tightly coupled form of distributed computing, and distributed computing may be seen as

856-412: A consequence make a Cold boot attack possible, to hardware implementation faults that allow for access or guessing of other values that normally should be inaccessible. In Side-channel attack scenarios, the attacker would gather such information about a system or network to guess its internal state and as a result access the information which is assumed by the victim to be secure. The target information in

963-520: A correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a computer program that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from input , performs some computation, and produces the solution as output . Formalisms such as random-access machines or universal Turing machines can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm. The field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in

1070-504: A decision problem can be solved in polylogarithmic time by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class NC . The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits—PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa. In the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps

1177-827: A distributed system communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant challenges of distributed systems are: maintaining concurrency of components, overcoming the lack of a global clock , and managing the independent failure of components. When a component of one system fails, the entire system does not fail. Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems to microservices to massively multiplayer online games to peer-to-peer applications . Distributed systems cost significantly more than monolithic architectures, primarily due to increased needs for additional hardware, servers, gateways, firewalls, new subnets, proxies, and so on. Also, distributed systems are prone to fallacies of distributed computing . On

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1284-445: A feature of modern computers that allows certain devices, such as external hard drives, graphics cards, or network cards, to access the computer's memory directly." Eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private computer conversation (communication), usually between hosts on a network. It typically occurs when a user connects to a network where traffic is not secured or encrypted and sends sensitive business data to

1391-401: A loosely coupled form of parallel computing. Nevertheless, it is possible to roughly classify concurrent systems as "parallel" or "distributed" using the following criteria: The figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node

1498-480: A malicious code inside a particular HTML or web page. HTML files can carry payloads concealed as benign, inert data in order to defeat content filters . These payloads can be reconstructed on the other side of the filter. When a target user opens the HTML, the malicious code is activated; the web browser then "decodes" the script, which then unleashes the malware onto the target's device. Employee behavior can have

1605-525: A modified Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University became the first internet-connected appliance, able to report its inventory and whether newly loaded drinks were cold. As early as in 1994, greater industrial applications were envisioned, as Reza Raji described the concept in IEEE Spectrum as "[moving] small packets of data to a large set of nodes, so as to integrate and automate everything from home appliances to entire factories". The concept of

1712-431: A much wider sense, even referring to autonomous processes that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing. While there is no single definition of a distributed system, the following defining properties are commonly used as: A distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem; the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as

1819-439: A new class of multi-vector, polymorphic cyber threats combine several types of attacks and change form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread. Multi-vector polymorphic attacks, as the name describes, are both multi-vectored and polymorphic. Firstly, they are a singular attack that involves multiple methods of attack. In this sense, they are “multi-vectored (i.e. the attack can use multiple means of propagation such as via

1926-424: A problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers, which communicate with each other via message passing. The word distributed in terms such as "distributed system", "distributed programming", and " distributed algorithm " originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area. The terms are nowadays used in

2033-654: A schematic architecture allowing for live environment relay. This enables distributed computing functions both within and beyond the parameters of a networked database. Reasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include: Examples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following: According to Reactive Manifesto, reactive distributed systems are responsive, resilient, elastic and message-driven. Subsequently, Reactive systems are more flexible, loosely-coupled and scalable. To make your systems reactive, you are advised to implement Reactive Principles. Reactive Principles are

2140-631: A separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet. Some organizations are turning to big data platforms, such as Apache Hadoop , to extend data accessibility and machine learning to detect advanced persistent threats . Distributed applications Distributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems , defined as computer systems whose inter-communicating components are located on different networked computers . The components of

2247-405: A sequential general-purpose computer? The discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer. Three viewpoints are commonly used: In the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs. Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network

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2354-457: A set of principles and patterns which help to make your cloud native application as well as edge native applications more reactive. Many tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question–answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In theoretical computer science , such tasks are called computational problems . Formally, a computational problem consists of instances together with

2461-601: A side channel can be challenging to detect due to its low amplitude when combined with other signals Social engineering , in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. or grant physical access by, for example, impersonating a senior executive, bank, a contractor, or a customer. This generally involves exploiting people's trust, and relying on their cognitive biases . A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action. One of

