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54-543: In 1912, Édouard Claparède (1873–1940) created an institute to turn educational theory into a science . This new institution was given the name of Jean-Jacques Rousseau , to whom Claparède attributed the "Copernican reversal" of putting the child, rather than the teacher, at the centre of the educational process (cf. Thomas Kuhn 's notion of paradigm shift ). The founder of the Institute appointed as director Pierre Bovet (1878–1965), whom he considered to be both

108-487: A degree from a famous college or university is no guarantee that the graduate is in any better case. One of the most remarkable features of American society is that the difference between the "uneducated" and the "educated" is so slight. In this regard John Dewey and Hutchins were in agreement. Hutchins's book The Higher Learning in America deplored the "plight of higher learning" that had turned away from cultivation of

162-563: A different economic status, and the young seem invariably to be regarded as intellectually backward ... As with the essentialists , perennialists are educationally conservative in the requirement of a curriculum focused upon fundamental subject areas, but they stress that the overall aim should be exposure to history's finest thinkers as models for discovery. The student should be taught such basic subjects as English , languages, history, mathematics, natural science, philosophy, and fine arts. Adler states: " The three R's , which always signified

216-536: A foothold in institutionalized educational bodies. "Once fledgling programs have become departments, and faculty have been hired and tenured with full-time commitments". There are supporters of feminist education as well, many of whom are educators or students. Professor Becky Ropers-Huilman recounts one of her positive experiences with feminist education from the student perspective, explaining that she "...felt very 'in charge' of [her] own learning experiences," and "...was not being graded–or degraded... [while completing]

270-424: A full-fledged philosophical normative theory of education, besides analysis of the sorts described, there will normally be propositions of the following kinds: 1. Basic normative premises about what is good or right; 2. Basic factual premises about humanity and the world; 3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of premises, about the dispositions education should foster; 4. Further factual premises about such things as

324-521: A great disservice to the feminist movement, while failing to instill the critical thinking and social awareness that feminist educational theory is intended to. Philosophical anthropology is the philosophical study of human nature . In terms of learning, examples of descriptive theories of the learner are: a mind, soul, and spirit capable of emulating the Absolute Mind ( Idealism ); an orderly, sensing, and rational being capable of understanding

378-418: A philosophical and rigorously scientific person. Between 1921 and 1925, Jean Piaget (1896–1980) took over the reins, soon conferring on Genevan experimental psychology its far-reaching renown. According to Piaget, he came to organize his research once he arrived at the Institute in such a way that he "gain objectively and inductively knowledge about the elementary structures of intelligence" and use it develop

432-414: A psychological and biological epistemology. It was to Piaget's dismay, however, that his theoretical work was not as successful. He was the director of the Institute until he died in 1980. In his eulogy at Claparède's funeral, Bovet highlighted his friend's profound attachment for Geneva and the broad international influence rapidly attained by the institute he had created; his capacity, in short, to be at

486-465: A superficial understanding of a wide range knowledge (e.g. Core knowledge ), social and community problems and issues, knowledge and understanding specific to cultures and their achievements (e.g. African-Centered Education ). Scholars such as Robyn Wiegman argue that, " academic feminism is perhaps the most successful institutionalizing project of its generation, with more full-time faculty positions and new doctoral degree programs emerging each year in

540-539: A textbook on the scholastic trivium and taught it as the Freshman seminar at Saint Mary's College . Secular perennialists espouse the idea that education should focus on the historical development of a continually advancing common orienting base of human knowledge and art, the timeless value of classic thought on central human issues by landmark thinkers, and revolutionary ideas critical to historical paradigm shifts or changes in world view. A program of studies which

594-781: Is a normative educational philosophy . Perennialists believe that the priority of education should be to teach principles that have persisted for centuries, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, rather than machines or techniques, and about liberal , rather than vocational , topics. Perennialism appears similar to essentialism but focuses first on personal development, while essentialism focuses first on essential skills. Essentialist curricula tend to be more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal and principle-based. Both philosophies are typically considered to be teacher -centered, as opposed to student-centered philosophies of education such as progressivism . Teachers associated with perennialism are authors of

