Provinces
89-544: Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture in northern Xinjiang , China. Its capital is Yining , also known as Ghulja or Kulja. Covering an area of 268,591 square kilometres (16.18 per cent of Xinjiang), Ili Prefecture shares a 2,019 kilometre-long border with Kazakhstan , Mongolia , and Russia . There are nine ports of entry in Ili Prefecture at the national level, including Jeminay and Khorgas . Directly administered regions ( 直辖区域 ) within
178-710: A skull cup out of the Yuezhi king. Modu also reoccupied all the lands previously taken by the Qin general Meng Tian. Under Modu's leadership, the Xiongnu threatened the Han dynasty, almost causing Emperor Gaozu , the first Han emperor, to lose his throne in 200 BC. By the time of Modu's death in 174 BC, the Xiongnu had driven the Yuezhi from the Hexi Corridor , killing the Yuezhi king in the process and asserting their presence in
267-558: A larger sample of individuals from a wider area and found a higher East Asian component of about 70% on average, while the European/West Asian component was about 30%. Overall, Uyghurs show relative more similarity to "Western East Asians" than to "Eastern East Asians". The authors also cite anthropologic studies which also estimate about 30% "Western proportions", which are in agreement with their genetic results. They summarized their study evidence: "In conclusion, we argue that
356-774: Is a misnomer. Before the advent of the Qin dynasty (221 BC – 206 BC), Ili was inhabited by the Wusuns , a tributary tribe of the Huns . The Wusuns were driven away in the 6th century AD by the northern Xiongnu , who established the First Turkic Khaganate in 552. The area later became a dependency of Dzungaria . During the Tang dynasty (618–907), the khanate became the Protectorate General to Pacify
445-587: Is an enclave within Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture. Chongqing-Xinjiang-Europe Railway , G218 National Highway , G217 National Highway and S316 Provincial Highway pass through the autonomous prefecture. It has a 2,019 kilometre-long international border with nine ports of entry , including Khorgas , Bakhty, and Jeminay . Due to its strategic location in the middle of Asia, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture has become an important commercial hub and dry port for trade with Europe and
534-556: Is one exception: Ili Kazak Autonomous Prefecture contains two prefectures of its own. Under the Constitution of the People's Republic of China , autonomous prefectures cannot be abolished. The PRC's autonomous administrative divisions may be found in the first (or top) to third levels of its national administrative divisions thus: History of Xinjiang Xinjiang consists of two main regions, geographically separated by
623-621: Is the highest peak of the Altai mountain range, standing at 4,374 metres high. The snow line is 3,000 to 3,200 metres high, the glacier area is 293.2 square kilometres, and the glacier reserves are 16.4 billion cubic metres. The peaks of the Dzungarian Alatau are 3,500 to 3,700 metres high. The snow line of Tian Shan is 3,600 to 4,400 metres high with a glacier area of 3,139 square kilometres, and its glacier reserves are 118.5 billion cubic metres. Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture administers
712-484: Is well supported by 'rich' textual sources and the material evidence, from archaeological artifacts excavated in the Taklamakan Desert and trade items across Eurasia . These point to the influence of Chinese culture and Han settlements in the region, and the exchange of luxury items between China, India , and the west lends credence to the view that Xinjiang was the center of Silk Road trade. In 139 BCE
801-471: The Emperor Wu of Han dispatched the former palace attendant Zhang Qian to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. He was captured by the Xiongnu, and held prisoner for a decade. After his return, his knowledge of the lands of the west was the main information the Han had of this region. Between 133 BCE and 89 CE, the Han and the Xiongnu fought a series of battles, known as
890-717: The Han , Kazakhs , Uyghurs , Hui , Mongols , Xibe , Kyrgyz , Uzbek , Manchus , Tatar , Russians , Daur , and Chinese Tajiks . As of 2018, Ili had a population of 4,582,500, 2,745,500 (59.9 per cent) of whom were part of an ethnic minority. A 2015 report provided the following ethnic breakdown of the population: 1,934,571 Han (41.2 per cent), 1,257,003 Kazakhs (26.8 per cent), 819,701 Uyghurs (17.45 per cent), 433,045 Hui (9.2 per cent), 75,597 Mongols (1.6 per cent), 34,457 Xibe, 22,428 Kyrgyz, 8,298 Uzbeks, 8,298 Daurs, 5,394 Russians, 5,199 Manchus, 2,852 Tatars, 153 Chinese Tajiks and 91,749 "others". Ili's major tourist attractions include
979-746: The Han–Xiongnu War . In 102 BC the Han defeated Dayuan , who had not been willing to supply the Han with Ferghana horses , in the War of the Heavenly Horses . After a series of victories against the Xiongnu, the Chinese penetrated the strategic region from the Ordos and Gansu corridor as far as Lop Nor . During the 100s BCE, the Silk Road brought increasing Chinese economic and cultural influence to
