Itri is a small city and comune the province of Latina , Lazio , central Italy .
64-707: Itri is an agricultural centre divided in two parts by a small river, the Pontone . It lies in a valley between the Monti Aurunci and the sea, not far from the Gulf of Gaeta . The more ancient part, with the Castle, was partly destroyed during World War II . The Itrani speak a particular variant of the Neapolitan language called Itrano . The first direct documentary record of Itri dates to 914, but settlements in
128-594: A monk at Ephesus . On 25 March, abandoning his allegiance to Anastasius, Konon was crowned by Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople as Emperor Leo III at the Hagia Sophia . The new emperor was immediately forced to attend to the second Arab siege of Constantinople , which commenced in August of the same year. The Arabs were Umayyad forces sent by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik and serving under his brother Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik . They had taken advantage of
192-711: A civil war within the Umayyad Caliphate, that the regularity of attacks were temporarily interrupted. Leo secured the Empire's frontiers by inviting Slavic settlers into the depopulated districts and by restoring the army to efficiency. His military efforts were supplemented by his alliances with the Khazars and the Georgians . However, the Lombards exploited the Empire's difficulties beginning in 717, when
256-667: A line through Fondi , Lenola , Pico , S. Giovanni and Incarico. Altitudes vary from hills to the 1,533 m of Monte Petrella . Main peaks include the Redentore (1,252 m) and Monte Sant'Angelo (1,402 m). They include a regional park, the Parco Naturale dei Monti Aurunci , created in 1997. The mountains take the name from the ancient tribe of the Aurunci , an offshoot of the Ausoni . Both tribes were derived from
320-580: A native language, and was described by Theophanes the Confessor as "the Saracen -minded," although there is very little evidence that he was directly influenced by Islam . After the victory of Justinian II , Konon was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to Alania and Lazica to organize an alliance against the Umayyad caliphate under al-Walid I . According to the chronicle written by Theophanes
384-658: A number of important battles. Perhaps the most famous occurred in 1503 when Consalvo of Cordova defeated the French army under the command of the Duke of Nemours , an action known as the Battle of the Garigliano . During World War II , Allied bombing destroyed 75 percent of the city edifices. The Madonna della Civita is the patron saint of the town; her feast is celebrated on July 21. Popular tradition narrates that
448-731: A pro-imperial duke and blinding another, while in Naples, iconoclasm was broadly well-received. A conflict between pro- and anti-imperial factions in the Exarchate of Ravenna led to the death of Exarch Paul. The struggle was accompanied by an armed outbreak in the Exarchate in 727, which Leo endeavoured to subdue by means of a large fleet. The new Exarch, Eutychius , disembarked in Naples but could not enter Rome and assert his authority. This led to an unexpected alliance between Liutprand and Eutychius against Gregory, who, however, managed to convince
512-533: A terrifying volcanic eruption at Thira in 726 was interpreted by Leo as a manifestation of God's wrath. In the Bible , God allows his people to fall to Babylonian captivity because of their idolatry . Thus, Auzépy says, the banning of the veneration of images was fundamentally a rejection of idolatry in order to ensure the survival of the Christian people of the Empire, a decision which was apparently vindicated by
576-511: Is an "icon-breaker"). After an apparently successful attempt to enforce the baptism of all Jews and Montanists in the empire (722), he issued a series of edicts against the veneration of images (726–729). A revolt broke out in Greece under the leadership of Agallianos Kontoskeles , mainly on religious grounds, with a certain Kosmas being declared rival emperor. The imperial fleet quashed
640-559: Is so high that the mountains retain no rainfall; it sinks in to emerge as springs (and used as wells) on the lower flanks. The stream beds are dry except for vernal pools. Most generally, the western-central coastal region of Italy is the front of a subduction zone where the African Plate moving locally from southwest to northeast is carried under the European Plate . There is some counterclockwise rotation of Italy; hence