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648-400: Is also evidence of contemporary (or even preceding) discussions among Arabic, Indian, and Chinese scholars. Educational thought is not necessarily concerned with the construction of theories as much as the "reflective examination of educational issues and problems from the perspective of diverse disciplines." For example, a cultural theory of education considers how education occurs through

702-418: Is an empirical science that provides descriptive theories of how people learn. Examples of theories of education in psychology are: constructivism , behaviorism , cognitivism , and motivational theory Educational neuroscience is an emerging field that brings together researchers in diverse disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education. The sociology of education

756-489: Is highly general, nonspecialized, and nonvocational is advocated. They firmly believe that exposure of all people to the development of thought by those most responsible for the evolution of the occidental oriented tradition is integral to the survival of the freedoms, human rights, and responsibilities inherent to a true democracy. Adler states: ... our political democracy depends upon the reconstitution of our schools. Our schools are not turning out young people prepared for

810-531: Is learned simply by being in a learning environment . For example, a student in a teacher-led classroom is learning submission. The hidden curriculum is not necessarily intentional. Instructional theories focus on the methods of instruction for teaching curricula . Theories include the methods of: autonomous learning , coyote teaching , inquiry-based instruction , lecture , maturationism , socratic method , outcome-based education , taking children seriously , transformative learning Educational psychology

864-667: Is not surprising that the single most recognized dictum of educational anthropology is that the field is centrally concerned with cultural transmission. Cultural transmission involves the transfer of a sense of identity between generations, sometimes known as enculturation and also transfer of identity between cultures, sometimes known as acculturation . Accordingly, thus it is also not surprising that educational anthropology has become increasingly focused on ethnic identity and ethnic change. Descriptive theories of curriculum explain how curricula "benefit or harm all publics it touches". The term hidden curriculum describes that which

918-479: Is the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is most concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher , further , adult , and continuing education. Examples of theories of education from sociology include: functionalism , conflict theory , social efficiency , and social mobility . Educational perennialism Educational perennialism

972-518: The Socratic method in order to develop a historically oriented understanding of concepts. They argue that accurate, independent reasoning distinguishes the developed or educated mind and stress the development of this faculty. A skilled teacher keeps discussions on topic, corrects errors in reasoning, and accurately formulates problems within the scope of texts being studied but lets the class reach their own conclusions. Perennialists argue that many of

1026-718: The University of Chicago , where they still strongly influence the Undergraduate Common Core. Other notable figures in the movement include Stringfellow Barr and Scott Buchanan (who together initiated the Great Books program at St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland), Mark Van Doren , Alexander Meiklejohn , and Sir Richard Livingstone , an English classicist with an American following. Inspired by Adler's lectures, Sister Miriam Joseph wrote

1080-430: The intersectionality of feminism in many cases, and has also focused exclusively on present content with a singular perspective. Wiegman refers to feminist scholar James Newman's arguments, centered around the idea that, "When we fail... to challenge both students and ourselves to theorize alterity as an issue of change over time as well as of geographic distance, ethnic difference, and sexual choice, we repress... not only

1134-456: The 'thickness' of historical difference itself, but also... our (self) implication in a narrative of progress whose hero(in)es inhabit only the present". Newman (and Wiegman) believe that this presentist ideology imbued within modern academic feminism creates an environment breeding antifeminist ideologies, most importantly an abandonment of the study of difference, integral to feminist ideology. Wiegman believes that feminist educational theory does

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1188-643: The Socratic discussions. Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century in his work [1] ( On the Teacher ). In the nineteenth century, John Henry Newman presented a defense of religious perennialism in The Idea of a University . Discourse 5 of that work, "Knowledge Its Own End", is a recent statement of a Christian educational perennialism. There are several epistemological options, which affect