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#17327650451751068-519: The Kingdom of Khotan (56–1006), Kashgar ( Shule Kingdom ), Hotan ( Yutian ), Kucha ( Qiuci ) and Cherchen ( Qiemo ) controlled the western half, while the central region around Turpan was controlled by Gaochang (later known as Qara-hoja). In the 4th century, Zungharia was occupied by Rouran confederation, while the oasis cities south of Tianshan paid tribute to the Rouran. From c. 450 to 560
1157-720: The Pamir . The Tarim Basin and Indo-European kingdoms were controlled through military colonies by the Han dynasty, but the Han "never had a foothold in Zungharia (northern Xinjiang), which the Xiongnu and the Wusun dominated for this whole period." During Wang Mang 's usurpation (8–25 CE), and the civil war in the central Han territory, the Han left the Tarim basin, and the Northern Xiongnu re-established their overlordship. At
1246-870: The Pamir Mountains in modern Tajikistan and Afghanistan ended with revolts by the Turks. The Tang only retained a military foothold in Beiting. Tang rule over Xinjiang and Central Asia was threatened by Tibetan expansion into the Southern Tarim. After defeating the Tang in 670, the Tang retreated eastwards "and was in full flight from its empire in Central Asia." The Tibetans subjugated Kashgar in 676-678 and retained possession until 693, when China regained control of southern Xinjiang, and retained it for
1335-744: The Tarim and Turpan basins to the Afanasevo culture. The Afanasevo culture ( c. 3500–2500 BCE) displays cultural and genetic connections with the Indo-European-associated cultures of the Eurasian Steppe yet predates the specifically Indo-Iranian -associated Andronovo culture ( c. 2000–900 BCE) enough to isolate the Tocharian languages from Indo-Iranian linguistic innovations like satemization . Han Kangxin, who examined
1424-821: The Tianshan Mountains , which are historically and ethnically distinct: Dzungaria to the north, and the Tarim Basin (currently mainly inhabited by the Uyghurs ) to the south. In the 18th and 19th centuries, these areas were conquered by the Qing dynasty , which in 1884 integrated them into one province named Xinjiang ( 新疆 ; Xīnjiāng ; 'new frontier'). The first inhabitants of Xinjiang, specifically from southern and western Xinjiang, formed from admixture between locals of Ancient North Eurasian and Northeast Asian descent. The oldest mummies found in
1513-549: The Western Regions . This is the beginning of what Millward calls the 'classical period.' In the 20th century, China changed many of the place names of Xinjiang back to the original Chinese names of 2000 years earlier. They saw this as a patriotic act restoring the greatness and borders of the Han dynasty. Millward notes that from a 'modern nationalist perspective', the Han unified the Chinese empire, at least its furthest western extents. The Han expansion into Xinjiang
1602-526: The Yi–Ta incident from March to May 1962, a mass exodus of 14,000 people from Ili Prefecture occurred. Chinese citizens, predominantly Kazakhs , left through the border port of Korgas , driven by deteriorating living conditions in Xinjiang and rumours of Soviet citizenship. To compensate for the loss in manpower brought about by the exodus, thousands of Bingtuan soldiers were relocated to northern Xinjiang from
1691-567: The prefectural level , with either ethnic minorities forming over 50% of the population or being the historic home of significant minorities. Autonomous prefectures are mostly majority Han Chinese by population. The official name of an autonomous prefecture includes the most significant minority in that region, sometimes two, rarely three. For example, a Kazakh ( Kazak in official naming system) prefecture may be called Kazak Zizhizhou . Like all other prefectural level divisions, autonomous prefectures are divided into county level divisions . There
1780-498: The 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Chinese sources report that Modu Chanyu , the supreme leader after 209 BC, founded the Xiongnu Empire. In 209 BC, three years before the founding of Han China , the Xiongnu were brought together in a powerful confederation under a new chanyu , Modu Chanyu . This new political unity transformed them into a more formidable state by enabling formation of larger armies and
1869-546: The 620s and 630s, the Tang dynasty conducted a series of expeditions against the Eastern Turks. By 640, military campaigns were dispatched against the Western Turkic Khaganate , and their vassals, the oasis states of southern Xinjiang. The campaigns against the oasis states began under Emperor Taizong with the annexation of Gaochang in 640. The nearby kingdom of Karasahr was captured by