704-938: The Apennines chain to the Tyrrhenian Sea , where it forms the promontory of Gaeta . It is bounded to the north-west by the Ausoni Mountains , to the north by the Liri river, to the east by the Ausente , to the south-east by the Garigliano and to the south by the Tyrrhenian sea. The line between the Aurunci and the Ausoni has not been clearly established but the Aurunci are considered by convention to be east of
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#1732794358224768-903: The Italic people who were called by the Romans the Volsci ; hence, the Monti Lepini , the Monti Ausoni and the Monti Aurunci are also called the Volsci or Volscian Chain. Coincidentally they are all of the same karst topography and have the same orogeny , which is not quite the same as the Apennines proper. The Monti Aurunci mainly consist of friable limestone , which becomes harder toward Gaeta . The degree of faulting and cracking
832-576: The Miocene , about 7.2 to 5.3 million years ago. It went on to mature in the Pliocene . Also in this time volcanic activity associated with the faults and the weakening of the crust over the subduction created the volcanic zones of Latium and Campania , which intruded into the karst-graben, mainly on the karst side. In the Pleistocene the basins slowly filled with sediment from the weak run-off of
896-553: The Romans . The name Itri derives from the Latin word iter , meaning "route" or "way", appropriate since the city lies where the old Roman Via Appia , built in 312 BC, crosses the Monti Aurunci by way of a narrow pass, the Gola di Sant'Andrea, called by Charles Dickens a "noble mountain pass". An alternative hypothesis on the origin of the town's name suggest it derived from the cult of
960-493: The altar and in the apse , for example) to avoid their receiving the honour due to God alone", confirming this conclusion with the writings of Germanus and John of Damascus which appear to describe a kind of initial or moderate stage of iconoclasm. Leo reformed the silention , a type of restricted council instituted by Justinian I , transforming it into a special assembly in the Great Palace of Constantinople , in which
1024-593: The 1980s at ENEA, CNEN and SIMP (Italian Society of Mineralogy and Petrology) concerning the contamination of the Garigliano and part of the Gulf of Gaeta by radionuclides from the power plant. [15] The articles refer to the "Proceedings of the Italo-French Convention of Radiation Protection - Florence 30 May, 1 June 1983", to the study conducted within ENEA entitled: "Influence of Geomorphological Factors on
1088-551: The Arabs were forced to abandon the siege in August 718. Sulayman had died the previous year, and his successor Umar II never made a second attempt to capture the city. The siege had lasted 12 months. Having thus saved the Empire from extinction, Leo proceeded to consolidate its administration, which in the previous years of anarchy had become completely disorganized. In 718 he suppressed a rebellion in Sicily . The following year saw
1152-628: The Confessor , Justinian wanted to get rid of Konon and took back the money that had been given to him to help advance Byzantine interests, thus leaving Konon stranded in Alania. The chronicle describes the mission as successful and Konon returning eventually to Justinian after crossing the Caucasus mountains in May with snowshoes and taking the fortress of Sideron, associated with the Tsebelda fortress , on
1216-645: The Eastern God Mithra , as there is a large subterranean temple dedicated to him a few hundred meters south of the town. Still another suggestion is that it derives from the Greek for snake "hydra", pronounced in some dialects as "itra". In Roman times Itri would have been no more than a post station, a role it continued in until well into the nineteenth century; in Bourbon times Itri was the 12th of 18 posting stations going south from Rome to Naples . In
1280-700: The Isaurian ( Greek : Λέων ὁ Ἴσαυρος , romanized : Leōn ho Isauros ; c. 685 – 18 June 741), also known as the Syrian , was the first Byzantine emperor of the Isaurian dynasty from 717 until his death in 741. He put an end to the Twenty Years' Anarchy , a period of great instability in the Byzantine Empire between 695 and 717, marked by the rapid succession of several emperors to
1344-697: The King, appealing to his piety, to return north and the Exarch to put down a revolt in Etruria led by the usurper Tiberius Petasius . In response to the promulgation of stronger iconoclastic decrees in 730, Gregory II and Gregory III summoned councils in Rome to anathematize and excommunicate the iconoclasts (730, 732). Leo retaliated by making the aforementioned transferals in Southern Italy and Illyricum from