2568-705: A standard computer user may be able to exploit a vulnerability in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become root and have full unrestricted access to a system. The severity of attacks can range from attacks simply sending an unsolicited email to a ransomware attack on large amounts of data. Privilege escalation usually starts with social engineering techniques, often phishing . Privilege escalation can be separated into two strategies, horizontal and vertical privilege escalation: Any computational system affects its environment in some form. This effect it has on its environment can range from electromagnetic radiation, to residual effect on RAM cells which as

2675-462: A third party HVAC vendor. The pharmaceutical manufacturing industry has been slow to adopt IIoT advances because of security concerns such as these. One of the difficulties in providing security solutions in IIoT applications is the fragmented nature of the hardware. Consequently, security architectures are turning towards designs that are software-based or device-agnostic. Hardware-based approaches, like

2782-695: A token ring network in which the token has been lost. Coordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total bytes transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the Dijkstra Prize for an influential paper in distributed computing. Many other algorithms were suggested for different kinds of network graphs , such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples

2889-434: A unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users. Other typical properties of distributed systems include the following: Here are common architectural patterns used for distributed computing: Distributed systems are groups of networked computers which share

2996-490: A way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the Internet . They can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX -based operating systems such as Linux , built into the operating system kernel ) to provide real-time filtering and blocking. Another implementation is a so-called physical firewall , which consists of

3103-447: A wrong password enough consecutive times to cause the victim's account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. While a network attack from a single IP address can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points. In this case, defending against these attacks

3210-477: Is the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example. Consider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph G . Different fields might take the following approaches: While the field of parallel algorithms has a different focus than the field of distributed algorithms, there is much interaction between the two fields. For example, the Cole–Vishkin algorithm for graph coloring

3317-416: Is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link. Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory. The situation

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3424-431: Is also enabled by IIoT due to the modularity and connectivity of this technology. While in the past they worked separately, IIoT now enables humans and robots to cooperate. Robots take on heavy and repetitive activities, so the manufacturing cycles are quicker and the vehicle comes to the market more rapidly. Factories can quickly identify potential maintenance issues before they lead to downtime and many of them are moving to

3531-403: Is also focused on understanding the asynchronous nature of distributed systems: Note that in distributed systems, latency should be measured through "99th percentile" because "median" and "average" can be misleading. Coordinator election (or leader election ) is the process of designating a single process as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before

3638-419: Is available in their local D-neighbourhood . Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than D rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field. Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model. Another commonly used measure

3745-581: Is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed algorithm that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed systems (see below for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms. The use of concurrent processes which communicate through message-passing has its roots in operating system architectures studied in

3852-471: Is much more difficult. Such attacks can originate from the zombie computers of a botnet or from a range of other possible techniques, including distributed reflective denial-of-service (DRDoS), where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim. With such attacks, the amplification factor makes the attack easier for the attacker because they have to use little bandwidth themselves. To understand why attackers may carry out these attacks, see

3959-478: Is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system . Whether these CPUs share resources or not determines a first distinction between three types of architecture: Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures: client–server , three-tier , n -tier , or peer-to-peer ; or categories: loose coupling , or tight coupling . Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture

4066-518: Is not a perfect subset of information security , therefore does not completely align into the security convergence schema. A vulnerability refers to a flaw in the structure, execution, functioning, or internal oversight of a computer or system that compromises its security. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) database. An exploitable vulnerability

4173-439: Is one for which at least one working attack or exploit exists. Actors maliciously seeking vulnerabilities are known as threats . Vulnerabilities can be researched, reverse-engineered, hunted, or exploited using automated tools or customized scripts. Various people or parties are vulnerable to cyber attacks; however, different groups are likely to experience different types of attacks more than others. In April 2023,

4280-504: Is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and the Trusted Platform Module standard are designed to prevent these attacks. Direct service attackers are related in concept to direct memory attacks which allow an attacker to gain direct access to a computer's memory. The attacks "take advantage of

4387-425: Is spear-phishing which leverages personal or organization-specific details to make the attacker appear like a trusted source. Spear-phishing attacks target specific individuals, rather than the broad net cast by phishing attempts. Privilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level. For example,

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4494-410: Is the infection of internet-connected industrial controllers, like in the case of Stuxnet , without the need for physical access to the system to spread the worm. Additionally, IIoT-enabled devices can allow for more “traditional” forms of cybercrime, as in the case of the 2013 Target data breach, where information was stolen after hackers gained access to Target's networks via credentials stolen from