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#17327650451751958-824: The Altay region. In August 1939, by decree of the Beiyang government, the mingyan ( 千戶長 ) and centenari ( 百戶長 ) administrative divisions were abolished and replaced with district and township divisions. Kazakh pastoral affairs were gradually integrated into local government services. Ili Prefecture ( 伊犁專區 ) was established in 1943, with 11 counties and Xinyuan Division ( 新源設治局 ; present-day Xinyuan County ) under its administration. The 11 counties were Yining , Suiding ( 綏定 ; part of present-day Huocheng ), Khorgas (present-day Huocheng ), Gongliu , Tekes , Gongha ( 鞏哈 ; present-day Nilka ), Ningxi ( 寧西 ; present-day Qapqal ), Jinghe , Bole , Wenquan and Zhaosu . In December 1953,
2047-1256: The China–Kazakhstan border. Ili has nine international ports of entry : Autonomous prefecture Autonomous regions Sub-provincial autonomous prefectures Autonomous prefectures Leagues (Aimag) (abolishing) Prefectures Provincial-controlled cities Provincial-controlled counties Autonomous counties County-level cities Districts Ethnic districts Banners (Hoxu) Autonomous banners Shennongjia Forestry District Liuzhi Special District Wolong Special Administrative Region Workers and peasants districts Ethnic townships Towns Subdistricts Subdistrict bureaux Sum Ethnic sum County-controlled districts County-controlled district bureaux (obsolete) Management committees Town-level city Areas Villages · Gaqa · Ranches Village Committees Communities Capital cities New areas Autonomous administrative divisions National Central Cities History: before 1912 , 1912–49 , 1949–present Autonomous prefectures ( Chinese : 自治州 ; pinyin : zìzhìzhōu ) are one type of autonomous administrative divisions of China , existing at
2136-535: The Defence Governor. The position of Ili Defence Governor became vacant after Guang Fu died of illness on 1 February 1914. Yang Zengxin flew to Beijing to petition the Beiyang government (Republican government) to appoint Yang Feixia ( 楊飛霞 ) as Guang Fu's replacement. The appointment was approved by Beijing, and the administrative jurisdiction of the position was transferred from the central government to
2225-601: The Ili Kazakh Autonomous Region was established. It was declared a prefecture-level division under the jurisdiction of Xinjiang Province, with the three prefectures of Ili, Tacheng, and Altay under its administration. Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture was created in July 1954 from the counties of Bole, Jinghe, and Wenquan, three counties of Ili Prefecture. Ili Kazakh Autonomous Region was renamed Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture on 5 February 1955. During
2314-616: The Middle East. In the autonomous prefecture, there are four types of landforms: 83,632 square kilometres of mountains, 62,989 square kilometres of hills, 102,974 square kilometres of plains, and 20,439 square kilometres of desert. Three major mountain ranges – the Altai , Dzungarian Alatau , and Tian Shan – stand from the north to south, with year-round ice and snow. Friendship Peak in Burqin County
2403-476: The Narati Grassland, Guozigou Lake, and Kanas Lake . In 2015, Ili saw over 25 million visitors and earned over CN¥19 billion (US$ 2.92 billion) in tourism revenue. An extensive road network is being built across the prefecture for economic development. In 2015, 66 million passengers travelled on Ili's roads. The railway has extended to the northern extremes of Altay and the westmost city of Khorgas on
2492-469: The Sampula inhabitants had a large mixture of East Asian , Persian and European characteristics. According to Chengzhi et al. (2007), analysis of maternal mitochondrial DNA of the human remains has revealed genetic affinities at the maternal side to Ossetians and Iranians , an Eastern-Mediterranean paternal lineage. A series of mummified human remains have been discovered in Xinjiang, owing to
2581-524: The Tang in 644 and the kingdom of Kucha was conquered in 649 . The expansion into Central Asia continued under Taizong's successor, Emperor Gaozong , who dispatched an army in 657 led by Su Dingfang against the Western Turk qaghan Ashina Helu . Ashina's defeat strengthened Tang rule in southern Xinjiang and brought the regions formerly controlled by the khaganate into the Tang empire. The military expedition included 10,000 horsemen supplied by
2670-839: The Tang dynasty established the Anxi Protectorate and the Beiting Protectorate in Xinjiang and part of Central Asia. This was followed by the Uyghur Khaganate in the 8th-9th century. Uyghur power declined, and three main regional kingdoms vied for power around Xinjiang, namely the Buddhist Uyghur Kara-Khoja , the Turkic Muslim Kara-Khanid , and the Iranian Buddhist Khotan. Eventually,
2759-517: The Tang dynasty period, China installed Turkic garrisons along Xinjiang in their pacification policy toward western regions, but struggled to maintain control over the region due to hostile attacks from Tibetan and Turkic elites, who frequently betrayed them. One important contribution from China was large-scale paper technology, whose spread was aided by the Sogdians , who dominated commerce in Xinjiang. The Sogdians had immense cultural influence among
