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148-543: The Istanbul pogrom , also known as the Istanbul riots , were a series of state-sponsored anti-Greek mob attacks directed primarily at Istanbul 's Greek minority on 6–7 September 1955. The pogrom was orchestrated by the governing Democrat Party in Turkey with the cooperation of various security organizations ( Tactical Mobilisation Group , Counter-Guerrilla and National Security Service ). The events were triggered by

296-724: A Greek immigrant. In 1922, as a response to the anti-Greek nativist xenophobia by the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), the American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA) was founded, which sought to Americanize the Greek immigrant in America. In Montgomery County, Maryland , a suburban county bordering Washington, D.C., some property deeds for houses include discriminatory covenants that excluded Greek-Americans prior to

444-512: A generous bribe, proceeded to the country he was selected to govern (whose language he usually did not know). When the new princes were appointed, they were escorted to Iași or Bucharest by retinues composed of their families, favourites and creditors (from whom they had borrowed the bribes). The prince and his appointees counted on recouping these in as short a time as possible, amassing an amount sufficient to live on after their brief time in office. Thirty-one princes, from eleven families, ruled

592-619: A hypothetical Greek destruction of Atatürk's house in Thessaloniki , would cause permanent damage; while an official of the Foreign Office said that a stern stance towards Greece would be to Turkey's benefit. MP John Strachey warned that Turkey had a large ethnic Greek minority in Istanbul as a card to play against Greece if it considered annexing an independent Cyprus against the wishes of Turkish-Cypriots. The concerns about

740-582: A jewelry store, one guy had a hammer and he was breaking pearls one by one." One famous eyewitness was James Bond novelist Ian Fleming , who as an MI6 agent was present under the cover of the International Police Conference on 5 September (which he ditched in favour of covering the riots for The Sunday Times ). Fleming's account was published on 11 September, bearing the title "The Great Riot of Istanbul". It has been said that Fleming may have been tipped off by Nâzim Kalkavan,

888-498: A lovely spot on the edge of the Bosporus , a priest of 75 was taken out into the street, stripped of every stitch of clothing, tied behind a car and dragged through the streets. They tried to tear the hair of another priest, but failing that, they scalped him, as they did many others. On the occasion of the pogrom's 50th anniversary, a seventy-year-old Mehmet Ali Zeren said, "I was in the street that day and I remember very clearly...In

1036-650: A major anti-Greek riot took place in South Omaha, Nebraska . The Greek population was forced to leave the city, while properties owned by Greek migrants were destroyed. Greeks were viewed with particular contempt in the Mormon stronghold of Utah. The local press characterized them as "a vicious element unfit for citizenship" and as "ignorant, depraved, and brutal foreigners." Anti-Greek riots occurred in Salt Lake City in 1917 which "almost resulted" in lynching of

1184-588: A mob of 300,000 was marshaled in a radius of 40 miles (60 km) around the city for the attacks. The role of the National Security Service was not clarified at the trials, since the sole aim of the junta was to sentence the DP government. The trial revealed that the fuse for the consulate bomb was sent from Turkey to Thessaloniki on 3 September. During the Yassıada Trial it was claimed that

1332-701: A petition campaign against the princes in power; addressed to the Porte and the Habsburg monarchy , they primarily demanded Russian supervision. Although they referred to incidents of corruption and misrule, the petitions indicate their signers' conservatism. The boyars tend to refer to (fictitious) " capitulations " which either principality would have signed with the Ottomans, demanding that rights guaranteed through them be restored. They viewed reform attempts by princes as illegitimate; in alternative proposals (usually in

1480-518: A poll carried out that same year. Despite this, according to political scientist Emre Erdogan, Greece remains one of the "eternal enemies of Turkey", along with Armenia. Journalist Dr. Cenk Saraçoğlu of Ankara University argues that anti-Greek attitudes in Turkey "are no longer constructed and shaped by social interactions between the 'ordinary people' [...] Rather, the Turkish media and state promote and disseminate an overtly anti-Greek discourse." On

1628-593: A rally and proceeding to the gate they laid a black wreath, chanting "Patriarch Leave" and "Patriarchate to Greece", inaugurating the campaign for the collection of signatures to oust the Ecumenical Patriarchate from Constantinople. As of 2006 the Grey Wolves claimed to have collected more than 5 million signatures for the withdrawal of the Patriarch and called on the Turkish government to have

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1776-568: A result of Phanariot and ecclesiastical administration, the Greeks expanded their influence in the 18th-century empire while retaining their Greek Orthodox faith and Hellenism. This had not always been the case in the Ottoman realm. During the 16th century, the South Slavs —the most prominent in imperial affairs—converted to Islam to enjoy the full rights of Ottoman citizenship (especially in

1924-455: A result of the pogrom. However, a number of deaths were never recorded due to the general chaos, so estimates vary. An early source gives the number of dead as 0, but witness accounts, mortal remains, as well as later sources contradict this. According to a number of other sources the total death toll is estimated to be at least 30. A list of 37 dead has also been compiled. Apart from the 30 identified victims, 3 unidentified bodies were found inside

2072-621: A total of ten times in Moldavia and Wallachia . The debt was owed to several creditors, rather than to the Sultan; the central institutions of the Ottoman Empire generally seemed determined to maintain their rule over the principalities and not exploit them irrationally. In an early example, Ahmed III paid part of Nicholas Mavrocordatos ' sum. The Phanariot epoch was initially characterized by fiscal policies driven by Ottoman needs and

2220-485: A twenty-year-old university student named Oktay Engin was given the mission of installing the explosives, two sticks of gelignite , in the consulate's garden. The consul M. Ali Balin allegedly first pressured consulate employee Hasan Uçar, but Engin was brought in when Uçar resisted. Both of them were arrested in Greece after the attack. Engin was born in the Greek town of Komotini ( Turkish : Gümülcine ) to Faik Engin,

2368-459: A well-known parliamentarian in the late '40s and one of the three ethnic Turkish members of the Greek parliament between 1946–1950. Oktay Engin became one of the few ethnic Turkish students to graduate from Greek gymnasiums in those years. Turkish officials encouraged him to study law, offering him a scholarship, so that he could promote the interests of Turkish citizens in Greece. He thus entered Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in 1953. When he

2516-754: Is Turkish". The intercommunal violence in Cyprus prompted Turkey to transmit a diplomatic note to the British government , which invited the Turkish and Greek governments to a conference in London, which started on August 26. The day before the Tripartite London Conference (29 August–7 September 1955) began, Prime Minister Menderes claimed that Greek Cypriots were planning a massacre of Turkish Cypriots . Sensing an opportunity to temper Greek demands, Prime Minister Harold Macmillan advised

2664-524: Is an ethnic slur used in Australia to refer to Southern European and Middle Eastern people of the Mediterranean region , including Greeks. It is also sometimes used against South Asians . The term has also been adopted and used by Greek Australians to refer to themselves, including through the sitcom Acropolis Now (1989–92), the television spin-off of the 1987 play Wogs Out of Work and