4601-492: Is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a main/sub relationship. Alternatively, a "database-centric" architecture can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct inter-process communication , by utilizing a shared database . Database-centric architecture in particular provides relational processing analytics in

4708-410: Is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task. This complexity measure is closely related to the diameter of the network. Let D be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2 D communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location ( D rounds), solve

4815-511: Is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf. communication complexity ). The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which is similarly defined as the LOCAL model, but where single messages can only contain B bits. Traditional computational problems take the perspective that the user asks a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes

4922-653: The United Kingdom Department for Science, Innovation & Technology released a report on cyber attacks over the last 12 months. They surveyed 2,263 UK businesses, 1,174 UK registered charities, and 554 education institutions. The research found that "32% of businesses and 24% of charities overall recall any breaches or attacks from the last 12 months." These figures were much higher for "medium businesses (59%), large businesses (69%), and high-income charities with £500,000 or more in annual income (56%)." Yet, although medium or large businesses are more often

5029-399: The "coordinator" state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them. For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator. The definition of this problem is often attributed to LeLann, who formalized it as a method to create a new token in

5136-436: The "practice of designing computer systems to achieve security goals." These goals have overlap with the principles of "security by design" explored above, including to "make initial compromise of the system difficult," and to "limit the impact of any compromise." In practice, the role of a security architect would be to ensure the structure of a system reinforces the security of the system, and that new changes are safe and meet

5243-407: The 'attacker motivation' section. A direct-access attack is when an unauthorized user (an attacker) gains physical access to a computer, most likely to directly copy data from it or steal information. Attackers may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms , keyloggers , covert listening devices or using wireless microphones. Even when the system

5350-463: The 1960s. The first widespread distributed systems were local-area networks such as Ethernet , which was invented in the 1970s. ARPANET , one of the predecessors of the Internet , was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET e-mail was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET, and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale distributed application . In addition to ARPANET (and its successor,

5457-471: The CENTUM system, respectively. These DCSs were the next step in allowing flexible process control throughout a plant, with the added benefit of backup redundancies by distributing control across the entire system, eliminating a singular point of failure in a central control room. With the introduction of Ethernet in 1980, people began to explore the concept of a network of smart devices as early as 1982, when

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5564-470: The IIoT can become a potential liability. Gartner estimates that by 2020, more than 25% of recognized attacks on enterprises will involve IoT-connected systems, despite accounting for less than 10% of IT security budgets. Existing cybersecurity measures are vastly inferior for internet-connected devices compared to their traditional computer counterparts, which can allow for them to be hijacked for DDoS -based attacks by botnets like Mirai . Another possibility

5671-578: The Internet backbone, electric utilities can not only collect data from end-user connections, but also manage other distribution automation devices like transformers and reclosers. As of 2016, other real-world applications include incorporating smart LEDs to direct shoppers to empty parking spaces or highlight shifting traffic patterns, using sensors on water purifiers to alert managers via computer or smartphone when to replace parts, attaching RFID tags to safety gear to track personnel and ensure their safety, embedding computers into power tools to record and track

5778-524: The Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020, which examined 3,950 security breaches, discovered 30% of cybersecurity incidents involved internal actors within a company. Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In "Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change", authors commented, "It's a never-ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To manage

5885-561: The Web, email and applications." However, they are also multi-staged, meaning that “they can infiltrate networks and move laterally inside the network.” The attacks can be polymorphic, meaning that the cyberattacks used such as viruses, worms or trojans “constantly change (“morph”) making it nearly impossible to detect them using signature-based defences.” Phishing is the attempt of acquiring sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details directly from users by deceiving

5992-512: The best form of encryption possible for wireless networks is best practice, as well as using HTTPS instead of an unencrypted HTTP . Programs such as Carnivore and NarusInSight have been used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers . Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact with the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon by monitoring

6099-419: The case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by "solving a problem" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of

6206-406: The core technology of industrial big data and they will be an interface between human and the cyber world. Integration of sensing and actuation systems connected to the Internet can optimize energy consumption as a whole. It is expected that IoT devices will be integrated into all forms of energy consuming devices (switches, power outlets, bulbs, televisions, etc.) and be able to communicate with

6313-406: The customers to the company's systems, and then to individual sections of the production process. With IIoT, new tools and functionalities can be included in the manufacturing process. For example, 3D printers simplify the way of shaping pressing tools by printing the shape directly from steel granulate. These tools enable new possibilities for designing (with high precision). Customization of vehicles