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#17327943582241408-565: The Middle Ages the population grew, and three lines of walls were built to protect the people living around the castle. Itri was part of the duchy of Gaeta and was a possession of the Dell'Aquila family, dukes of Fondi . In modern times Itri was part of the Kingdom of Naples . Due to its location on the Gola di Sant'Andrea, Itri has historically been the scene of much military activity and
1472-669: The Roman legal tradition, and bear the influence of canon law . The new measures, which were embodied in a new code called the Ecloga ( Selection ), published in 741, met with some opposition on the part of the nobles and higher clergy. The Ecloga were a revision and abridgement of the sixth-century Code of Justinian . Leo's prologue to the Ecloga sets out his conception of law as requiring ethical significance founded upon God's will and divinely-sanctioned imperial authority. The authors of
1536-482: The abatement of the Arab and Bulgar threat during Leo's reign. Some scholars, such as Leslie Brubaker and John Haldon, doubt whether there was any active imperial involvement in iconoclasm at all, proposing instead that Leo made a qualified critique of the use of images in public spaces, likely leading to the adoption of a somewhat iconoclastic attitude among the clergy in the late 730s or early 740s. The notion that there
1600-405: The alleged aniconism of the eastern part of the Empire, Leo's place of origin, motivated his policies. The phrase "I am emperor and priest" attributed to Leo by later iconodule polemicists represents the characteristically Isaurian imperial ascendancy over the church, which was rejected in the mid-9th century after Patriarch Methodios I of Constantinople purged the clergy of iconoclasts, asserting
1664-564: The area's rodents to contamination from the power plant; maybe they are attributable to a naturally high radiational level caused by the volcanic intrusions in the rock. The lower Garigliano remains sparsely populated. Transparency table In 2011, the Transparency Table for the disposal of the Garigliano nuclear power plant was established in the Campania Region, with the resolution of G.R. n. 163 of 29/4/2011, integrated by
1728-573: The authority of Rome to Constantinople. The Isaurians in general saw the church and its patriarchs as subordinate to the imperial will. The 740 Constantinople earthquake damaged the Walls of Constantinople , the restoration of which Leo paid for out of the imperial treasury, raising the City taxes by 8 ⁄ 3 per cent in order to do so, as was recorded on the land walls near the Sea of Marmara . The Empire of
1792-442: The autonomy of the church against the iconoclast emperor, Theophilos ( r. 829–842 ). Others have discussed the mutual influence of Muslim and Byzantine iconoclasm, noting that Caliph Yazid II had issued an iconoclastic edict, also targeting his Christian subjects, already in 721. According to historian Marie-France Auzépy, these explanations are insufficient. She appeals to an explanation by Byzantine chroniclers, that
1856-466: The church of Rome of the patrimony of St Peter in the theme, reallocating tax income that originally went to the church of Rome to the imperial administration (a large annual sum of 350 pounds of gold). However in 743, Constantine V compensated Pope Zachary for this loss by granting him the estates of Ninfa and Norma to the south of Rome. Between 732 and 754, the bishops of Illyricum, Crete , Sicily, Calabria and Naples (until 769) were transferred from
1920-421: The church, which was rejected in the mid-9th century after Patriarch Methodios I of Constantinople purged the clergy of iconoclasts, asserting the autonomy of the church against the iconoclast emperor, Theophilos ( r. 829–842 ). The few primary sources of the eighth and ninth centuries were mostly written by clerical or monastic iconodules who were hostile to Leo and Constantine V. They tended to view
1984-482: The city of Dalisandus was captured, followed by the fortresses of Kamachon and Ikonion in 723/724 and several frontier fortresses in 725. Caesarea (Cappadocia) was captured in 727, then Gangra in 728. The Byzantine counter-raids were generally of little strategic impact, although crucially a major invading force was destroyed in the Battle of Akroinon of 740. It was only during the Third Fitna of 744–747,
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2048-585: The civil discord in the Byzantine Empire to bring a force of 80,000 to 150,000 men and a massive fleet to the Bosphorus , intending to seize the Byzantine capital and destroy the Empire with a single overwhelming attack. Careful preparations, begun three years earlier under Anastasius II, and the stubborn resistance put up by Leo wore out the invaders. An important factor in the victory of the Byzantines