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2848-595: The Tarim Basin are dated to the 2nd millennium BCE. In the first millennium BCE Indo-European-speaking Yuezhi nomads migrated into parts of Xinjiang. In the second century BCE the region became part of the Xiongnu Empire , a confederation of nomads centered on present-day Mongolia, which forced the Yuezhi out of Xinjiang. Eastern Central Asia was referred to as " Xiyu " ( Chinese : 西域 ; pinyin : Xīyù ; lit. 'Western Regions') under
2937-738: The Tarim Basin was controlled by the Hephthalites (White Huns), until they were defeated in 560 by the Kök Türk. In the 5th century the Turks began to emerge in the Altay region, subservient to the Rouran . Within a century they had defeated the Rouran and established a vast Turkic Khaganate (552–581), stretching over most of Central Asia past both the Aral Sea in the west and Lake Baikal in
3026-625: The Tarim Basin was inhabited by sedentary Muslim Uyghur people. They were governed separately until 1884. The Qing dynasty was well aware of the differences between the former Buddhist-Mongol area to the north of the Tianshan mountains and Turkic-Muslim area south of the Tianshan, and ruled them in separate administrative units at first. However, Qing bureaucracy began to think of both areas as part of one distinct region called Xinjiang. The very concept of Xinjiang as one distinct geographic identity
3115-545: The Tarim Basin was known as "Xiyu" or " Western Regions ", a name that became prevalent in Chinese records after the Han dynasty took control of the region in the 2nd century BCE. It soon was traversed by the Northern Silk Road . For the Uyghurs , who took control of northern Xinjiang in the 8th century, the traditional name of the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang was Altishahr , which means "six cities" in
3204-665: The Tarim Basin's inhabitants. However, a genetic study of early Uyghur remains from the core of the Uyghur Khaganate in Orkhon Valley , Mongolia said that the Uyghurs were mostly of West Eurasian ancestry, being modelled as genetically similar to the Iranian Alan and Sarmatian people, with significant East Eurasian admixture. The east–west admixture in the Uyghur Khaganate was said to have taken place around
3293-696: The Tarim Basin, when the Tibetan Empire invaded the Tang on a wide front from Xinjiang to Yunnan , sacking the Tang capital Chang'an in 763, and taking control of the southern Tarim. According to Millward, "Tang military farms and settlements left an enduring stamp upon local culture and administration in eastern Xinjiang," also leaving "cultural traces in Central Asia and the west," and continued circulation of Chinese coins . Later Turkic empires gained prestige by associating themselves with north Chinese states established by non-Chinese nomadic people, referring to themselves as "Chinese emperor." " Khitay "
3382-877: The Turkic Muslim Kara-Khanids prevailed and Islamized the region. In the 13th century it was part of the Mongol Empire , after which the Turkic people again prevailed. It was dominated by the Oirat Mongol-speaking Dzungar Khanate in the late 17th century. In the 18th century, during the Dzungar–Qing Wars , the area was conquered by the Manchu Qing dynasty. After the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) ,
3471-836: The Türgesh, and in 736 Tibet conquered the Pamir region. In 744 the Tang defeated the Türgesh , and drove the Tibetans out of Pamir. A few years later, war between Ferghana and Tashkent, with the Han supporting Ferghana, resulted in Arab intervention, and in the Battle of Talas (751) the Tang lost to the Abbasid Caliphate , which did not proceed further into Xinjiang. The devastating Anshi Rebellion (755–763) ended Tang presence in
3560-410: The Uyghur language. The region of Dzungaria in northern Xinjiang was named after its native inhabitants, the Dzungar Mongols. In 1759 the Qing China conquered the region, which became known as "Xiyu Xinjiang" ( Chinese : 西域新疆 ; lit. 'new frontier of the Western Regions ') or simply Xinjiang ( Chinese : 新疆 ; lit. 'new territory'), although Europeans commonly used
3649-400: The Uyghurs' genetic structure is more similar to East Asians than to Europeans". Local inhabitants at Sampul cemetery (Shanpula; 山普拉 ) around 14 km (8.7 mi), from the archaeological site of Hotan in Lop County , where art such as the Sampul tapestry has been found, buried their dead from roughly 217 BCE to 283 CE. The analysis of mtDNA haplogroup distribution showed that
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3738-441: The Uyghurs, who were close allies of the Tang. The Uyghurs had allied with the Tang ever since the dynasty supported their revolt against the reign of the Xueyantuo , a tribe of Tiele people . Xinjiang was administered through the Anxi Protectorate ( 安西都護府 ; 'Protectorate Pacifying the West') and the Four Garrisons of Anxi . Unlike the Han dynasty, the Tang ruling house of Li had intermarriages and close affinity to
3827-407: The West of the Tang Empire. Ili came under the control of the Uyghur Khaganate in the 8th and 9th centuries, the Qara Khitai in the 12th century, and Genghis Khan in the 13th century. The Oirats , specifically the Dzungars , conquered Ili at the end of the 16th or the beginning of the 17th century. The Dzungar Khanate controlled both Dzungaria and the Ili basin until 1755, when the region