6420-561: The development of distributed applications . The term industrial internet of things is often encountered in the manufacturing industries, referring to the industrial subset of the IoT. Potential benefits of the industrial internet of things include improved productivity, analytics and the transformation of the workplace. The potential of growth by implementing IIoT is predicted to generate $ 15 trillion of global GDP by 2030. While connectivity and data acquisition are imperative for IIoT, they are not

6527-421: The disruption or misdirection of the services they provide. The significance of the field stems from the expanded reliance on computer systems , the Internet , and wireless network standards . Its importance is further amplified by the growth of smart devices , including smartphones , televisions , and the various devices that constitute the Internet of things (IoT). Cybersecurity has emerged as one of

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6634-419: The drilling gear and research stations for cloud storage and analysis. With IIOT technologies, the oil and gas industry has the capability to connect machines, devices, sensors, and people through interconnectivity, which can help companies better address fluctuations in demand and pricing, address cybersecurity, and minimize environmental impact. Across the supply chain, IIOT can improve the maintenance process,

6741-504: The end goals, but rather the foundation and path to something bigger. Of all the technologies, predictive maintenance is an "easier” application, as it is applicable to existing assets and management systems. Intelligent maintenance systems can reduce unexpected downtime and increase productivity, which is projected to save up to 12% over scheduled repairs, reduce overall maintenance costs up to 30%, and eliminate breakdowns up to 70%, according to some studies. Cyber-physical systems (CPS) are

6848-416: The entire computer." Backdoors can be very hard to detect and are usually discovered by someone who has access to the application source code or intimate knowledge of the operating system of the computer. Denial-of-service attacks (DoS) are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Attackers can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering

6955-468: The faint electromagnetic transmissions generated by the hardware. TEMPEST is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks. Malicious software ( malware ) is any software code or computer program "intentionally written to harm a computer system or its users." Once present on a computer, it can leak sensitive details such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of

7062-401: The focus has been on designing a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is studying the properties of a given distributed system. The halting problem is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is undecidable in

7169-457: The following sections: Security by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered a main feature. The UK government's National Cyber Security Centre separates secure cyber design principles into five sections: These design principles of security by design can include some of the following techniques: Security architecture can be defined as

7276-452: The general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer. However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach

7383-483: The global Internet), other early worldwide computer networks included Usenet and FidoNet from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems. The study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field, Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC)

7490-490: The information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation. In computer security, a countermeasure is an action, device, procedure or technique that reduces a threat, a vulnerability, or an attack by eliminating or preventing it, by minimizing the harm it can cause, or by discovering and reporting it so that corrective action can be taken. Some common countermeasures are listed in

7597-489: The infra cost must be considered. A computer program that runs within a distributed system is called a distributed program , and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs. There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, RPC-like connectors and message queues . Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In distributed computing ,

7704-558: The internet of things first became popular in 1999, through the Auto-ID Center at MIT and related market-analysis publications. Radio-frequency identification ( RFID ) was seen by Kevin Ashton (one of the founders of the original Auto-ID Center) as a prerequisite for the internet of things at that point. If all objects and people in daily life were equipped with identifiers, computers could manage and inventory them. Besides using RFID,

7811-456: The issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran. In order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator. Several central coordinator election algorithms exist. So far

7918-449: The life-threatening risk of spoofing in the healthcare industry. Tampering describes a malicious modification or alteration of data. It is an intentional but unauthorized act resulting in the modification of a system, components of systems, its intended behavior, or data. So-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples. HTML smuggling allows an attacker to "smuggle"

8025-416: The lineage, weight, or health. The integration of IIoT data in the photovoltaic (PV) industry can significantly enhance the efficiency, reliability, and performance of solar power systems. IIoT with AI data can be utilized for real-time monitoring, performance optimization, fault detection, diagnostics. As the IIoT expands, new security concerns arise with it. Every new device or component that connects to

8132-527: The main techniques of social engineering are phishing attacks. In early 2016, the FBI reported that such business email compromise (BEC) scams had cost US businesses more than $ 2 billion in about two years. In May 2016, the Milwaukee Bucks NBA team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team's president Peter Feigin , resulting in the handover of all

