Paul the Deacon ( c. 720s – 13 April in 796, 797, 798, or 799 AD), also known as Paulus Diaconus , Warnefridus , Barnefridus , or Winfridus , and sometimes suffixed Cassinensis ( i.e. "of Monte Cassino "), was a Benedictine monk , scribe , and historian of the Lombards .
119-794: The Lombards ( / ˈ l ɒ m b ər d z , - b ɑːr d z , ˈ l ʌ m -/ ) or Longobards ( Latin : Longobardi ) were a Germanic people who conquered most of the Italian Peninsula between 568 and 774. The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the History of the Lombards (written between 787 and 796) that the Lombards descended from a small tribe called the Winnili, who dwelt in northern Germany before migrating to seek new lands. Earlier Roman-era historians wrote of
238-589: A betrayal, Thurisind made an alliance with the Kutrigurs who devastated Moesia before end of the armistice. The Langobard and Roman army joined together and defeated the Gepids in 551. In the battle, Audoin 's son, Alboin killed Thurisind 's son, Turismod . In 552, the Byzantines, aided by a large contingent of Foederati , notably Lombards, Heruls and Bulgars, defeated the last Ostrogoths led by Teia in
357-502: A champion of freedom. In 47, a struggle ensued amongst the Cherusci and they expelled their new leader, the nephew of Arminius, from their country. The Lombards appeared on the scene with sufficient power to control the destiny of the tribe that had been the leader in the struggle for independence thirty-eight years earlier, for they restored the deposed leader to sovereignty. To the south, in 166 Cassius Dio reported that just before
476-653: A cult of Odin, thus creating a conscious tribal tradition. Fröhlich inverts the order of events in Priester and states that with the Odin cult, the Lombards grew their beards in resemblance of the Odin of tradition and their new name reflected this. Bruckner remarks that the name of the Lombards stands in close relation to the worship of Odin, whose many names include "the Long-bearded" or "the Grey-bearded", and that
595-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After
714-743: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before
833-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in
952-560: A native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until
1071-546: A policy of internal reconciliation and tried to reorganize royal administration. The dukes yielded half their estates for the maintenance of the king and his court in Pavia. On the foreign affairs side, Authari managed to thwart the dangerous alliance between the Byzantines and the Franks. Authari died in 591 and was succeeded by Agilulf , the duke of Turin , who also married Theodelinda in the same year. Agilulf successfully fought
1190-649: A port in the northern languages ; consequently, Skiæren-Heal is the port of the Skiæren, a name well adapted to the port of Stockholm , in the Upplandske Skiæren, and the country may be justly called Scorung or Skiærunga. The legendary king Sceafa of Scandza was an ancient Lombardic king in Anglo-Saxon legend . The Old English poem Widsith , in a listing of famous kings and their countries, has Sceafa [weold] Longbeardum, so naming Sceafa as ruler of
1309-547: A possible migrant from France. Following Alboin's victory over the Gepids, he led his people into northeastern Italy , which had become severely depopulated and devastated after the long Gothic War (535–554) between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom . The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons , Heruls , Gepids, Bulgars , Thuringians and Ostrogoths , and their invasion of Italy
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#17327576547231428-567: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through
1547-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to
1666-709: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross
1785-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be
1904-572: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite
2023-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as
2142-524: A teacher named Flavian. Paul was probably the secretary of the Lombard king Desiderius , a successor of Ratchis. After Desiderius's daughter Adelperga had married Arichis II, duke of Benevento , Paul, at her request, wrote his continuation of Eutropius 's Summary of Roman History ( Latin : Breviarium Historiae Romanae ). He lived at the court of Benevento for at least several years before 774, when Charlemagne captured Pavia, and he may have fled
2261-693: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than
2380-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,
2499-830: Is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to
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#17327576547232618-640: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In
2737-552: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from