3916-441: The West Eurasian features of the earlier mummies could be attributed to their Ancient North Eurasian ancestry. Various nomadic tribes, such as the Yuezhi , Saka , and Wusun are conjectured to be part of the migration of Indo-European speakers who were settled in Central Asia at that time. The first reference to the nomadic Yuezhi was in 645 BC by Guan Zhong in his Guanzi (Guanzi Essays: 73: 78: 80: 81). He described
4005-439: The Xiongnu in 215 BC when Qin armies evicted them from their pastures on the Yellow River . After forging internal unity, Modu Chanyu expanded the empire on all sides. To the north he conquered a number of nomadic peoples, including the Dingling of southern Siberia. He crushed the power of the Donghu people of eastern Mongolia and Manchuria as well as the Yuezhi in the Hexi Corridor of Gansu , where his son, Jizhu, made
4094-409: The Yuzhi ( 禺氏 ), or Niuzhi ( 牛氏 ), as a people from the north-west who supplied jade to the Chinese from the nearby mountains of Yuzhi ( 禺氏 ) at Gansu . The nomadic tribes of the Yuezhi are documented in Chinese historical accounts, in particular the 2nd–1st century BC "Records of the Great Historian", or Shiji , by Sima Qian . According to Han accounts, the Yuezhi "were flourishing" during
4183-433: The ability to exercise better strategic coordination. After their previous rivals, the Yuezhi, migrated into Central Asia during the 2nd century BC, the Xiongnu became a dominant power on the steppes of north-east Central Asia, centered on an area known later as Mongolia . The Xiongnu were also active in areas now part of Siberia , Inner Mongolia , Gansu and Xinjiang . Their relations with adjacent Chinese dynasties to
4272-431: The area was reconquered by the Qing , who established the Xinjiang Province in 1884. It is now a part of the People's Republic of China . Xinjiang consists of two main geographically, historically, and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names: Junggar Basin ( Dzungaria ) north of the Tianshan Mountains ; and the Tarim Basin ( Southern Xinjiang ) south of the Tianshan Mountains. In ancient China,
4361-414: The chief commander of Qing troops in Xinjiang, became the administrative capital of the region. It was provided with a large penal establishment and a strong garrison. This city was called "New Kulja", "Manhcu Kulja" or "Chinese Kulja" by foreigners to distinguish it from Ningyuan / Yining, known as "Old Kulja" or " Taranchi Kulja". The first General of Ili was Ming Rui . The Qing tradition, unbroken until
4450-416: The control of the Han dynasty , to whom the Xiongnu surrendered in 60 BCE following the Han–Xiongnu War , and which maintained a variable military presence until the early 3rd century CE. From the 2nd to the 5th century, local rulers controlled the region. In the 6th century, the First Turkic Khaganate was established. In the 7th-8th century, the Tang dynasty , Turks, and Tibetans warred for control, and
4539-488: The days of Zuo Zongtang in the 1870s, was to only appoint Manchus as officials in Xinjiang. During the Muslim revolt of 1864 , Dungans and Taranchis of the area formed the Taranchi Sultanate. Huiyuan Cheng was the last Qing fortress in the Ili basin to fall to the rebels. The Dungan rebels massacred most of the city's inhabitants; Governor General Mingsioi (Mingxu) assembled his family and staff in his mansion and blew it up, dying under its ruins. The insurrection led to
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#17327650451754628-438: The directly-administered, county-level city of Yining ; 2 other county-level cities; 7 counties; 1 autonomous county; and the two prefectures of Altay and Tacheng , despite Ili being a prefecture-level division itself. Districts under direct administration of Ili Prefecture Tacheng Prefecture Altay Prefecture Ili is a multi-ethnic autonomous prefecture; there are 13 local ethnic groups :
4717-535: The east. In 581 the Gokturks split into the Western Turkic Khaganate (581–657) and Eastern Turkic Khaganate (581–630), with Xinjiang coming under the western half. Parts of southern Xinjiang were controlled by the Tuyuhun Kingdom (284–670), who established a vast empire that encompassed Qinghai , Gansu , Ningxia , northern Sichuan , eastern Shaanxi , southern Xinjiang , and most of Tibet , stretching 1,500 kilometers from east to west and 1,000 kilometers from north to south. They unified parts of Inner Asia for
4806-420: The end of hostilities between Qing and Republican forces, the position of Grand Coordinator of Xinjiang was abolished and replaced with the position of Military Governor of Xinjiang ( 都督 ). Guang Fu ( 廣福 ), Zhi Rui's predecessor as Ili Garrison General, was appointed Xinjiang's first military governor. On 25 April, Yuan Dahua was forced to resign as Grand Coordinator of Xinjiang. On 18 May, Yang Zengxin ( 楊增新 )