8239-556: The most significant new challenges facing the contemporary world, due to both the complexity of information systems and the societies they support. Security is particularly crucial for systems that govern large-scale systems with far-reaching physical effects, such as power distribution , elections , and finance . Although many aspects of computer security involve digital security, such as electronic passwords and encryption , physical security measures such as metal locks are still used to prevent unauthorized tampering. IT security

8346-473: The nature of backdoors, they are of greater concern to companies and databases as opposed to individuals. Backdoors may be added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access or by an attacker for malicious reasons. Criminals often use malware to install backdoors, giving them remote administrative access to a system. Once they have access, cybercriminals can "modify files, steal personal information, install unwanted software, and even take control of

8453-441: The need for human intervention or interfaces. One of the first consequences of implementing the industrial internet of things (by equipping objects with minuscule identifying devices or machine-readable identifiers) would be to create instant and ceaseless inventory control. Another benefit of implementing an IIoT system is the ability to create a digital twin of the system. Using this digital twin allows for further optimization of

8560-438: The oil and gas industry. The exploration process of oil and gas can be done more precisely with 4D models built by seismic imaging. These models map fluctuations in oil reserves and gas levels, they strive to point out the exact quantity of resources needed, and they forecast the lifespan of wells. The application of smart sensors and automated drillers gives companies the opportunity to monitor and produce more efficiently. Further,

8667-560: The openness of the Internet. These strategies mostly include phishing , ransomware , water holing and scanning. To secure a computer system, it is important to understand the attacks that can be made against it, and these threats can typically be classified into one of the following categories: A backdoor in a computer system, a cryptosystem , or an algorithm is any secret method of bypassing normal authentication or security controls. These weaknesses may exist for many reasons, including original design or poor configuration. Due to

8774-401: The other hand, a well designed distributed system is more scalable, more durable, more changeable and more fine-tuned than a monolithic application deployed on a single machine. According to Marc Brooker: "a system is scalable in the range where marginal cost of additional workload is nearly constant." Serverless technologies fit this definition but the total cost of ownership, and not just

8881-508: The overall safety, and connectivity. Drones can be used to detect possible oil and gas leaks at an early stage and at locations that are difficult to reach (e.g. offshore). They can also be used to identify weak spots in complex networks of pipelines with built-in thermal imaging systems. Increased connectivity (data integration and communication) can help companies with adjusting the production levels based on real-time data of inventory, storage, distribution pace, and forecasted demand. For example,

8988-400: The physical components: CPS, sensors or machines. The network layer consists of physical network buses, cloud computing and communication protocols that aggregate and transport the data to the service layer , which consists of applications that manipulate and combine data into information that can be displayed on the driver dashboard. The top-most stratum of the stack is the content layer or

9095-408: The problem, and inform each node about the solution ( D rounds). On the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than D communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network. In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that

9202-629: The question, then produces an answer and stops. However, there are also problems where the system is required not to stop, including the dining philosophers problem and other similar mutual exclusion problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or deadlocks occur. There are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing, for example those related to fault-tolerance . Examples of related problems include consensus problems , Byzantine fault tolerance , and self-stabilisation . Much research

9309-428: The real website. Preying on a victim's trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering . Attackers can use creative ways to gain access to real accounts. A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. A more strategic type of phishing

9416-411: The refineries and production plants to adjust production levels. In the agriculture industry, IIoT helps farmers to make decisions about when to harvest. Sensors collect data about soil and weather conditions and propose schedules for fertilizing and irrigating. Some livestock farms implant microchips into animals. This allows the farmers not only to trace their animals, but also pull up information about

9523-476: The right foundation to systematically address business, IT and security concerns in an organization. A state of computer security is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of three processes: threat prevention, detection, and response. These processes are based on various policies and system components, which include the following: Today, computer security consists mainly of preventive measures, like firewalls or an exit procedure . A firewall can be defined as

9630-403: The same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing). In parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers. Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see speedup ). If

9737-432: The security requirements of the organization. Similarly, Techopedia defines security architecture as "a unified security design that addresses the necessities and potential risks involved in a certain scenario or environment. It also specifies when and where to apply security controls. The design process is generally reproducible." The key attributes of security architecture are: Practicing security architecture provides

9844-423: The simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model. During each communication round , all nodes in parallel (1) receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2) perform arbitrary local computation, and (3) send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure

9951-448: The software at all. The attacker can insert the software onto a compromised device, perhaps by direct insertion or perhaps by a virus or other malware, and then come back some time later to retrieve any data that is found or trigger the software to send the data at some determined time." Using a virtual private network (VPN), which encrypts data between two points, is one of the most common forms of protection against eavesdropping. Using

10058-529: The storing process can also be improved with the implementation of IIOT by collecting and analyzing real-time data to monitor inventory levels and temperature control. IIOT can enhance the transportation process of oil and gas by implementing smart sensors and thermal detectors to give real-time geolocation data and monitor the products for safety reasons. These smart sensors can monitor the refinery processes, and enhance safety. The demand for products can be forecasted more precisely and automatically be communicated to

10165-478: The system by allowing for experimentation with new data from the cloud without having to halt production or sacrifice safety, as the new processes can be refined virtually until they are ready to be implemented. A digital twin can also serve as a training ground for new employees who won't have to worry about real impacts on the live system. IoT frameworks help support the interaction between "things" and allow for more complex structures like distributed computing and

10272-677: The system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently. Another type of malware is ransomware , which is when "malware installs itself onto a victim's machine, encrypts their files, and then turns around and demands a ransom (usually in Bitcoin ) to return that data to the user." Types of malware include some of the following: Man-in-the-middle attacks (MITM) involve a malicious attacker trying to intercept, surveil or modify communications between two parties by spoofing one or both party's identities and injecting themselves in-between. Types of MITM attacks include: Surfacing in 2017,

10379-552: The tagging of things may be achieved through such technologies as near field communication , barcodes , QR codes and digital watermarking . The current conception of the IIoT arose after the emergence of cloud technology in 2002, which allows for the storage of data to examine for historical trends, and the development of the OPC Unified Architecture protocol in 2006, which enabled secure, remote communications between devices, programs, and data sources without

10486-432: The task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the "coordinator" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator. The network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into

10593-428: The team's employees' 2015 W-2 tax forms. Spoofing is an act of pretending to be a valid entity through the falsification of data (such as an IP address or username), in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain. Spoofing is closely related to phishing . There are several types of spoofing, including: In 2018, the cybersecurity firm Trellix published research on

10700-423: The torque level of individual tightenings, and collecting data from multiple systems to enable the simulation of new processes. Using IIoT in car manufacturing implies the digitalization of all elements of production. Software, machines, and humans are interconnected, enabling suppliers and manufacturers to rapidly respond to changing standards. IIoT enables efficient and cost-effective production by moving data from

10807-422: The use of data diodes , are often used when connecting critical infrastructure. Cybersecurity Computer security (also cybersecurity , digital security , or information technology (IT) security ) is the protection of computer software , systems and networks from threats that can lead to unauthorized information disclosure, theft or damage to hardware , software , or data , as well as from

10914-463: The user interface. The history of the IIoT begins with the invention of the programmable logic controller (PLC) by Richard E. Morley in 1968, which was used by General Motors in their automatic transmission manufacturing division. These PLCs allowed for fine control of individual elements in the manufacturing chain. In 1975, Honeywell and Yokogawa introduced the world's first DCSs, the TDC 2000 and

11021-427: The users. Phishing is typically carried out by email spoofing , instant messaging , text message , or on a phone call. They often direct users to enter details at a fake website whose look and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one. The fake website often asks for personal information, such as login details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual's real account on

11128-554: The utility supply company in order to effectively balance power generation and energy usage. Besides home based energy management, the IIoT is especially relevant to the Smart Grid since it provides systems to gather and act on energy and power-related information in an automated fashion with the goal to improve the efficiency, reliability, economics, and sustainability of the production and distribution of electricity. Using advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) devices connected to

11235-616: The victims, since larger companies have generally improved their security over the last decade, small and midsize businesses (SMBs) have also become increasingly vulnerable as they often "do not have advanced tools to defend the business." SMBs are most likely to be affected by malware, ransomware, phishing, man-in-the-middle attacks , and Denial-of Service (DoS) Attacks. Normal internet users are most likely to be affected by untargeted cyberattacks. These are where attackers indiscriminately target as many devices, services, or users as possible. They do this using techniques that take advantage of

11342-540: Was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs. Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it

11449-423: Was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm. Moreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing). The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in

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