2112-401: The clergy was divided on the issue of iconoclasm, however there was no evidence of widespread support for the iconoclastic policies or of systematic removal of images under Leo. Brubaker and Haldon attribute a more moderate iconoclasm to Leo, "It is quite possible that Leo did attempt to restrict the public display of certain types of image and to remove them from certain places in churches (near
2176-437: The deposed Emperor Anastasius II raise an army and attempt to retake the throne, but he was captured and executed by Leo's government. The rebellion was the only serious threat to Leo's usurpation. Umayyad attacks under Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik continued in the form of yearly raids in eastern and central Asia Minor (see hatched area in figure), which affected communications, commerce and agricultural production. In 721,
2240-452: The dismantling of Italian nuclear plants and for the management and safety of radioactive waste) which is owner since 1999: by 2028 it is expected that the 268,150 tons of waste and 5,739 tons of radioactive waste will be adequately treated, for a total cost of 383 million euros. The "skeleton" of the structure, however, will remain standing as the "architectural heritage of our country". Leo III, Byzantine Emperor Leo III
2304-640: The distribution of Radionuclides - An example: from M. Circeo to Volturno "(by A. Brondi, O. Ferretti, C. Papucci) and to the" Report no.38 of the Italian Society of Mineralogy and Petrology "[16], which in turn refers to the results of the environmental research conducted at the end of the 1970s from CNEN.The plant, thanks to the EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) obtained in 2009, has started decommissioning with Sogin (the Italian state company responsible for
2368-508: The duke of Benevento captured Cumae , the duke of Spoleto captured Narni and Liutprand, King of the Lombards , occupied Classe in the Exarchate of Ravenna . Although Narni was never regained, Gregory II recovered Cumae and Liutprand withdrew from Classe. In 724 or 725, Leo increased taxes in Italy which Gregory opposed. This led to two plots to assassinate Gregory, the second of which
2432-466: The dynastic order of succession . In 721, Leo introduced the miliarēsion , a silver coin worth one-twelfth of a nomisma . The gold coins of Leo IV the Khazar show posthumous portraits of Leo III. In response to the catastrophic Twenty Years' Anarchy , Leo, and his son Constantine V in emulation, fundamentally changed the formula of imperial survival as established by Justinian I. The military
2496-507: The eighth century was characterized by ruralization and depopulation, which along with the Arab invasions motivated Leo to undertake intense centralization and militarization, particularly involving the many fortresses and walls in towns such as Nicaea and Padyandus . Leo III died of dropsy on 18 June 741 and was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles . Leo's most striking legislative reforms dealt with religious matters, especially iconoclasm ("icon-breaking," therefore an iconoclast
2560-443: The emperor would announce a solemn decision. Leo undertook a set of civil reforms including the abolition of the system of prepaying taxes which had weighed heavily upon the wealthier proprietors, the elevation of the serfs into a class of free tenants and the remodelling of family law , maritime law and criminal law , notably substituting mutilation for the death penalty in many cases. These punishments were contrary to
2624-444: The faults in the Tyrrhenian Sea slip both parallel to the shoreline and perpendicular to it. The surface rock in the Anti-Apennines was deposited on the floor of Tethys Sea during the Jurassic and Cretaceous of the Mesozoic . This lighter calcareous rock rides over the front of the subduction zone, uplifted by compressional and isostatic forces. Just behind it is a zone of crustal thinning caused by extensional forces; i.e.,
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2688-501: The legal codes of Basil I ( r. 867–886 ) and Leo VI the Wise ( r. 886–912 ) of the Macedonian dynasty formally rejected the Ecloga . Leo and his successor Constantine V transformed the Byzantine orphanotrophos into a magistrate . Prior to these legislative reforms, Byzantine law required that all orphans are passed into the Byzantine orphanage or to a monastery . The coins minted during Leo's reign exclusively depicted male imperial dynasts, promoting
2752-492: The mountains, accelerating with the deforestation of modern times. Of the Amphibians , Urodela are found at around 557 m (1,827 ft) and Anura at around 314 m (1,030 ft) in vernal pools, springs and wells. The salamanders are Salamandrina perspicillata , Triturus carnifex , Lissotriton italicus and Lissotriton vulgaris ; the frogs are Bufo bufo , Bufo viridis , Hyla intermedia and Rana italica . The Garigliano Nuclear Power Plant