4895-436: The end of the 1st century, Han China conducted several expeditions into the region, re-establishing military colonies "and bullied the Tarim city-states into renewing their vow of allegiance to Han," from 74 to 76 and 91–107. From 107 to 125 the Han left the Tarim Basin again, leaving it to the Xiongnu. From 127 to c.150 it was controlled again by the Han, whereafter the Tocharian-speaking Kushan Empire (30–375) took control of
4984-408: The existence of "white people with long hair" or Bai ( 白 ), who lived beyond the northwestern border. These are thought to have referred to the Yuezhi people. According to J. P. Mallory and Victor H. Mair , "[s]uch a description could accord well with a Caucasoid population beyond the frontiers of Ancient China," possibly the Yuezhi. Mallory and Mair relate the earliest Bronze Age settlers of
5073-407: The extremely dry local climate. These cultures span the Bronze Age and Iron Age periods. Due to the West Eurasian appearance of many of the mummies, as well as their exotic material culture, there has been considerable linguistic and genetic research in to their origin. The well-preserved Tarim mummies of southern and western Xinjiang show evidence of population admixture. Between 2009 and 2015,
5162-406: The first time in history, developed the southern route of the Silk Road , and promoted cultural exchange between the eastern and western territories, dominating the northwest for more than three and half centuries until it was destroyed by the Tibetan Empire . The Tuyuhun Empire existed as an independent kingdom outside China and was not included as part of Chinese historiography . Starting from
5251-408: The government of Xinjiang Province. Yita Circuit was then divided into two circuits, Ili and Tacheng, in 1916. The Circuit Governor of Tacheng ( 塔城道尹 ) replaced the Counsellor of Tacheng ( 塔城參贊 ) with the establishment of Tacheng Circuit. In 1919, the Beiyang government placed the Altay Chief under the jurisdiction of the government of Xinjiang Province and Ashan Circuit ( 阿山道 ) was established from
5340-446: The leadership of Yang Zuanxu ( 楊纘緒 ), a general of the Ili New Army , an armed rebellion against the Qing broke out on 7 January 1912. The rebels occupied Huiyuan Town and killed Zhi Rui ( 志銳 ), the Ili Garrison General. On 12 February 1912, the Provisional Government of the Republic of China was established in Beijing, and on 15 March, it ordered the Xinjiang Grand Coordinator, Yuan Dahua ( 袁大化 ), to end Qing rule in Xinjiang. With
5429-405: The movement of at least two Western Eurasian physical types into the Tarim Basin. Mallory and Mair associate these types with the Tocharian and Iranian ( Saka ) branches of the Indo-European language family , respectively. However, archaeology and linguistics professor Elizabeth Wayland Barber cautions against assuming the mummies spoke Tocharian, noting a gap of about a thousand years between
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#17327650451755518-427: The mummies and the documented Tocharians: "people can change their language at will, without altering a single gene or freckle." Hemphill & Mallory (2004) confirm a second Caucasian physical type at Alwighul (700–1 BCE) and Krorän (200 CE) different from the earlier one found at Qäwrighul (1800 BCE) and Yanbulaq (1100–500 BCE). Mallory and Mair associate this later (700 BCE – 200 CE) Caucasian physical type with
5607-426: The mummies belonged to a distinct population unrelated to Indo-European pastoralists , such as Afanasievo . . Ancient as well as modern Uyghurs display variable degrees of East Eurasian and West Eurasian ancestry. James A. Millward described the original Uyghurs as physically East Eurasian, giving as an example the images in the Bezeklik Caves at temple 9, of the Uyghur patrons, until they began to mix with
5696-430: The name " Chinese Turkestan " at the time to refer to the Tarim Basin in Southern Xinjiang (sometimes Xinjiang as a whole). Meanwhile, Russian Sinologist Nikita Bichurin coined the name " East Turkestan " (along with the name "West Turkestan", also known as Russian Turkestan ) in 1829 intending to replace the European term "Chinese Turkestan", also being used to refer to the Tarim Basin. In 1884 Qing China took over
5785-411: The next fifty years, though under constant threat from Tibetan and Turkic forces. The Tang were not able to intervene beyond the Pamir Mountains , where Arab forces were moving into Bactria , Ferghana and Soghdiana in the early 8th century, and had no direct influence on the fights between Turks, Tibetans and Arabs for control over Central Asia. Tang outposts were repeatedly attacked by Tibetans and
5874-405: The nomads of the north, due to the establishment of nomadic kingdoms in northern China after the fall of the Han Empire , and the mutual Sinification and Turkification of Turkish and Chinese elites. This affinity with the Turks may partly explain why the Tang were able to expand their influence westward into the Tarim Basin, which they ruled indirectly through protectorates and garrisons. However