2812-721: The Danubian Principalities ( Moldavia and Wallachia ) (usually as a promotion from the offices of Dragoman of the Fleet and Dragoman of the Porte ); the period is known as the Phanariot epoch in Romanian history. After the fall of Constantinople , Mehmet II deported the city's Christian population, leaving only the Jewish inhabitants of Balat , repopulating the city with Christians and Muslims from throughout

2960-709: The Eyalet of Bosnia ; Serbs tended to occupy high military positions. A Slavic presence in Ottoman administration gradually became hazardous for its rulers, since the Slavs tended to support Habsburg armies during the Great Turkish War . By the 17th century the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople was the religious and administrative ruler of the empire's Orthodox subjects, regardless of ethnic background. All formerly-independent Orthodox patriarchates, including

3108-704: The Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) , and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey , the population exchange agreement signed between Greece and Turkey resulted in the uprooting of all Greeks in modern Turkey (and Muslims in Greece) from where many of them had lived for centuries. But due to the Greeks' strong emotional attachment to their first capital as well as the importance of the Ecumenical Patriarchate for Greek and worldwide Orthodoxy,

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3256-621: The Greek Orthodox Church . 73 churches and 23 schools were vandalized, burned or destroyed, as were eight baptisteries and three monasteries , about 90 percent of the church property portfolio in the city. The ancient Byzantine church of Panagia in Belgradkapı was vandalised and burned down. The church at Yedikule was badly vandalised, as was the church of St. Constantine of Psammathos. At Zoodochos Pege church in Balıklı ,

3404-618: The Greek War of Independence , while Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople was hanged. During and following World War I, almost all of the Greek population of Anatolia was either exterminated by the Ottoman government or later transferred to Greece as part of a population exchange based on religious affiliation. In September 1955 the Turkish government sponsored anti-Greek riots and pogrom in Constantinople . The dispute over Cyprus kept anti-Greek feelings in Turkey high. At

3552-727: The Italian Fascists gained power in 1922, they persecuted the Greek-speakers in Italy . The Macedonia naming dispute since the breakup of Yugoslavia has given rise to anti-Greek sentiment in the Republic of North Macedonia . According to journalist John Phillips, there was "considerable popular anti-Greek feeling in Macedonia" in 2004. On the contrary, German diplomat Geert-Hinrich Ahrens ( ger ) wrote in 2007 that he "had never detected any anti-Greek manifestations" in

3700-477: The London Daily Mail on 14 September 1955: The church of Yedikule was utterly smashed, and one priest was dragged from bed, the hair torn from his head and the beard literally torn from his chin. Another old Greek priest [Fr Mantas] in a house belonging to the church and who was too ill to be moved was left in bed, and the house was set on fire and he was burned alive. At the church of Yeniköy ,

3848-574: The Ottoman Empire : Voivode of Moldavia , Voivode of Wallachia , Grand Dragoman of the Porte and Grand Dragoman of the Fleet . Despite their cosmopolitanism and often-Western education, the Phanariots were aware of their Greek ancestry and culture; according to Nicholas Mavrocordatos ' Philotheou Parerga , "We are a race completely Hellenic". They emerged as a class of wealthy Greek merchants (of mostly noble Byzantine descent) during

3996-670: The Phanariotes , came to play a significant role in the social and economic life of the city and in the political and diplomatic life of the Islamic but multi-ethnic, multi-religious Ottoman Empire in general. This continued even after rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greece and the establishment of an independent Greek state in 1829 , although during the Greek War of Independence massacres against local Greek communities occurred. A number of ethnic Armenians and Greeks, who served in

4144-714: The Serbian Patriarchate renewed in 1557, came under the authority of the Greek Orthodox Church. Most of the Greek patriarchs were drawn from the Phanariots. Two Greek social groups emerged, challenging the leadership of the Greek Church: the Phanariots in Constantinople and the local notables in the Helladic provinces ( kodjabashis , dimogerontes and prokritoi ). According to 19th-century Greek historian Constantine Paparrigopoulos ,

4292-664: The United Nations to demand self-determination for Cyprus . Britain had a ruling mandate over the mostly ethnic Greek island, and wanted the Cyprus dispute to be resolved without being taken to the United Nations Security Council , due to fears of how the Greek and Greek Cypriot parties would portray the conflict. To this end, the British government resolved to temper Greek demands by encouraging

4440-503: The World Council of Churches ' estimate of 150 million USD , and the Greek government's estimate of 500 million USD. The Turkish government paid 60 million Turkish lira of restitution to those who registered their losses. However, these reparations did not exceed 20% of the claims, at best given that assets had depreciated dramatically. In addition to commercial targets, the mob clearly targeted property owned or administered by

4588-664: The decline of the Ottoman Empire , as European states became interested in halting Russian southward expansion (which included the 1812 annexation of Bessarabia ). New consulates in the two countries' capitals, ensuring the observation of developments in Russian−Ottoman relations, had an indirect impact on the local economy as rival diplomats began awarding protection and sudit status to merchants competing with local guilds . Nicholas I of Russia pressured Wallachia and Moldavia into granting constitutions (in 1831 and 1832, respectively) to weaken native rulers. The boyars began

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4736-437: The tabloid press . A 2013 study found that Western European news sources "indicate bias against Greece in financial crisis coverage" and "include stereotypes, the recommendation of austerity as a punishment, morality tales, an absence of solidarity, and fear mongering." The popular German tabloid Bild "published numerous reports that implicitly and explicitly constituted the myth of the corrupt and lazy Greeks in comparison to

4884-418: The "Cyprus is Turkish" Association were run by DP officials. This organization played a crucial role in inciting anti-Greek activities. Most of the rioters came from western Asia Minor . His case study of Eskişehir shows how the party there recruited 400 to 500 workers from local factories, who were carted by train with third class-tickets to Istanbul. These recruits were promised the equivalent of 6 USD, which

5032-544: The 1580s), mistakenly identified with the Phanariots in modern Romanian historiography, were much older. The mismanagement of many Phanariot rulers contrasts with the achievements and projects of others, such as Constantine Mavrocordatos (who abolished serfdom in Wallachia in 1746 and Moldavia in 1749) and Alexander Ypsilantis , who were inspired by Habsburg serf policy. Ypsilantis tried to reform legislation and impose salaries for administrative offices in an effort to halt

5180-519: The 17th century) occupied high political and administrative posts in the Ottoman Empire. From 1669 until the Greek War of Independence in 1821, Phanariots made up the majority of the dragomans to the Ottoman government (the Porte ) and foreign embassies due to the Greeks' higher level of education than the general Ottoman population. With the church dignitaries, local notables from the provinces and

5328-810: The 1820s it plummeted from about 50,000 to 20,000 gold coins (equivalent to Austrian gold currency ) in Wallachia and to 3,100 in Moldavia. Immediately afterward, Russia forcefully used its new prerogative. The deposition of Constantine Ypsilantis (in Wallachia) and Alexander Mourousis (in Moldavia) by Selim III , called on by French Empire 's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire Horace Sébastiani (whose fears of pro−Russian conspiracies in Bucharest were partially confirmed),