2856-561: Is his Historia Langobardorum , an incomplete history in six books that he wrote after 787 but no later than 795–96. It covers the history of the Langobards from their legendary origins in the north (in "Scadinavia") and their subsequent migrations—notably to Italy in 568–69—to the death of King Liutprand in 744. The books contain much information about the Eastern Roman Empire , the Franks, and other peoples. The history
2975-689: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and
3094-1011: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it
3213-783: Is the Historia Langobardorum ( History of the Lombards ) of Paul the Deacon , written in the eighth century. Paul's chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the seventh-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum ( Origin of the Lombard People ). The Origo Gentis Langobardorum tells the story of a small tribe called the Winnili dwelling in Northern Germany/Denmark zone (the Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani writes that
3332-418: Is written from a Lombardian point of view and is especially valuable for its depictions of the relations between the Franks and the Lombards. It begins: The region of the north, in proportion as it is removed from the heat of the sun and is chilled with snow and frost, is so much the more healthful to the bodies of men and fitted for the propagation of nations, just as, on the other hand, every southern region,
3451-543: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In
3570-686: The Angrivarii on the Weser , and south of the Chauci on the coast, probably indicating a Lombard expansion from the Elbe to the Rhine. This double mention has been interpreted as an editorial error by Gudmund Schütte, in his analysis of Ptolemy. However, the Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani also mentions Patespruna ( Paderborn ) in connection with the Lombards. From the second century onwards, many of
3689-580: The Avars and then to the Franks. Grimoald managed to regain control over the duchies and deflected the late attempt of the Byzantine emperor Constans II to conquer southern Italy. He also defeated the Franks. At Grimoald's death in 671 Perctarit returned and promoted tolerance between Arians and Catholics, but he could not defeat the Arian party, led by Arachi, duke of Trento , who submitted only to his son,
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3808-571: The Battle of Taginae . In approximately 560, Audoin was succeeded by his son Alboin , a young and energetic leader who defeated the neighboring Gepidae and made them his subjects; in 566, he married Rosamund , daughter of the Gepid king Cunimund . In the same year, he made a pact with Khagan Bayan . Next year the Lombards and the Avars destroyed the Gepid kingdom in the Lombard–Gepid War ,
3927-523: The Early Christian Church . Gradually, they adopted Roman or Romanized titles, names, and traditions, and partially converted to orthodoxy (in the seventh century), though not without a long series of religious and ethnic conflicts. By the time Paul the Deacon was writing, the Lombard language, dress and even hairstyles had nearly all disappeared in toto . The whole Lombard territory was divided into 36 duchies, whose leaders settled in
4046-760: The Frankish king Charlemagne and integrated into the Frankish Empire . However, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula well into the eleventh century, when they were conquered by the Normans and added to the County of Sicily . In this period, the southern part of Italy still under Lombard domination was known to the Norse as Langbarðaland ('land of the Lombards'), as inscribed in
4165-514: The Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian . He thought the pagan stories of his people "silly" and "laughable". Paul explained that the name "Langobard" came from the length of their beards. A modern theory suggests that the name "Langobard" comes from Langbarðr , a name of Odin . Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to "Lombards", they also changed their old agricultural fertility cult to
4284-513: The Historia Langobardorum in the Monumenta ; poems and epitaphs edited by Ernst Dümmler were published in the Poetae latini aevi carolini , Band i. (Berlin, 1881). Fresher material having come to light, a newer edition of the poems ( Die Gedichte des Paulus Diaconus ) was edited by Karl Neff (Munich, 1908). Neff denied, however, that Paul had written the most famous poem in the collection,
4403-583: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are
4522-634: The Lower Elbe as Langobardic . The burial sites are crematorial and are usually dated from the sixth century BC through the third century AD, so a settlement breakoff seems unlikely. The lands of the lower Elbe fall into the zone of the Jastorf Culture and became Elbe-Germanic , differing from the lands between Rhine , Weser , and the North Sea . Archaeological finds show that the Lombards were an agricultural people. Tacitus also counted