1242-561: The Western masterpieces and are open to student criticism through the associated Socratic method . The word "perennial" in secular perennialism suggests something that lasts an indefinite amount of time, recurs again and again, or is self-renewing. Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler promoted a universal curriculum based upon the common and essential nature of all human beings and encompassing humanist and scientific traditions. Hutchins and Adler implemented these ideas with great success at

1296-496: The bounds of the traditional lecture-based classroom. Though these tenets at times overlap, they combine to provide the basis for modern feminist educational theory, and are supported by a majority of feminist educators. Feminist educational theory derives from the feminist movement , particularly that of the early 1970s, which prominent feminist bell hooks describes as, "a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression". Academic feminist Robyn Weigman recalls that, "In

1350-418: The classroom. When Ropers-Huilman became a teacher herself, she embraced feminist educational theory, noting that, "[Teachers] have an obligation as the ones who are vested with an assumed power, even if that power is easily and regularly disrupted, to assess and address the effects that it is having in our classrooms". Ropers-Huilman firmly believes that educators have a duty to address feminist concepts such as

1404-419: The concepts and constructs" that define curriculum . These normative propositions differ from those above in that normative curriculum theory is not necessarily untestable. A central question asked by normative curriculum theory is: given a particular educational philosophy, what is worth knowing and why? Some examples are: a deep understanding of the Great Books , direct experiences driven by student interest,

1458-410: The course of history... new books have been written that have won their place in the list. Books once thought entitled to belong to it have been superseded; and this process of change will continue as long as men can think and write. It is the task of every generation to reassess the tradition in which it lives, to discard what it cannot use, and to bring into context with the distant and intermediate past

1512-406: The early seventies, feminism in the U.S. academy was less an organized entity than a set of practices: an ensemble of courses listed on bulletin boards often taught for free by faculty and community leaders". While feminism traditionally existed outside of the institutionalization of schools (particularly universities), feminist education has gradually taken hold in the last few decades and has gained

1566-415: The educator's ability to share his or her knowledge, learned through years of education and experience. Others challenge the legitimacy of feminist educational theory, arguing that it is not unique and is instead a sect of liberatory education. Even feminist educational scholars such as Frances Hoffmann and Jayne Stake are forced to concede that, "feminist pedagogy shared intellectual and political roots with

1620-637: The field it inaugurated, Women's Studies". Feminist educational theory stems from four key tenets, supported by empirical data based on surveys of feminist educators. The first tenet of feminist educational theory is, "Creation of participatory classroom communities". Participatory classroom communities often are smaller classes built around discussion and student involvement. The second tenet is, "Validation of personal experience". Classrooms in which validation of personal experience occur often are focused around students providing their own insights and experiences in group discussion, rather than relying exclusively on

1674-399: The first announcements for success in learning. Most of them were written for, and addressed to, ordinary people. The Great Conversation is not static but, along with the set of related great books, changes as the representative thought of man changes or progresses. In this way, it seeks to represent an evolution of thought not based upon the latest cultural fads. Hutchins clarifies this: In

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1728-417: The formal disciplines, are the essence of liberal or general education." Secular perennialists agree with progressivists that memorization of vast amounts of factual information and a focus on second-hand information in textbooks and lectures does not develop rational thought. They advocate learning through the development of meaningful conceptual thinking and judgement by means of a directed reading list of

1782-494: The four basic tenets of the theory, "...[contesting] both their legitimacy and their implementation". Lewis Lehrman particularly describes feminist educational ideology as, "...'therapeutic pedagogy' that substitutes an 'overriding' (and detrimental) value on participatory interaction for the expertise of the faculty" (Hoffman). Lehrman argues that the feminist educational tenets of participatory experience and validation of person experience hinder education by limiting and inhibiting