5476-584: The 2000 film The Wog Boy . In 1906, during the Macedonian Struggle , anti-Greek rallies and violent attacks took place in a number of Bulgarian cities. In Plovdiv , Greek Orthodox churches and schools, Greek-owned properties were looted and plundered. In Pomorie (Anchialos) the Greek population was expelled after the city was set up on fire and up to 110 Greeks were killed. Pogroms also took place in Varna , Burgas and other locations. Following

5624-637: The 24th edition of the İzmir International Fair was taking place, and burned the Greek pavilion. Moving next to the Church of Saint Fotini, built two years earlier to serve the needs of the NATO Regional Headquarters' Greek officers, the mob destroyed it completely. The homes of the few Greek families and officers were then looted. The mob burned down the Greek consulate building in Alsancak. Considerable contemporary documentation showing

5772-620: The Aromanian question. Romania claimed that Greek armed bands targeted ethnic Romanians in Macedonia, whereas Greece accused Romania of trying to create a false equation between Aromanians and Romanians. Hellenophobic articles began appearing in the Romanian press. On 2 August 1905, the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society organized an anti-Greek protest in Bucharest, attended by army officers, students and ethnic Aromanians. After decrying Greek war crimes in Macedonia,

5920-787: The CTA only for inciting some students to burn Greek newspapers in Taksim Square. In response to police chief Kemal Aygün's question about the Cominform 's role in the affair, Şevki Mutlugil of the NSS cooked up a report, which concluded that the Comintern and Cominform had conspired to sabotage NATO. As proof, the prosecution submitted some brochures from the Communist Party of Turkey and a pair of letters from Nâzım Hikmet which called on

6068-593: The Empire because the Ottomans did not legally distinguish between nationality and religion and considered the empire's Orthodox Christians a single entity. The position of the Patriarchate in the Ottoman state encouraged Greek renaissance projects centering on the resurrection and revitalization of the Byzantine Empire . The Patriarch and his church dignitaries constituted the first centre of power for

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6216-688: The Great and the firm presence of the Habsburg Empire on the Carpathian border with the principalities. Dissidence in the two countries became dangerous for the Turks, who were confronted with the attraction on the population of protection by a fellow Eastern Orthodox state. This became obvious with Mihai Racoviță 's second rule in Moldavia, when the prince plotted with Peter to have Ottoman rule overthrown. His replacement, Nicholas Mavrocordatos ,

6364-443: The Greek ambassador Tombazis was rebutted leading to a mutual withdrawal of embassies on 15 September. In November, the Romanian government allocated funding for the creation of armed Aromanian bands in Macedonia, a parallel motion closed numerous Greek schools in the country. In February 1906, six leading members of the Greek community were expelled from the country, citing their alleged funding of Greek bands in Macedonia. In July 1906,

6512-442: The Greek government officially severed diplomatic relations with Romania . In 1911, Greek prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos used the occasion of the Italo-Turkish War to improve relations with Bulgaria and Romania, restoring diplomatic relations with the latter. Between 1919 and 1924 around 47,000 Greeks emigrated from Russia to Greece as a result of the official and unofficial anti-Greek sentiment in Russia, which in its turn

6660-535: The Greek minority and the Ecumenical Patriarchate. In 1955, a propaganda campaign involving the Turkish press galvanized public opinion against the Greek minority, targeting Athenogoras , the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, in particular, accusing him of collecting donations for Enosis . Leading the pack was Hürriyet , which wrote on 28 August 1955: "If the Greeks dare touch our brethren, then there are plenty of Greeks in Istanbul to retaliate upon." Ömer Sami Coşar from Cumhuriyet wrote on 30 August: Neither

6808-481: The Greek population of Istanbul was specifically exempted and allowed to stay in place. Nevertheless, this population began to decline, as evinced by demographic statistics. Punitive Turkish nationalist exclusivist measures, such as a 1932 parliamentary law, barred Greek citizens living in Turkey from a series of 30 trades and professions from tailoring and carpentry to medicine , law and real estate . The Varlık Vergisi tax imposed in 1942 also served to reduce

6956-426: The Greek shops on Istanbul's main shopping street , İstiklal Avenue , were ransacked. Many commercial streets were littered with merchandise and fittings torn out of Greek-owned businesses. According to the eyewitness account of a Greek dentist, the mob chanted "Death to the Giaours " (infidels), "Massacre the Greek traitors", "Down with Europe " and "Onward to Athens and Thessaloniki" as they attacked. Predictably,

7104-408: The Greek-speaking population decreased from 65,108 to 49,081 between 1955 and 1960. The 2008 figures released by the Turkish Foreign Ministry placed the number of Turkish citizens of Greek descent at 3,000–4,000; while according to the Human Rights Watch (2006) their number was estimated to be 2,500. The attacks have been described as a continuation of a process of Turkification that started with

7252-466: The Greeks in the Ottoman state, which infiltrated Ottoman structures and attracted the former Byzantine nobility. The wealth of the extensive Greek merchant class provided the material basis for the intellectual revival featured in Greek life for more than half a century before 1821. Greek merchants endowed libraries and schools. On the eve of the Greek War of Independence, the three most important centres of Greek learning (schools-cum-universities) were in

7400-423: The Greeks who had been expelled." Within months a total of 40,000 Greeks were expelled from Constantinople. In 1999 Turkey "was again swept by a wave of anti-Greek sentiment, encouraged by the Turkish government" following the capture of the Kurdistan Workers' Party leader Abdullah Öcalan in Nairobi, Kenya who was initially hiding in the Greek embassy. However, as a result of the " earthquake diplomacy " and

7548-441: The Istanbul station chief of the MI6, who appears in 1957's From Russia, with Love as "Darko Kerim". According to Fleming's biographer, John Pearson , Kalkavan was rather like Kerim bey . A number of Turkish eyewitness accounts were published in 2008 by Ayşe Hür in an article that appeared in Taraf . There are accounts of protection offered to the minorities by their fellow citizens that were successful in fending off

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7696-405: The Menderes government closed the "Cyprus is Turkish" Association (CTA) and arrested its executives. 34 trade unions were dissolved. The Minister of Internal Affairs Namık Gedik resigned on 10 September. The investigation initially focused on the "Cyprus is Turkish" Association (CTA). CTA detainee, and spy, named Kamil Önal had one of his CTA associates burn an intelligence report originating from

7844-436: The National Security Service (NSS) that was at the CTA office. In addition, a member from the Kızıltoprak branch, Serafim Sağlamel, was found to be carrying an address list of non-Muslim citizens. However, on September 12, the government blamed Turkish Communists for the pogrom, arresting 45 " card-carrying communists " (including Aziz Nesin , Kemal Tahir , and İlhan Berktay). This type of " false flag " anti-Communist propaganda

7992-433: The Orient, hypocritical people who crave to exploit others". The hellenophobic tendency in Romanian historiography was reversed through the work of historian Nicolae Iorga . During the course of the Macedonian Struggle , Romania founded the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society which conducted ethnographic expeditions to Macedonia, Epirus and Thessaly . The Society later took up the role of representing Romania interests in

8140-466: The Ottoman Empire, and an opportunity for political power; they entered Wallachian and Moldavian boyar nobility by marriage. Reigns of local princes were not excluded on principle. Several hellenized Romanian noble families, such as the Callimachis (originally Călmașul ), the Racovițăs and the Albanian Ghicas penetrated the Phanar nucleus to increase their chances of occupying the thrones and maintain their positions. Most sources agree that 1711