4641-576: The Marcomannic Wars , 6,000 Lombards and Obii (sometimes thought to be Ubii ) crossed the Danube and invaded Pannonia . The two tribes were defeated, whereupon they ceased their invasion and sent Ballomar, King of the Marcomanni, as ambassador to Aelius Bassus , who was then administering Pannonia. Peace was made and the two tribes returned to their homes, which in the case of the Lombards
4760-574: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by
4879-576: The Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to
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4998-400: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it
5117-577: The Scriptures , from ecclesiastical historians, and from other sources with the writings of Eutropius. The six books he ultimately added thus carried Lombardian history down to 553. This work, which was very popular during the Middle Ages, has value for its early historical presentation of the end of the Roman Empire in Western Europe . It was edited by Hans Droysen and published in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Auctores antiquissimi series, Band ii. (1879) as well as by A. Crivellucci, in Fonti per la storia d' Italia , N° 51 (1914). At
5236-510: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which
5355-451: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto
5474-408: The Deacon An ancestor of Paulus's named Leupichis emigrated to Italy in 568 in the train of Alboin , King of the Lombards. There, he was granted lands at or near Forum Julii ( Cividale del Friuli ). During an invasion by the Avars , Leupichis's five sons were carried away to Pannonia , but one of them, his namesake, returned to Italy and restored the ruined fortunes of his house. The grandson of
5593-431: The Dukes ") during which the dukes did not elect any king, a period regarded as a time of violence and disorder. In 586, threatened by a Frankish invasion, the dukes elected Cleph's son, Authari , as king. In 589, he married Theodelinda , daughter of Garibald I of Bavaria , the Duke of Bavaria . The Catholic Theodelinda was a friend of Pope Gregory I and pushed for Christianization. In the meantime, Authari embarked on
5712-486: The English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As
5831-405: The Gepid leader Thurisind in 551 or 552, and Audoin's successor Alboin eventually destroyed the Gepids in 567. The Lombards also settled in Pannonia (modern-day Hungary). Near Szólád , archaeologists have unearthed burial sites of Lombard men and women buried together as families, unusual among Germanic peoples at the time. Contemporary traces have also been discovered of Mediterranean Greeks and
5950-406: The Germanic tribes recorded as active during the Principate started to unite into bigger tribal unions, such as the Franks , Alamanni , Bavarii , and Saxons . The Lombards are not mentioned at first, perhaps because they were not initially on the border of Rome, or perhaps because they were subjected to a larger tribal union, like the Saxons. It is, however, highly probable that, when the bulk of
6069-416: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,
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#17327576547236188-456: The Langobards is Paul's Historia Romana ; this is a continuation of Eutropius 's Breviarium , which covers the period 364–553 CE. Paul compiled the Historia Romana at Benevento between 766 and 771. He is said to have advised Adelperga to read Eutropius; she did, but complained that this pagan writer said nothing about ecclesiastical affairs and stopped with the accession of the Emperor Valens in 364. Consequently, Paul interwove extracts from
6307-621: The Lombard given name Ansegranus ("he with the beard of the gods") shows that the Lombards had this idea of their chief deity. The same Old Norse root Barth or Barði, meaning "beard", is shared with the Heaðobards mentioned in both Beowulf and in Widsith , where they conflict with the Danes . They were possibly a branch of the Langobards . Alternatively, some etymological sources suggest an Old High German root, barta, meaning "axe" (and related to English halberd), while Edward Gibbon puts forth an alternative suggestion which argues that: ...Börde (or Börd) still signifies "a fertile plain by
6426-436: The Lombards as a remote and aggressive Suebian tribe, listing them between the Semnones on the Elbe, and the Nerthus -worshipping tribes whose land of rivers and forest stretched to the sea. Writing in the late first century AD, he described the Langobardi in his Germania saying that "their scanty numbers are a distinction" because "surrounded by a host of most powerful tribes, they are safe, not by submitting, but by daring