2816-437: The neighbourhood existed from prehistoric times, as proved by findings from the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages . According to legend, Itri's origins appear to coincide with the destruction of Amyclae , a maritime city founded by the twin sons of Zeus , Castor and Pollux , whose Spartan followers clashed with Aeneas . The Greek colony was most likely on the coast at about 20 kilometres (12 mi) north of Fondi . Amyclae
2880-424: The pamphlet attributes to Leo the saying, "I am emperor and priest." In the Italian Peninsula , the defiant attitude of Popes Gregory II and later Gregory III on behalf of image-veneration led to a fierce quarrel with the Emperor, with the Liber Pontificalis stating that Gregory II "took up arms against the emperor as if against an enemy." In Rome, the population was more sympathetic to iconodulia, killing
2944-412: The papal diocese to that of the Patriarch of Constantinople . Scholars offer various explanations for the ban on venerating icons c. 730 . On the basis of Patriarch Germanus' letters read at the 787 Second Council of Nicaea , which state that that the bishops Constantine of Nakoleia and Thomas of Claudiopolis had forbidden the veneration of icons even before 730, some scholars argue that
3008-488: The period as dominated by ecclesiastical matters and in particular the imperial persecution of iconodules, despite the Empire's contemporaneous existential struggle against its enemies. Modern assessment of the reign of Leo as well as that of his son is that it was a period of violence which saw the Empire's rescue from destruction, within a context of extensive domestic policy reform. Leo's successful ruse against Caliph Sulayman and his general Maslama, which secured his place on
3072-408: The personality of Leo, can be attributed to the entire Isaurian dynasty, which was unwaveringly iconoclastic, Irene of Athens excepted. Succeeding generations of the Byzantine ruling class regarded the Isaurian period as one of religious persecution. The phrase "I am emperor and priest" attributed to Leo by later iconodule polemicists represents the characteristically Isaurian imperial ascendancy over
3136-401: The plant. Subsequent flooding carried the waste downstream into the Gulf of Gaeta. The effect on the ecology was toxic. One study reports: In fact the genetic damage observed in studies performed with the micronucleus test applied on wild rodents from the Piana del Garigliano resulted among the highest recorded in Italy. Additional studies were unable to tie anomalies of the skull and teeth in
3200-413: The resolution of G.R. n. 428/2011. With the decree of the President of the Giunta n. 253 of 11/11/2011, the members of the Table were appointed, as identified by the bodies to which they belong, and the Regulations for its functioning were approved [14]. Disputes over possible radioactive leaks In April 2014, some articles appeared on the net referring to the results of studies conducted at the beginning of
3264-427: The sacred painting representing the image of the Madonna was found in the 8th century by a deaf and mute shepherd, who was looking for a missing cow on Mount Civita. Upon discovering the painting, the mute shepherd fell to his knees, prayed, and miraculously was able to hear and speak for the first time in his life. He went back to the town to share his discovery with the Itrani, who were shocked and amazed to witness that
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#17327943582243328-414: The shepherd could now hear and speak. The origin of the painting appears to be dated back to the 8th century, when the Byzantine Emperor Leo III ordered religious persecutions and banned the cult of sacred images. Monti Aurunci The Monti Aurunci (or Aurunci Mountains ) is a mountain range of southern Lazio , in central Italy. It is part of the Antiappennini , a group running from
3392-414: The subduction and the rotation cause a wave of compression with a peak under the Anti-Apennines and a valley in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The result is a karst-graben or half-graben landform with the Volscian Mountains as karst and the coastal chain of Pontine marshes , South Pontine marsh, Terracina Basin, Gaeta Basin and Volturno Basin as graben. This landform began to appear in the Messinian stage of
3456-431: The throne, along with ending the continual defeats and territorial losses the Byzantines had suffered during the 7th century. He also successfully defended the Empire against the invading Umayyads and forbade the veneration of icons . Leo III was born in Germanikeia , Commagene , which is in modern Kahramanmaraş in Turkey . His original name was Konon ( Greek : Κόνων ). Leo III was fluent in Arabic, possibly as