8288-421: The Ottoman Greek community. They became a significant political factor in the empire and, as diplomatic agents, played a role in the affairs of Great Britain, France and the Russian Empire. The Phanariots competed for the most important administrative offices in the Ottoman administration; these included collecting imperial taxes, monopolies on commerce, working under contract in a number of enterprises, supplying

8436-405: The Ottoman Imperial diplomatic service and were even leading politicians in the 19th and early 20th century, were targeted. Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either Greek Orthodox , members of the Armenian Apostolic Church or Catholic Levantines . Greeks and Armenians form the largest Christian population in the city. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire,

8584-514: The Ottomans; they did not enrich the Greek national identity and lost ground to groups which flourished through their confrontation with the Ottoman Empire (the klephts and armatoloi ). A Greek presence had established itself in both Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia , resulting in the appointment of Greek princes before the 18th century. After the Phanariot era, some Phanariot families in Wallachia and Moldavia identified themselves as Romanian in Romanian society (including

8732-415: The Patriarchate nor the Rum [ i.e. Greek] minority ever openly supported Turkish national interests when Turkey and Athens clashed over certain issues. In return, the great Turkish nation never raised its voice about this. But do the Phanar Patriarchate and our Rum citizens in Istanbul have special missions assigned by Greece in its plans to annex Cyprus? While Greece was crushing Turks in Western Thrace and

8880-419: The Phanariot princes were capable, farsighted rulers. As prince of Wallachia in 1746 and Moldavia in 1749, Constantine Mavrocordatos abolished serfdom and Alexander Ypsilantis of Wallachia (reigned 1774–1782) initiated extensive administrative and legal reforms. Ipsilanti's reign coincided with subtle shifts in economic and social life and the emergence of spiritual and intellectual aspirations which pointed to

9028-443: The Phanariots initially sought the most important secular offices of the patriarchal court and could frequently intervene in the election of bishops and influence crucial decisions by the patriarch. Greek merchants and clergy of Byzantine aristocratic origin, who acquired economic and political influence and were later known as Phanariots, settled in extreme northwestern Constantinople (which had become central to Greek interests after

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9176-411: The Romanian constitution forbidding foreign nationals from owning agricultural land. The Trikoupis government then recalled its ambassador in Bucharest, Romania followed suit thus severing diplomatic relations between the countries. Diplomatic relations were restored in July 1896, in response to a rise of Bulgarian komitadji activity in Macedonia. In 1905, the two countries exchanged accusations regarding

9324-500: The Rosetti family; C. A. Rosetti represented the radical , nationalist cause during and after the 1848 Wallachian revolution .). Phanariot attention focused on occupying the most favorable offices the empire could offer non-Muslims and the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were still relatively rich and—more importantly—autonomous (despite having to pay tribute as vassal states). Many Greeks had found favorable conditions there for commercial activities, in comparison with

9472-409: The Textile Workers' Union ( Turkish : Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası ). A protest rally on the night of 6 September, organised by the authorities in Istanbul, on the Cyprus issue and the bombing of Atatürk's home was the cover for amassing the rioters. At 13:00, news reports of the bombing were announced by radio. However, most people at the time did not have radios, so they had to wait until 16:30, when

9620-458: The Turkish delegates that they should be stern. Turkish Foreign Minister Fatin Rüştü Zorlu launched a harsh opening salvo, stating that Turkey would reconsider its commitment to the Treaty of Lausanne unless Greece reconsidered its position on Cyprus. The Greek delegates, surprised by harshness of the speech, backed down during the negotiations, although they did not abandon the idea of enosis with Cyprus. Deflecting domestic attention to Cyprus

9768-411: The Turkish government to publicly express their support for Turkish-Cypriot cause, which they estimated would ensure the issue would not reach the UN Security Council. British reports from the period made disparate assessments on the state of Greco-Turkish relations; one by the British Embassy in August 1954 stated that the relationship was of a superficial nature and that a minor source of tension, such as

9916-406: The ambitions of some hospodars, who (mindful of their fragile status) sought to pay back their creditors and increase their wealth while in a position of power. To make the reigns lucrative while raising funds to satisfy the needs of the Porte, princes channeled their energies into taxing the inhabitants into destitution. The most odious taxes (such as the văcărit first imposed by Iancu Sasul in

10064-404: The army and ordered it to put down the riots. The material damage was estimated at US$ 500 million, including the burning of churches and the devastation of shops and private homes. The pogrom greatly accelerated emigration of ethnic Greeks from Turkey, in particular the Greeks of Istanbul . The Greek population of Turkey declined from 119,822 in 1927, to about 7,000 in 1978. In Istanbul alone,

10212-440: The arson easier. Municipal and government trucks were placed in strategic points all around the city to distribute the tools of destruction (shovels, pickaxes, crowbars, ramrods and petrol), while 4,000 taxis were requisitioned from the Drivers Association and Motor Vehicle Workers' Trade Union ( Turkish : Şoförler Cemiyeti ve Motorlu Taşıt İşçileri Sendikası ) to transport the perpetrators. In addition, flags had been prepared by

10360-417: The barricade. Mater later rose all the way to Commander of the Air Force , making him third in the military line of command. His son Tayfun, who witnessed the pogrom, maintains ties with those who survived and fled to Greece. While the pogrom was predominantly an Istanbul affair, there were some outrages in other Turkish cities. On the morning of 7 September 1955 In İzmir , a mob overran Kültürpark , where

10508-456: The beginning of the Greek War of Independence , the Phanariots were firmly established as the political elite of Hellenism. According to Greek historian Constantine Paparrigopoulos, this was a natural evolution given the Phanariots' education and experience in supervising large parts of the empire. According to Nikos Svoronos argued, the Phanariots subordinated their national identity to their class identity and tried to peacefully co−exist with

10656-525: The bombing of the Turkish consulate in Thessaloniki , Macedonia , Greece , – the house where Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was born in 1881. The bomb was actually planted by a Turkish usher at the consulate, who was later arrested and confessed. The Turkish press was silent about the arrest, and instead, it insinuated that Greeks had set off the bomb. The pogrom is occasionally described as a genocide against Greeks , since, per Alfred-Maurice de Zayas , despite its relatively low number of deaths, it "satisfies

10804-441: The businesses were Greek-owned, 17% were Armenian-owned, 12% were Jewish-owned, and 10% were Muslim-owned; while 80% of the homes were Greek-owned, 9% were Armenian-owned, 3% were Jewish-owned, and 5% were Muslim-owned. Estimates of the economic cost of the damage vary from Turkish government's estimate of 69.5 million Turkish lira (equivalent to 24.8 million US$ ), a British estimate of 100 million GBP (about 200 million US$ ),

10952-521: The change in leadership and boyar complaints, about 80 percent of those seated in the Divan (an institution roughly equivalent to the estates of the realm ) were members of local families. This made endemic the social and economic issues of previous periods, since the inner circle of boyars blocked initiatives (such as Alexander Ypsilantis') and obtained, extended and preserved tax exemptions . The Phanariots copied Russian and Habsburg institutions; during