5963-464: The northwest of Xinjiang, north of the Tian Shan . It covers a total area of 268,591 square kilometres, accounting for 16.18 per cent of the total area of Xinjiang. The autonomous prefecture is bordered to the north by Russia , to the east by Mongolia , to the west by Kazakhstan and Bortala Autonomous Prefecture , and to the south by Aksu Prefecture , Bayingolin Autonomous Prefecture , Changji Autonomous Prefecture , Ürümqi , and Shihezi . Karamay
6052-532: The occupation of the Ili basin by the Russians in 1871. Ten years later, part of the territory was returned to China in accordance with the 1881 Treaty of Saint Petersburg . In October 1884, the Qing government officially approved the establishment of Xinjiang Province and the local political system in Ili consequently went through major reforms. The Amban ( 軍府制 ) and Baig systems ( 伯克制 ) were abolished and replaced by circuit , urban prefecture , prefecture , and county systems . The position of General of Ili
6141-447: The populations who introduced the Iranian Saka language to the western part of the Tarim basin . Recent genetic evidence by Zhang et al. 2021 rejected the proposal that the earliest Bronze Age Tarim mummies were Indo-European migrants. They found that the earliest specimens were mostly derived from Ancient North Eurasians , with some East Asian admixture. It was proposed that they spoke an isolated language. The authors proposed that
6230-599: The prefecture cover 56,622 square kilometres (21.08 per cent of Ili's total area) and have a population of 4,930,600 (63.95 per cent of Ili's registered population). Kazakhs in China are the second largest ethnicity in the prefecture after the Han , and make up a little over a quarter of the population. Ili is the only prefecture-level division that has other prefecture-level divisions ( Altay and Tacheng Prefectures) under its administration. The term " sub-provincial autonomous prefecture" ( 副省级自治州 ) has often been applied to Ili, but it has no legal basis under Chinese law and
6319-400: The region's interior. The Chinese government also encouraged the migration of hundreds of thousands of Han Chinese youth from major cities such as Beijing , Shanghai , and Tianjin . By 1969 the number of Han Chinese in Ili Prefecture had reached 1.2 million, outnumbering the number of Kazakhs and Uyghurs combined. Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture is located in the hinterland of Eurasia , in
6408-595: The region. Between 120 BCE and 60 BCE, fighting between Han and Xiongnu continued. At that time, the Tarim Basin was inhabited by various peoples, including Tocharians (in Turfan and Kucha ) and Indo-Iranian Saka peoples around Kashgar and Khotan . In 60 BC Han China established the Protectorate of the Western Regions at Wulei ( 烏壘 ; near modern Luntai ) to oversee the Tarim Basin as far west as
6497-489: The relationship between Turks and Chinese was tumultuous in China, with several periods of Turk-Han conflict, and the Turkic general An Lushan had adopted a Sogdian title of nobility over the Chinese emperor title ( huangdi ). For five years, Tang suzerainty extended as far west as over Samarkand and Bukhara ( Uzbekistan ), Kabul and Herat ( Afghanistan ), and even Zaranj near Iran , but in 662 Tang hegemony beyond
6586-693: The remains of Xiaohe individuals found at the Xiaohe Tomb complex (2nd millennium BCE) for Y-DNA and mtDNA markers. The study found that while Y-DNA corresponded to ancient Siberian populations, the mtDNA haplotypes were an admixture of East Asian and European origin. The initial admixture may have taken place in Southern Siberia , which was settled by the Indo-European Andronovo and Afanasievo cultures , as well as Paleo-Siberian cultures. A study by Li et al. used
6675-540: The remains of 92 individuals found at the Xiaohe Tomb complex were analyzed for Y-DNA and mtDNA markers. Genetic analyses of the mummies showed that the maternal lineages of the Xiaohe people originated from both East Asia and West Eurasia, whereas the paternal lineages all originated from West Eurasia. The Tarim mummies have been found in various locations in the western Tarim Basin such as Loulan , and Qäwrighul . The Shan Hai Jing (4th-2nd century BCE) describes
6764-485: The rest of Central Asia, and largely multicultural. The earliest Tarim Basin people of southern and western Xinjiang appear to have arisen from a mixture between locals of Ancient North Eurasian and Northeast Asians descent. The Tarim mummies have been found in various locations in the western Tarim Basin such as Loulan , the Xiaohe Tomb complex , and Qäwrighul . These mummies have been previously suggested to be of Tocharian origin, but recent evidence suggest that
6853-574: The skulls of 302 mummies, found the closest relatives of the earlier Tarim Basin population in the populations of the Afanasevo culture situated immediately north of the Tarim Basin and the Andronovo culture that spanned Kazakhstan and reached southwards into West Central Asia and the Altai . The mummies have been described as being both "Caucasoid" and "Mongoloid" and mixed-race individuals are also observed. Physical anthropologists propose