6545-426: The Lombards in the first century AD as being one of the Suebian peoples, also from what is now northern Germany, near the Elbe river. They migrated south, and by the end of the fifth century, the Lombards had moved into the area roughly coinciding with modern Austria and Slovakia north of the Danube . Here they subdued the Heruls and later fought frequent wars with the Gepids . The Lombard king Audoin defeated
6664-410: The Lombards migrated, a considerable part remained behind and afterwards became absorbed by the Saxon tribes in the Elbe region, while the emigrants alone retained the name of Lombards. However, the Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani states that the Lombards were subjected by the Saxons around 300 but rose up against them under their first king, Agelmund, who ruled for 30 years. In the second half of
6783-422: The Lombards occurred between AD 9 and 16, by the Roman court historian Velleius Paterculus , who accompanied a Roman expedition as prefect of the cavalry. Paterculus says that under Tiberius the "power of the Langobardi was broken, a race surpassing even the Germans in savagery". From the combined testimony of Strabo (AD 20) and Tacitus (AD 117), the Lombards dwelt near the mouth of the Elbe shortly after
6902-468: The Lombards or Winnili lived originally in the Vinuiloth (Vinovilith) mentioned by Jordanes , in his masterpiece Getica , to the north of Uppsala , Sweden. Scoringa was near the province of Uppland , so just north of Östergötland . The footnote then explains the etymology of the name Scoringa: The shores of Uppland and Östergötland are covered with small rocks and rocky islands , which are called in German Schæren and in Swedish Skiaeren. Heal signifies
7021-443: The Lombards, who could retain their own laws. Rothari's son Rodoald succeeded him in 652, still very young, and was killed by his opponents. At the death of King Aripert I in 661, the kingdom was split between his children Perctarit , who set his capital in Milan, and Godepert , who reigned from Pavia ( Ticinum ). Perctarit was overthrown by Grimoald , son of Gisulf, duke of Friuli and Benevento since 647. Perctarit fled to
7140-443: The Lombards. Similarities between Langobardic and Gothic migration traditions have been noted among scholars. These early migration legends suggest that a major shifting of tribes occurred sometime between the first and second century BC, which would coincide with the time that the Teutoni and Cimbri left their homelands in Northern Germany and migrated through central Germany, eventually invading Roman Italy. The first mention of
7259-449: The Norse runestones . Their legacy is also apparent in the name of the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. According to their traditions, the Lombards initially called themselves the Winnili . After a reported major victory against the Vandals in the first century, they changed their name to Lombards . The name Winnili is generally translated as 'the wolves', related to the Proto-Germanic root *wulfaz 'wolf'. The name Lombard
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#17327576547237378-449: The Pope, who was supporting the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento against him, and entered Rome in 772, the first Lombard king to do so. But when Pope Hadrian I called for help from the powerful Frankish king Charlemagne , Desiderius was defeated at Susa and besieged in Pavia , while his son Adelchis was forced to open the gates of Verona to Frankish troops. Desiderius surrendered in 774, and Charlemagne, in an utterly novel decision, took
7497-409: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from
7616-447: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as
7735-407: The Winnili first dwelt near a river called Vindilicus on the extreme boundary of Gaul ). The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left their native land to seek foreign fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation . The departing people were led by Gambara and her sons Ybor and Aio and arrived in the lands of Scoringa , perhaps the Baltic coast or the Bardengau on
7854-560: The allies halved the prize of war and the nomads settled in Transylvania . In the spring of 568, Alboin, now fearing the aggressive Avars, led the Lombard migration into Italy , which he planned for years. According to the History of the Lombards, "Then the Langobards, having left Pannonia , hastened to take possession of Italy with their wives and children and all their goods." The Avars have agreed to shelter them if they wish to come back. Various other peoples who either voluntarily joined or were subjects of King Alboin were also part of
7973-410: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Paul