11100-402: The city in advance, assaulted Istanbul's Greek community for nine hours. Although the mob did not explicitly call for the killing of Greeks, over a dozen people died during or after the attacks as a result of beatings and arson . Armenians and Jews were also harmed. The police were mostly ineffective, and the violence continued until the government declared martial law in Istanbul, called in

11248-621: The city, the Greek cemetery of Şişli , as well as the cemetery of the Patriarchates in Balıklı were targeted. Crosses and statues were vandalized, while sepulchers and burial vaults were opened and the remains of the dead were removed and dispersed by the fanatic mobs. At Balıklı cemetery, the sarcophaguses of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchs were desecrated. An eyewitness account was provided by journalist Noel Barber of

11396-515: The civilian population. The Turkish militia and police who coordinated the attacks refrained from protecting the lives and properties of the victims. Their function, instead, was to preserve adjacent Turkish properties. However, there were a few cases where police officers prevented criminal activity. On the other hand, the fire brigade, whenever it reached a fire, claimed that it was unable to deal with it. According to some sources, between 13 and 16 Greeks (including two clerics ) and 1 Armenian died as

11544-463: The claims, it is believed by scholars that Menderes assented to the organization of protests in Istanbul against the Greeks, but the extent of knowledge of Zorlu, who had been in London for the conference, is unclear. Interior Minister Namık Gedik was also accused of involvement, though he was not tried as he committed suicide before the trials started. According to Zorlu's lawyer at the Yassiada trial,

11692-400: The commercial centres of Chios , Smyrna and Aivali . The first Greek millionaire of the Ottoman era was Michael "Şeytanoğlu" Kantakouzenos , who earned 60,000 ducats a year from his control of the fur trade from Muscovy . During the 18th century, the Phanariots were a hereditary clerical−aristocratic group who managed the affairs of the patriarchate and the dominant political power of

11840-462: The conference fell apart on 6 September, the first day the subject of Cyprus would be broached at the conference, when news broke of the bombing of the Turkish consulate (and birthplace of Atatürk) in Greece's second-largest city, Thessaloniki. The 1961 Yassıada Trial after 1960 coup d'état accused Menderes and Foreign Minister Fatin Rüştü Zorlu of planning the riots. Though both of them rejected

11988-515: The court and ruling the Danubian Principalities . They engaged in private trade, controlling the crucial wheat trade on the Black Sea . The Phanariots expanded their commercial activities into the Kingdom of Hungary and then to the other Central European states. Their activities intensified their contacts with Western nations, and they became familiar with Western languages and cultures. Before

12136-578: The criteria of article 2 of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (UNCG) because the ‘‘intent to destroy in whole or in part’’ the Greek minority in Istanbul was demonstrably present, the pogrom having been orchestrated by the government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes " and "As a result of the pogrom, the Greek minority eventually emigrated from Turkey." A Turkish mob, most of whose members were trucked into

12284-476: The daily İstanbul Ekspres , which was associated with the DP and the National Security Service (NSS), repeated the news in print. According to a September 2005 episode of the weekly show Files on the Greek Mega Channel, the accompanying photographs were seen by Salonican photographer Yannis Kyriakidis on September 4 (two days before the actual bombing). The consul's wife had brought the film to

12432-480: The decline of the Ottoman Empire , as roughly 40% of the properties attacked belonged to other minorities. The pogrom has been compared in some media to the Kristallnacht , the 1938 pogrom against Jews throughout Nazi Germany . In 2009, Turkish then-Prime Minister Erdogan said that Turkey had committed mistakes, and that: "Those minorities with different ethnic identities were expelled from our country in

12580-409: The depletion of funds the administrators, local and Greek alike, were using for their own maintenance; it was, by then, more profitable to hold office than to own land. His Pravilniceasca condică , a relatively modern legal code , met stiff boyar resistance. The focus of such rules was often the improvement of state structure against conservative wishes. Contemporary documents indicate that, despite

12728-571: The disappearance of promotions from the Phanar community; the Greeks were no longer trusted by the Porte. Amid tense relations between boyars and princes, Vladimirescu's revolt was primarily the result of compromise between Oltenian pandurs and the regency of boyars attempting to block the ascension of Scarlat Callimachi (the last Phanariot ruler in Bucharest). Ioan Sturdza 's rule in Moldavia and Grigore IV Ghica 's in Wallachia are considered

12876-464: The economic potential of Greek businesspeople in Turkey. In the early 1950s, Turkey had close relations with Greece. In 1952, Paul of Greece became the first Greek Monarch to visit a Turkish head of state, which was soon followed by Turkish president Celal Bayar 's visit to Greece. However, the relations soured starting in 1953, when the armed struggle of the Greek Cypriots , the majority of

13024-623: The empire, except those under the spiritual care of the Patriarchs of Antioch , Jerusalem , Alexandria , Ohrid and Peja —often acting as archontes of the Ecumenical See . They dominated the administration of the patriarchate, often intervening in the selection of hierarchs (including the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople). Many members of Phanariot families (who had acquired great wealth and influence during

13172-688: The establishment of the patriarch's headquarters in 1461, shortly after Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque). After the 1453 fall of Constantinople, when the Sultan replaced de jure the Byzantine Emperor for subjugated Christians, he recognized the Ecumenical Patriarch as the religious and national leader ( ethnarch ) of the Greeks and other ethnic groups in the Greek Orthodox Millet . The Patriarchate had primary importance, occupying this key role for Christians of

13320-561: The events in Cyprus led to the formation of a number of nationalist student and irredentist organizations in Istanbul, such as the National Federation of Turkish Students ( Turkish : Türkiye Milli Talebe Federasyonu ), the National Union of Turkish Students, and Hikmet Bil's (editor of the major newspaper Hürriyet ) "Cyprus is Turkish" Association ( Turkish : Kıbrıs Türktür Cemiyeti ), who had protested against

13468-496: The extent of the destruction is provided by the photographs taken by Demetrios Kaloumenos, then official photographer of the Ecumenical Patriarchate . Setting off just hours after the pogrom began, Kaloumenos set out with his camera to capture the damage and smuggled the film to Greece. Famous Turkish photojournalist of Armenian descent, Ara Güler , also took many photographs during the pogrom. In Greece, Oktay Engin and consulate employee Hasan Uçar were arrested on 18 September. Engin

13616-603: The first of the new period, although the new regime abruptly ended in Russian occupation during another Russo−Turkish War and the subsequent period of Russian influence. Most Phanariots were patrons of Greek culture , education and printing. They founded academies which attracted teachers and pupils from throughout the Orthodox commonwealth, and there was awareness of intellectual trends in Habsburg Europe. Many of

13764-488: The first time, the Porte needed to participate in diplomatic negotiations. With the Ottomans traditionally ignoring Western European languages and cultures, officials were at a loss. The Porte assigned those tasks to the Greeks, who had a long mercantile and educational tradition and the necessary skills. The Phanariots and other Greek as well as Hellenized families primarily from Constantinople , occupied high posts as secretaries and interpreters for Ottoman officials. As