1836-417: The high office and the duties of citizenship in a democratic republic. Our political institutions cannot thrive, they may not even survive, if we do not produce a greater number of thinking citizens, from whom some statesmen of the type we had in the 18th century might eventually emerge. We are, indeed, a nation at risk, and nothing but radical reform of our schools can save us from impending disaster... Whatever

1890-479: The historic statement has been verified: you cannot expect the slave to show the virtues of the free man unless you first set him free. When the slave has been set free, he has, in the passage of time, become indistinguishable from those who have always been free ... There appears to be an innate human tendency to underestimate the capacity of those who do not belong to "our" group. Those who do not share our background cannot have our ability. Foreigners, people who are in

1944-408: The historical debates and the development of ideas presented by the great books are relevant to any society at any time, making them suitable for instructional use regardless of their age. They acknowledge disagreement between various great books but believe that the student must learn to recognize these disagreements, think about them, and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion. This is a major goal of

1998-421: The incorporation of feminism into all aspects of society, including education, in her book Feminism is for Everybody . hooks notes that, "Everything [people] know about feminism has come into their lives thirdhand". hooks believes that education offers a counter to the, "...wrongminded notion of feminist movement which implied it was anti-male". hooks cites feminism's negative connotations as major inhibitors to

2052-554: The insight of the educator. The third tenet is, "Encouragement of social understanding and activism". This tenet is generally actualized by classrooms discussing and reading about social and societal aspects that students may not be aware of, along with breeding student self-efficacy. The fourth and final tenet of feminist education is, "Development of critical thinking skills/open-mindedness". Classrooms actively engaging in this tenet encourage students to think for themselves and prompt them to move beyond their comfort zones, working outside

2106-515: The intellect and toward anti-intellectual practicality due, in part, to a lust for money. In a highly negative review of the book, Dewey wrote a series of articles in The Social Frontier which began by applauding Hutchins' attack on "the aimlessness of our present educational scheme. Perennialists believe in reading being supplemented by mutual investigations involving both teacher and student and minimally-directed discussions through

2160-413: The majority of the assigned work for the class (and additional work that [she] thought would add to class discussion)," all while "...[regarding] the teacher's feedback on [her] participation as one perspective, rather than the perspective". Ropers-Huilman experienced a working feminist classroom that successfully motivated students to go above and beyond, succeeding in generating self-efficacy and caring in

2214-584: The most recent contributions to the Great Conversation. ...the West needs to recapture and reemphasize and bring to bear upon its present problems the wisdom that lies in the works of its greatest thinkers and in the name of love Perennialism was proposed in response to what many considered a failing educational system. Again Hutchins writes: The products of American high schools are illiterate; and

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2268-536: The movements comprising the liberatory education agenda of the past 30 years". These liberatory attempts at the democratization of classrooms demonstrate a growth in liberatory education philosophy that some argue feminist educational theory simply piggybacks off of. The harshest critiques of feminist educational theory often come from feminists themselves. Feminist scholar Robyn Wiegman argues against feminist education in her article "Academic Feminism against Itself", arguing that feminist educational ideology has abandoned

2322-421: The pedagogical options. The possibilities may be surveyed by considering four extreme positions - idealistic rationalism, idealistic fideism, realistic rationalism and realistic fideism. Teaching pupils to think critically and rationally are the main objectives of perennialist educators. A perennialist classroom seeks to be a highly structured and disciplined setting that fosters in pupils a never-ending search for

2376-522: The potential of its actors". Ropers-Huilman believes that a feminist classroom carries the ability to greatly influence the society as a whole, promoting understanding, caring, and inclusivity. Ropers-Huilman actively engages in feminist education in her classes, focusing on concepts such as active learning and critical thinking while attempting to demonstrate and engage in caring behavior and atypical classroom settings, similar to many other feminist educators. Leading feminist scholar bell hooks argues for