3520-442: The throne, and then his successful defense of the Empire during the siege of Constantinople, earned him a reputation as a wily and formidable commander against colossal odds. His personal knowledge of the geography of the foothills of the Taurus Mountains helped in the countering of Arab incursions mainly in the latter part of his reign, as was especially signified in the Battle of Akroinon—a crucial victory for Leo which had changed
3584-418: The uprising in 727 by way of Greek fire . In 730, Patriarch Germanus opted to resign rather than subscribe to iconoclasm; Leo replaced him with Anastasius , who willingly sided with the Emperor on the question of icons. Patriarch John V of Jerusalem along with John of Damascus fiercely opposed imperial iconoclasm, issuing a pamphlet entitled Adversus Constantinum Caballinum . A later polemical version of
3648-549: The way. Konon was appointed commander ( stratēgos ) of the Anatolic Theme by Emperor Anastasius II . On his deposition, Konon joined with his colleague Artabasdos , the stratēgos of the Armeniac Theme , in conspiring to overthrow the new Emperor Theodosius III , ostensibly in support of Anastasius. Artabasdos was betrothed to Konon's daughter Anna . In 717, Konon marched on Constantinople, capturing Theodosius' son at Nicomedia . He forced Theodosius to abdicate, promising safety for him and his family. Theodosius then became
3712-449: Was closely associated with the regime in order to stifle the possibility of usurpation. Imperial power was also strengthened by the introduction of low-denomination silver coins, allowing greater flexibility in raising taxes. This autocratic renewal of imperial authority was motivated by justice and spiritual welfare, leading to the denunciation and eventual destruction of images deemed to be "idolatrous". These aspects, which all originate in
3776-408: Was constructed from 1959 to 1963 by General Electric on the Garigliano River, the water of which they used for cooling, on the border of the Monti Aurunci. It was intended to provide electrical power to the region. After several accidental releases of radioactive gas and water the plant ceased operation in 1978 but continued to be used as a storage facility for radioactive waste, which was stored under
3840-450: Was founded between Lake Fondi and the Terracina coast, on the edge of the murky waters of the swamps present at the time. The quiet Amyclaeans were plagued by the cursed and numerous evil forces of the swamp, unstoppable beings such as the monstrous serpent with nine heads, the Lernaean Hydra , which attacked with poisonous venom, and whose heads would re-grow as quickly as Hercules could slice them off with his sword. The city of Amyclae
3904-462: Was mass imperial persecution and destruction of images is dismissed as a later "iconophile myth". Brubaker and Haldon support this hypothesis by pointing to the absence of any reports of iconoclasm in several contemporary accounts, including those of Willibald , who travelled to Nicaea from 727 to 729, Germanus and even John of Damascus . The Venerable Bede does refer to a critique of images in Constantinople, and Germanus and John of Damascus say that
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#17327943582243968-417: Was soon annihilated. The few survivors abandoned the city and relocated a few kilometers south to the area now known as Itri. These first inhabitants of Itri supposedly adopted the emblems of the "Signum Salutis", a serpent, as their symbol of power, and "Amycleus", the dog's head, as their symbol of fidelity. More likely, Itri was probably a town or outpost of the Aurunci , later conquered and assimilated by
4032-423: Was supported by Exarch Paul , but both were foiled by the Romans with the help of the Lombards of Benevento and Spoleto. Leo effected many political and ecclesiastical restructurings in order to bolster the authority of the Empire and the Patriarch of Constantinople . Since the end of the seventh century, imperial stratēgoi were sent to the theme of Sicily (which included Calabria ), and in 732–733 Leo deprived
4096-444: Was their use of Greek fire . The Arab forces also fell victim to Bulgarian reinforcements arriving to aid the Byzantines. Leo was allied with the Bulgarians but the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor was uncertain if they were still serving under Tervel of Bulgaria or his eventual successor Kormesiy of Bulgaria . Faced with the Bulgarian onslaught, the impenetrability of Constantinople's walls, and their own exhausted provisions,
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