13912-515: The form of constitutional projects), the boyars expressed desire for an aristocratic republic . The active part taken by Greek princes in revolts after 1820 and the disorder provoked by the Filiki Eteria (of which the Ghica , Văcărescu and Golescu families were active members after its uprising against the Ottoman Empire in Moldavia and Tudor Vladimirescu 's Wallachian uprising ) led to

14060-585: The hard-working Germans." Dutch TV producer Ingeborg Beugel ( nl ) claimed that "the [anti-Greek] propaganda of the mainstream media provides Europe and the Netherlands with a convenient scapegoat to exploit ." German politicians, such as the former Minister for Foreign Affairs Guido Westerwelle and former Chancellor Gerhard Schröder , publicly criticized the anti-Greek sentiment in their country and called for solidarity with Greece. The Cyprus conflict resulted in anti-Greek violence which resulted

14208-539: The height of the intercommunal violence in Cyprus , thousands of Greeks were expelled from Turkey in 1964–1965 , mostly Constantinople. In March 1964, all persons (over 6,000) with Greek citizenship were expelled "on the grounds that they were dangerous to the 'internal and external' security of the state." Additionally, in September 1964, 10,000 Greeks were expelled. Cumhuriyet reported that 30,000 "Turkish nationals of Greek descent had left permanently, in addition to

14356-432: The interventions of the militaries of Greece and Turkey. Phanariotes Phanariots , Phanariotes , or Fanariots ( Greek : Φαναριώτες , Romanian : Fanarioți , Turkish : Fenerliler ) were members of prominent Greek families in Phanar (Φανάρι, modern Fener ), the chief Greek quarter of Constantinople where the Ecumenical Patriarchate is located, who traditionally occupied four important positions in

14504-530: The island's population, aiming for political union of Cyprus with Greece, started. Soon after, Georgios Grivas formed the armed organization EOKA . This turn of events was politically exploited in Turkey by the Turkish nationalists of Kibris Türktür Cemiyeti (Cyprus is Turkish) organization, although EOKA had never targeted the Turkish Cypriot community before the anti-Greek pogrom events of September 1955. The Greek government had appealed in 1954 to

14652-534: The large Greek merchant class, Phanariots represented the better-educated members of Greek society during Ottoman rule until the 1821 start of the Greek War of Independence . During the war, Phanariots influenced decisions by the Greek National Assembly (the representative body of Greek revolutionaries, which met six times between 1821 and 1829). Between 1711–1716 and 1821, a number of Phanariots were appointed Hospodars ( voivodes or princes) in

14800-442: The man was circumcised, he was saved. If not, he was doomed. Indeed, having lied, he could not be saved from a beating. For one of those aggressive young men would draw his knife and circumcise him in the middle of the street and amid the chaos. A difference of two or three centimetres does not justify such a commotion. That night, many men shouting and screaming were Islamized forcefully by the cruel knife. Among those circumcised there

14948-513: The mid-18th century they made noble rank dependent on state service, as Peter I of Russia did. After the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774) allowed Russia to intervene on the side of Ottoman Eastern Orthodox subjects, most of the Porte's tools of political pressure became ineffective. They had to offer concessions to maintain a hold on the countries as economic and strategic assets. The treaty made any increase in tribute impossible, and between 1774 and

15096-569: The mob. The most organized team rallied behind air force captain Reşat Mater . Mater happened to be off duty and visiting his home in Cevizli's Muhasebeciler Street, which was right next to the rally point, İstiklal Caddesi . Mater first hid some of his neighbors in his house, then he took to the street with his gun and his uniform. The boys in the neighborhood joined him, bringing domestic implements as substitute weapons. The mob passed by after seeing

15244-474: The newspaper's average circulation of 30,000–40,000 (by comparison, the best-selling Hürriyet sold 70–80 thousand copies). Perin was arrested the next day. Gökşin Sipahioğlu later alleged the NSS had pressured him to do it, while Perin says Sipahioğlu himself was an agent. Perin's innocence, however, was cast into doubt after intrepid journalist Uğur Mumcu published an excerpt from a 1962 letter between Perin and

15392-541: The organizers called for a boycott of Greek products and services. Rioting was prevented by a large force of Romanian gendarmerie . On the same day a Greek owned cafe in Bucharest was vandalized and its owner beaten. Several days later three editors of the Greek-language newspaper Patris were expelled from the country for sedition. On 13 August, protesters burnt a Greek flag in Giurgiu . An official remonstrance by

15540-739: The orientation of virtually all ethnic Albanian political parties." In a 2013 poll in Albania, Greece topped the list of countries perceived to be a threat to Albania (18.5%), although the plurality of respondents (46.4%) agreed with the statement "No country is a threat to Albania". Greeks in Australia have been subject to discrimination. During World War I, due to King Constantine I 's pro-German sympathies, Greek immigrants were viewed with hostility and suspicion. Anti-Greek riots occurred in Perth in 1915 and in Kalgoorlie in 1916. The word " wog "

15688-479: The other hand, Turkish political scientist Bahar Rumelili wrote in 2007: Both the Turkish government and the Turkish military have made public statements that Turkey no longer sees Greece as its rival. While a small minority in Turkish society maintains its anti-Greek sentiments and actions, there is a growing liking for Greek society and culture and an increasing awareness of the Greek heritage in Turkey. In 1821 Greeks of Constantinople were massacred in response to

15836-722: The party's First Congress, Ljubčo Georgievski , first leader of the party, declared that "the next Congress will convene in Solun" ( Thessaloniki in South Slavic languages ). According to Dimitar Bechev, a British-based international relations researcher, then Prime Minister of North Macedonia Nikola Gruevski (the leader of VMRO-DPMNE) exploited "anti-Greek nationalism" during the 2008 parliamentary election . In 2012 Gruevski accused Greece of having waged "political genocide" against his country. Greek Foreign Ministry spokesman Gregory Delavekouras responded that Gruevski's statements "stoke

15984-796: The passage of the Fair Housing Act of 1968 . In December 2014, MTV aired the first episode of its new reality show Growing Up Greek . It was immediately denounced by Greek Americans and characterized as "stereotype-laden" and "offensive". The American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA) called for it to be canceled. As a result of the Greek government-debt crisis , starting in 2010, anti-Greek sentiments grew in some European countries, especially in Germany. A 2014 study found, "An anti-Greek sentiment evolved and spread among German citizens and solidarity for crisis-hit Greece

16132-463: The past. It was a result of fascist policy." Constantinople (modern Istanbul ) was the capital of the Byzantine Empire until 1453, when the city was conquered by Ottoman forces. A large indigenous Greek community continued to live in the multi-ethnic Ottoman capital city and enjoyed a relatively protected status under the Ottoman Millet system . The city's Greek population, particularly

16280-607: The patriarch deported to Greece. In the early 20th century Greeks in the United States were discriminated against in many ways. In 1904 Greek immigrants, unaware of labor conditions and largely inexperienced, served as strikebreakers during a strike in Chicago diesel shops. This fueled anti-Greek sentiment among union members. Three Greek immigrants were killed during a riot in 1908 in McGill, Nevada . On February 21, 1909,