2430-406: The price... the price we will pay for not doing it will be much greater. Hutchins writes in the same vein: The business of saying ... that people are not capable of achieving a good education is too strongly reminiscent of the opposition of every extension of democracy. This opposition has always rested on the allegation that the people were incapable of exercising the power they demanded. Always

2484-491: The process of education include Bildung and paideia . Educational anthropology is a sub-field of anthropology and is widely associated with the pioneering work of George Spindler . As the name would suggest, the focus of educational anthropology is obviously on education, although an anthropological approach to education tends to focus on the cultural aspects of education, including informal as well as formal education. As education involves understandings of who we are, it

2538-417: The processes of education. "Normative philosophies or theories of education may make use of the results of [philosophical thought] and of factual inquiries about human beings and the psychology of learning, but in any case they propound views about what education should be, what dispositions it should cultivate, why it ought to cultivate them, how and in whom it should do so, and what forms it should take. In

2592-662: The profound, aesthetic, and meaningful great books of the Western canon . These books, secular perennialists argue, are written by the world's finest thinkers, and cumulatively comprise the " Great Conversation " of humanity with regard to the central human questions. Their basic argument for the use of original works (abridged translations being acceptable as well) is that these are the products of " genius ". Hutchins remarks: Great books are great teachers; they are showing us every day what ordinary people are capable of. These books come out of ignorant, inquiring humanity. They are usually

2646-720: The psychology of learning and methods of teaching; and 5. Further conclusions about such things as the methods that education should use." Examples of the purpose of schools include: to develop reasoning about perennial questions, to master the methods of scientific inquiry, to cultivate the intellect, to create change agents, to develop spirituality, and to model a democratic society. Common educational philosophies include: educational perennialism , educational progressivism , educational essentialism , critical pedagogy , Montessori education , Waldorf education , and democratic education . Normative theories of curriculum aim to "describe, or set norms, for conditions surrounding many of

2700-1444: The same time of a local land and of the greater world. In 1925, the governing board of the Rousseau Institute voted to establish the International Bureau of Education (IBE), which is now a category 1 institute of UNESCO . The governing board received a $ 5000 grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to found the IBE. Rousseau Institute director Pierre Bovet became the first director of the IBE, and fellow governing board members Adolphe Ferriere and Elisabeth Rotten were appointed as his deputies. Educational theory Education sciences , also known as education studies , education theory , and traditionally called pedagogy , seek to describe, understand, and prescribe education including education policy . Subfields include comparative education , educational research , instructional theory , curriculum theory and psychology , philosophy , sociology , economics , and history of education . Related are learning theory or cognitive science . The earliest known attempts to understand education in Europe were by classical Greek philosophers and sophists , but there

2754-416: The spread and adoption of feminist ideologies. However, feminist education has seen tremendous growth in adoption in the past few decades, despite the negative connotations of its parent movement. Opposition to feminist educational theory comes from both those who oppose feminism in general and feminists who oppose feminist educational theory in particular. Critics of feminist educational theory argue against

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2808-478: The totality of culture, including prisons, households, and religious institutions as well as schools. Other examples are the behaviorist theory of education that comes from educational psychology and the functionalist theory of education that comes from sociology of education . Normative theories of education provide the norms, goals, and standards of education. In contrast, descriptive theories of education provide descriptions, explanations or predictions of

2862-499: The use and flow of power within the classroom, and strongly believes in the potential of feminist educational theory to create positive learning experiences for students and teachers as she has personally experienced. Ropers-Huilman also celebrates the feminist classroom's inclusivity, noting that in a feminist classroom, "in which power is used to care about, for, and with others… educational participants can shape practices aimed at creating an inclusive society that discovers and utilizes

2916-426: The world of things ( Realism ), a rational being with a soul modeled after God and who comes to know God through reason and revelation ( Neo-Thomism ), an evolving and active being capable of interacting with the environment ( Pragmatism ), a fundamentally free and individual being who is capable of being authentic through the making of and taking responsibility for choices ( Existentialism ). Philosophical concepts for

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