8092-752: The banks of the Elbe . Scoringa was ruled by the Vandals and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, who granted the Winnili a choice between tribute or war. The Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying "It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute." The Vandals prepared for war and consulted Godan (the god Odin ), who answered that he would give victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise. The Winnili were fewer in number and Gambara sought help from Frea (the goddess Frigg ), who advised that all Winnili women should tie their hair in front of their faces like beards and march in line with their husbands. At sunrise, Frea turned her husband's bed so that he
8211-404: The beginning of the Christian era, next to the Chauci . Strabo states that the Lombards dwelt on both sides of the Elbe. He treats them as a branch of the Suebi , and states that: Now as for the tribe of the Suebi, it is the largest, for it extends from the Rhenus to the Albis; and a part of them even dwells on the far side of the Albis, as, for instance, the Hermondori and the Langobardi; and at
8330-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin
8449-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name
8568-454: The city during that conquest. Eventually he entered a monastery on Lake Como , and before 782 he entered the great Benedictine house of Monte Cassino , where he made the acquaintance of Charlemagne. Around 776, Paul's brother Arichis was carried off to Francia as a prisoner after a revolt in Friuli. When Charlemagne visited Rome five years later, Paul wrote to him on behalf of Arichis, who
8687-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as
8806-465: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for
8925-503: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains
9044-684: The disagreements between the Pope and Byzantium concerning the reverence of icons , he annexed the Exarchate of Ravenna and the duchy of Rome . He also helped the Frankish marshal Charles Martel drive back the Arabs . The Slavs were defeated in the Battle of Lavariano , when they tried to conquer the Friulian Plain in 720. Liutprand's successor Aistulf conquered Ravenna for the Lombards for
9163-589: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin
9282-640: The first Lombard duchy, which he entrusted to his nephew Gisulf . Soon Vicenza , Verona and Brescia fell into Germanic hands. In the summer of 569, the Lombards conquered the main Roman centre of northern Italy , Milan . The area was then recovering from the terrible Gothic Wars , and the small Byzantine army left for its defence could do almost nothing. Longinus, the Exarch sent to Italy by Emperor Justin II , could only defend coastal cities that could be supplied by
9401-552: The first time but had to relinquish it when he was subsequently defeated by the king of the Franks, Pippin III , who was called by the Pope. After the death of Aistulf, Ratchis attempted to become king of Lombardy, but he was deposed by Desiderius , duke of Tuscany , the last Lombard to rule as king. Desiderius managed to take Ravenna definitively, ending the Byzantine presence in northern Italy. He decided to reopen struggles against
9520-481: The fourth century, the Lombards left their homes, probably due to bad harvests, and embarked on their migration. The migration route of the Lombards in 489, from their homeland to " Rugiland ", encompassed several places: Scoringa (believed to be their land on the Elbe shores), Mauringa , Golanda , Anthaib , Banthaib , and Vurgundaib ( Burgundaib ). According to the Ravenna Cosmography , Mauringa
9639-520: The hymn to St. John the Baptist Ut queant laxis , which Guido of Arezzo set to a melody that had previously been used for Horace 's Ode 4.11 . From the initial syllables of the first verses of the resultant setting, Guido then took the names of the first notes of the musical scale. Paul also wrote an epitome , which has survived, of Sextus Pompeius Festus 's De verborum significatu , which he dedicated to Charlemagne. While Paul
9758-475: The increasing power of the Franks. In response, the kings tried to centralize power over time, but they definitively lost control over Spoleto and Benevento in the attempt. In 572, Alboin was murdered in Verona in a plot led by his wife, Rosamund, who later fled to Ravenna . His successor, Cleph , was also assassinated, after a ruthless reign of 18 months. His death began an interregnum of years (the " Rule of
9877-703: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How
9996-619: The land to the west of the Soča River, namely the Gorizia Hills and the Venetian Slovenia . A new ethnic border was established that has lasted for over 1200 years up until the present time. The Lombard reign began to recover only with Liutprand the Lombard (king from 712), son of Ansprand and successor of the brutal Aripert II . He managed to regain a certain control over Spoleto and Benevento, and, taking advantage of
10115-704: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of
10234-440: The large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as
10353-467: The late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and