16428-756: The period of the Emirate of Sicily . And later Latin speaking Catholics persecuted the Orthodox Greeks in Eastern Sicily and Arabic speaking Catholics persecuted the Orthodox Greeks in Malta. In the interwar period (1918–39), the Albanian government closed down Greek schools as part of its policies of assimilation. During the Communist rule in Albania (1944–92), the government restricted

16576-420: The photo studio that belonged to Kyriakidis' father to be printed. The photographs were then photomontaged , according to the program. On the day of the event, the editor, Gökşin Sipahioğlu, called the owner, Mithat Perin, asking for permission for a second run. The weather was bad, so Perin declined thinking the prints would not get sold. The newspaper's main dealer, Fuat Büke, soon called and offered to pay for

16724-489: The pogroms, around 20,000 Greeks fled Bulgaria. On August 2–5, 1918, a three-day anti-Greek riot occurred in Toronto . "Mobs of up to 5,000 people, led by war veterans returned from Europe , marched through the city's main streets waging pitched battles with law enforcement officers and destroying every Greek business they came across." The consequence was damages of $ 100,000 to Greek businesses and private property. When

16872-449: The principalities, resulting in long periods of political disorder, was dominated by a small number of ambitious families who competed violently for the two thrones and monopolized land ownership. A change in policy was indicated by the fact that autonomous Wallachia and Moldavia had entered a period of skirmishes with the Ottomans, due to the insubordination of local princes associated with the rise of Imperial Russia 's power under Peter

17020-406: The procedure. Priests were also scalped and burnt in their beds. Nesin wrote: A man who was fearful of being beaten, lynched or cut into pieces would imply and try to prove that he was both a Turk and a Muslim. "Pull it out and let us see," they would reply. The poor man would peel off his trousers and show his "Muslimness" and "Turkishness": And what was the proof? That he had been circumcised. If

17168-516: The region. The propagation of Romanian nationalist ideals among the Aromanian communities, created a rift between the two countries known as the Aromanian question . Another important issue was the status of the inheritances of Greeks in Romania . In 1892, Romania refused to hand over the property of the recently deceased Greek expatriate Konstantinos Zappas to the Greek state citing an article of

17316-478: The republic. The main opposition party of the Republic of North Macedonia, Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization – Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE), founded in 1990, includes the name of Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization , a revolutionary movement active in the early 20th century, which is regarded by Greeks "a notorious anti-Greek terrorist organization." During

17464-555: The right-hand man of General Kemal Yamak who led the Turkish outpost of Operation Gladio under the Tactical Mobilization Group ( Turkish : Seferberlik Taktik Kurulu ), proudly reminisced about his involvement in the riots, calling them "a magnificent organization". Before the events in September 6, some buildings owned by Greeks and other non-Muslim minorities were marked with cross signs in order to make

17612-457: The run in advance. By the time Perin went to inspect the Tan Press, 180,000 copies had already been printed. Sensing something fishy, Perin tore up the paper and stopped the run. The prototype was still intact however, and the workers secretly resumed printing after Perin left. They had eventually printed 300,000 copies (on paper stocked in advance), of which 296,000 were sold. This was far above

17760-407: The rural population to the lifestyles of the urban minorities. The three chief destinations were the largest three cities: Istanbul, Ankara , and İzmir . Between 1945 and 1955, the population of Istanbul increased from 1 million to about 1.6 million. Many of these new residents found themselves in shantytowns ( Turkish : gecekondus ), and constituted a prime target for populist policies. Finally,

17908-584: The second half of the 16th century, and were influential in the administration of the Ottoman Empire's Balkan domains in the 18th century. The Phanariots usually built their houses in the Phanar quarter to be near the court of the Patriarch , who (under the Ottoman millet system) was recognized as the spiritual and secular head ( millet-bashi ) of the Orthodox subjects—the Rum Millet , or "Roman nation" of

18056-415: The shops, while another 3 burned bodies were found in a sack in the region of Beşiktaş . Moreover, 32 Greeks were severely wounded. Men and women were raped and forced to convert to Islam, and according to accounts including those of the Turkish writer Aziz Nesin , men, including a priest, were subjected to forced circumcision by members of the mob. Moreover, an Armenian rite Christian priest died after

18204-481: The situation came soon out of control and the mobs were shouting "First your property. Then your life". The riot died down by midnight with the intervention of the Turkish Army and declaration of martial law . The police, who supported the attacks by preparing and organizing the operations, was ordered to hold a passive stance and leave the mob to roam the streets of the city freely and commit atrocities against

18352-522: The subsequent rapprochement efforts between Greece and Turkey, the public perception of Greece as their main enemy decreased in Turkey from 29% in 2001 to 16.9% in 2004. The Grey Wolves , a far-right organization associated with the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), routinely demonstrate outside the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in the Phanar district and burn the Patriarch in effigy . In October 2005 they staged

18500-444: The succession to the throne of Moldavia. This was followed by similar measures in Wallachia, prompted by Ștefan Cantacuzino 's alliance with Habsburg commander Prince Eugene of Savoy in the closing stages of the Great Turkish War . The person raised to the office of prince was usually the chief dragoman of the Porte, well-versed in contemporary politics and Ottoman statecraft. The new prince, who obtained his office in exchange for

18648-527: The systematic negative government propaganda that is aimed at turning public opinion in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia against Greece." At its inception Romanian national historiography was heavily influenced by romanticism. This led to a reconsideration of the role played by the Phanariotes who ruled modern day Romania as emissaries of the Ottoman Empire. Romanian national poet Mihai Eminescu described Greeks as "the poison of

18796-470: The tombs of a number of ecumenical patriarchs were smashed open and desecrated. The abbot of the monastery, Bishop Gerasimos of Pamphilos , was severely beaten during the pogrom and died from his wounds some days later in Balıklı Hospital . In one church arson attack, Father Chrysanthos Mandas was burned alive. The Metropolitan of Liloupolis , Gennadios, was badly beaten and went mad. Elsewhere in

18944-497: The two principalities during the Phanariot epoch. When the choice became limited to a few families due to princely disloyalty to the Porte, rulers would be moved from one principality to the other; the prince of Wallachia (the richer of the two principalities) would pay to avert his transfer to Iaşi, and the prince of Moldavia would bribe supporters in Constantinople to appoint him to Wallachia. Constantine Mavrocordatos ruled

19092-431: The undersecretary of the NSS, Fuat Doğu, stating that in his 25 years of journalism, he had acted in full knowledge of the NSS and had not refrained from doing anything. At 17:00, the riots started in Taksim Square, and rippled out during the evening through the old district of Beyoğlu (Pera), with smashing and looting of Greek commercial property, particularly along Yüksek Kaldırım street. By six o'clock at night, many of

19240-632: The use of Greek language and Greek names by the country's Greek minority in an attempt of forced assimilation. Anti-Greek sentiment dominated the thinking of Enver Hoxha , the communist leader of Albania, during the Greek Civil War . These practices continued, at the very least, until Hoxha's death in 1985. In post-Communist Albania, "there are no significant explicitly racist or chauvinist political parties", although, according to James Pettifer , "there are many individual politicians who adhere to very strong anti-Greek views, which in turn affects