6942-475: The south east were complex, with repeated periods of conflict and intrigue, alternating with exchanges of tribute , trade, and marriage treaties ( heqin ). The reason for creating the confederation remains unclear. Suggestions include the need for a stronger state to deal with the Qin unification of China that resulted in a loss of the Ordos region at the hands of Meng Tian or the political crisis that overtook
7031-633: The state of Yettishar (or Kashgaria, created during the Dungan Revolt ) and established the Xinjiang Province. In the late 19th century, there was a proposal to restore the old administration of Xinjiang into two provinces, the areas north and south of Tianshan (which was however not adopted). At the time of the Qing conquest in 1759 , Dzungaria was mostly inhabited by the Oirat Mongol-speaking Dzungar people , while
7120-459: The time of the first great Chinese Qin emperor , but were regularly in conflict with the neighboring Xiongnu tribe to the northeast. At the beginning of the Han dynasty , the region was subservient to the Xiongnu , a powerful nomadic people. The Xiongnu were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources , inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from
7209-718: The top military and political authority in all of Xinjiang. In August 1912, the Republican government adjusted Ili's administrative divisions. The Defence Governor of Ili headquarters were established in Huiyuan Town, the Counsellor's ( 參贊 ) in Tacheng, and the Business Executive's ( 辦事長官 ) in Altay. Yita Circuit ( 伊塔道 ) was retained to govern local civil affairs; it was placed under the administration of
7298-420: The western and northern Tarim Basin. The Kushan played a role in introducing Buddhism to the Tarim Basin and China, and in translating Buddhist texts into Chinese and other languages. After the fall of the Han dynasty (220), there was "only limited and sporadic involvement in the Tarim Basin" by the Chinese. During the third and fourth century, the region was ruled by local rulers. Local city-states such as
7387-520: The year 500 AD. One study by Xu et al. (2008), using samples from Hetian ( Hotan ) only, found Uyghurs have about an average of 60% European or West Asian (Western Eurasian) ancestry and about 40% East Asian or Siberian ancestry (Eastern Eurasian). From the same area, it is found that the proportion of Uyghur individuals with European/West Asian ancestry ranges individually from 40.3% to 84.3% while their East Asian/Siberian ancestry ranges individually from 15.7% to 59.7%. Li et al. (2010) analyzed
7476-859: Was conquered by the Manchu -led Qing dynasty under the Qianlong Emperor . Having defeated the Dzungars in the Dzungarian and Ili basins, as well as the Afaqi Khojas in Kashgaria , the Qing court decided to make the Ili basin the main base of their control in Xinjiang. In the 1760s, the Qing built nine fortified towns in the Ili basin: Huiyuan Cheng, as the residence of the General of Ili ,
7565-444: Was created by the Qing, and it was originally not the native inhabitants who viewed it that way. During Qing rule, there was not much sense of "regional identity" held by ordinary Xinjiang people. Rather, Xinjiang's distinct identity was given by the Qing. It had a distinct geography, history, and culture from the rest of Qing China, while at the same was still Chinese territory, settled by the Han and Hui ethnic groups, distinct from
7654-561: Was formed in Ili and Tacheng in 1888, as a subdivision of Xinjiang Province. It was headquartered in Ningyuan County (present-day Yining). Yita Circuit was divided into Ili Prefecture ( 伊犁府 ), Tacheng Directly Administered Division ( 塔城直隸廳 ), and Jinghe Directly Administered Division ( 精河直隸廳 ). Altay region was formed from Khovd ( 科布多 ; seat in Khovd Town ) in 1904. The Xinhai Revolution broke out on 10 October 1911. Under
7743-516: Was recommended for the position of Military Governor of Xinjiang. On 8 July, the Qing and Republican governments signed a peace agreement, which stipulated that the position of Ili Garrison General would be replaced by the position of Defence Governor of Ili ( 伊犁鎮邊使 ), under the direct supervision of the Republican government in Beijing. Guang Fu was subsequently appointed as the first Defence Governor of Ili. The agreement also recognised Yang Zengxin as
7832-462: Was renamed Ili Garrison General ( 伊犁駐防將軍 ) and its responsibilities were greatly reduced. The Ili Garrison General would only oversee the military affairs of Ili and Tacheng instead of the whole of Xinjiang, the latter responsibility being delegated to the newly created position of Xinjiang Grand Coordinator ( 新疆巡撫 ). The Ili Garrison General was based in Huiyuan Town . Yita Circuit ( 伊塔道 )
7921-730: Was used by the Qara-Khitay , and " Tabghach " was used by the Qarakhanids . Later Arabian and Persian references to China may actually have referred to Central Asia. In Central Asia the Uyghurs viewed the Chinese script as "very prestigious" so when they developed the Old Uyghur alphabet , based on the Syriac script , they deliberately switched it to vertical like Chinese writing from its original horizontal position in Syriac. During
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