19388-610: The weeks leading up to the riots, increasing the number of branches from three in August to ten by the time the attacks took place. On September 4, Hikmet Bil ordered students at Taksim Square , the heart of the city, to burn Greek newspapers. The same day, Kamil Önal of the CTA ;– and the National Security Service ;– handed out to students twenty thousands banners emblazoned "Cyprus

19536-612: The whole empire and the newly conquered territories. Phanar was repopulated with Greeks from Mouchlion in the Peloponnese and, after 1461 , with citizens of the Empire of Trebizond . The roots of Greek ascendancy can be traced to the Ottoman need for skilled, educated negotiators as their empire declined and they relied on treaties rather than force. During the 17th century, the Ottomans began having problems in foreign relations and difficulty dictating terms to their neighbours; for

19684-572: The workers of Cyprus to stand against imperialism. To bolster the claims, the indictment claimed that NSS agent Kamil Önal had contacted the Comintern while on duty in Lebanon and defected, effectively exonerating the NSS. Anti-Greek sentiment In the mid– Republican period Rome phil-Hellenic and anti-Hellenic Roman intellectuals were involved in a conflict over Greek influence. One author explains, "the relationship of Romans to Greek culture

19832-779: Was a result of the Greek intervention in the Black Sea region in the Russian Civil War against the Bolsheviks. Tens of thousands of Greeks were deported to the remote parts of the Soviet Union during World War II in the Greek Operation of NKVD . Anti-Greek sentiment is "deeply rooted" in the Turkish public. A 2011 survey in Turkey revealed that 67% of respondents had unfavorable views toward Greeks, though only 6% said they saw Greece as their main enemy in

19980-590: Was a staple of the Counter-Guerrilla . When opposition leader İsmet İnönü delivered a speech criticizing the government for rounding up innocent people instead of the actual perpetrators, the communists were released in December 1955. An angry Menderes said that İnönü would not be forgiven for his speech, pardoning the communists. 87 CTA leaders were released in December 1955, while 17 were taken to court on 12 February 1956. The indictment initially blamed

20128-458: Was also a priest. The material damage was considerable, with damage to 5317 properties, almost all Greek-owned. Among these were 4214 homes, 1004 businesses, 73 churches, 26 schools, two monasteries, and a synagogue. Over 4,000 Greek-owned businesses, over 1,000 Greek-owned homes, 110 hotels, 73 Greek (and other Christian) churches, 27 pharmacies, 23 schools, and 21 factories were badly damaged or destroyed. The American consulate estimates that 59% of

20276-783: Was another major anti-Hellenic figure. Following the East–West Schism of 1054, anti-Greek sentiment became widespread in the Latin West (dominated by the Catholic Church ). It reached its climax during the Fourth Crusade and the 1204 sack of Constantinople , the Byzantine capital, and the establishment of the Latin Empire . In East Sicily and Malta , Christian Greeks were persecuted by Arabs during

20424-413: Was appropriating their properties by force, our Rum Turkish citizens lived as free as we do, sometimes even more comfortably. We think that these Rums, who choose to remain silent in our struggle with Greece, are clever enough not to fall into the trap of four or five provocateurs. Tercüman , Yeni Sabah , and Gece Postası followed suit. The "Cyprus is Turkish" Association (CTA) stepped up activities in

20572-415: Was first charged with executing the attack, but he presented an alibi so the charge was dropped to incitement. He was detained for nine months. Three months later, he escaped to Turkey before the Greek courts sentenced him to 3.5 years. In addition, Turkey refused Greece's extradition request. After the events, 3,151 people were immediately arrested, the number of arrested later rose to 5,104. On 7 September,

20720-508: Was frequently ambiguous: they admired it as superior and adopted its criteria, while they remained skeptical of some aspects; hence they adapted it selectively according to their own purposes." An anti-Hellenic movement emerged in reaction to the primacy of Greek led by the conservative and reactionary statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BCE), who was the first to write a Roman history in Latin, and

20868-518: Was in his second year, he was accused of incitement in the bombing incident. Engin said that he had been followed by Greek intelligence agents so closely from the start of his university education, that he could name one ("Triondafilos"). In his 2005 book, Speros Vryonis documents the direct role of the Demokrat Parti organization and government-controlled trade unions in amassing the rioters that swept Istanbul. Ten of Istanbul's 18 branches of

21016-409: Was mostly rejected." In 2012 Pew Research Center found, "Among the major European countries, Greece is clearly the least popular. And its reputation is slipping. In no country, other than Greece itself, is there a majority with a favorable view of Greece." Only 27% of respondents in Germany viewed Greece favorably. Hostile and unfavorable views towards Greece and Greeks were especially pronounced in

21164-457: Was never paid. They were accompanied by Eskişehir police, who were charged with coordinating the destruction and looting once the contingent was broken up into groups of 20–30 men, and the leaders of the party branches. While the DP took the blame for the events, it was revealed in 2005 that the riots were in actuality a product of the Turkey's Tactical Mobilization Group ; a clandestine special forces unit. Four star general Sabri Yirmibeşoğlu ,

21312-594: Was politically convenient for the Menderes government, which was suffering from an ailing economy. Although a minority, the Greek population played a prominent role in the city's business life, making it a convenient scapegoat during the economic crisis in the mid-50s which saw Turkey's economy contract (with an 11% GDP/capita decrease in 1954). The DP responded first with inflationary policies, then when that failed, with authoritarianism and populism . DP's policies also introduced rural-urban mobility, which exposed some of

21460-487: Was prominent for his anti-Hellenic views. He saw Hellenism as a threat to Roman culture, but did not find wide support, especially in the upper class. However, Erich S. Gruen argued that Cato's "anti-Greek 'pronouncements' reflect deliberate posturing and do not represent 'the core of Catonian thought'." The prominent philosopher and politician Cicero (106–43 BCE) was "highly ambivalent" about Greeks, and practiced "anti-Greek slur". The first-second century poet Juvenal

21608-530: Was the casus belli for the 1806–1812 conflict, and Russian general Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich swiftly reinstated Ypsilantis during his military expedition to Wallachia. Such gestures began a period of effective Russian supervision, culminating with the Organic Statute administration of the 1830s. The Danubian principalities grew in strategic importance with the Napoleonic Wars and

21756-465: Was the first official Phanariot in his second reign in Moldavia and replaced Ștefan Cantacuzino in Wallachia as the first Phanariot ruler of that country. A crucial moment was the Russo−Turkish War of 1710−1713, when Dimitrie Cantemir sided with Russia and agreed to Russian tutelage of his country. After Russia experienced a major defeat and Cantemir went into exile, the Ottomans took charge of

21904-595: Was when the gradual erosion of traditional institutions reached its zenith, but characteristics ascribed to the Phanariot era had made themselves felt long before it. The Ottomans enforced their choice of hospodars as far back as the 15th century, and foreign (usually Greek or Levantine ) boyars competed with local ones since the late 16th century. Rulers since Dumitraşcu Cantacuzino in Moldavia and George Ducas (a prince of Greek origin) in Wallachia, both in 1673, were forced to surrender their family members as hostages in Constantinople. The traditional elective system in

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