10472-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became
10591-421: The less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language" , Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in
10710-413: The main cities. The king ruled over them and administered the land through emissaries called gastaldi . This subdivision, however, together with the independent indocility of the duchies, deprived the kingdom of unity, making it weak even when compared to the Byzantines, especially since these had begun to recover from the initial invasion. This weakness became even more evident when the Lombards had to face
10829-435: The migration. Whence, even until today, we call the villages in which they dwell Gepidan , Bulgarian , Sarmatian , Pannonian , Suabian , Norican , or by other names of this kind." At least 20,000 Saxon warriors, old allies of the Lombards, and their families joined them in their new migration. The first important city to fall was Forum Iulii ( Cividale del Friuli ) in northeastern Italy , in 569. There, Alboin created
10948-526: The most energetic of all Lombard kings. He extended his dominions, conquering Liguria in 643 and the remaining part of the Byzantine territories of inner Veneto , including the Roman city of Opitergium ( Oderzo ). Rothari also made the famous edict bearing his name, the Edictum Rothari , which established the laws and the customs of his people in Latin : the edict did not apply to the tributaries of
11067-543: The nearer it is to the heat of the sun, the more it abounds in diseases and is less fitted for the bringing up of the human race. Among Paul's sources were the document called the Origo gentis Langobardorum , the Liber pontificalis , the lost history of Secundus of Trent , and the lost annals of Benevento . He also heavily drew upon the works of Bede , Gregory of Tours , and Isidore of Seville . Related to his history of
11186-569: The old lands of the Burgundes . In Vurgundaib, the Lombards were stormed in camp by " Bulgars " (probably Huns ) and were defeated; King Agelmund was killed and Laimicho was made king. He was in his youth and desired to avenge the slaughter of Agelmund. The Lombards themselves were probably made subjects of the Huns after the defeat but rose up and defeated them with great slaughter, gaining great booty and confidence as they "became bolder in undertaking
11305-466: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there
11424-522: The perils of war". Tacitus also noted that the Lombards were subjects of Marobod the King of the Marcomanni , who was allied with Rome when Arminius and his allies won the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. However, after the outbreak of war between Arminius and Marobod in 17 AD the Lombards and Semnones switched to the alliance of Arminius. They detested Marobod's title of king, and saw Arminius as
11543-748: The philo-Catholic Cunincpert . The Lombards engaged in fierce battles with Slavic peoples during these years: from 623 to 626 the Lombards unsuccessfully attacked the Carantanians , and, in 663–64, the Slavs raided the Vipava Valley and the Friuli . Religious strife and the Slavic raids remained a source of struggle in the following years. In 705, the Friuli Lombards were defeated and lost
11662-401: The powerful Byzantine fleet. Pavia fell after a siege of three years, in 572, becoming the first capital city of the new Lombard kingdom of Italy. In the following years, the Lombards penetrated further south, conquering Tuscany and establishing two duchies, Spoleto and Benevento under Zotto , which soon became semi-independent and even outlasted the northern kingdom, surviving well into
11781-468: The present time these latter, at least, have, to the last man, been driven in flight out of their country into the land on the far side of the river. Consistent with this, Suetonius wrote that Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus defeated a large force of Germans and drove some "to the farther side of the Albis (Elbe)" river. The German archaeologist Willi Wegewitz defined several Iron Age burial sites at
11900-428: The rebel dukes of northern Italy, conquering Padua in 601, Cremona and Mantua in 603, and forcing the Exarch of Ravenna to pay tribute. Agilulf died in 616; Theodelinda reigned alone until 628 when she was succeeded by Adaloald . Arioald , the head of the Arian opposition who had married Theodelinda's daughter Gundeperga, later deposed Adaloald. Arioald was succeeded by Rothari , regarded by many authorities as
12019-535: The request of Angilram , Bishop of Metz (d. 791), Paul wrote a history of the bishops of Metz to 766, the first work of its kind north of the Alps . This was translated into English in 2013 as Liber de episcopis Mettensibus . He also wrote many letters, verses, and epitaphs, including those of Duke/Prince Arichis II of Benevento and of many members of the Carolingian family. Some of these letters were published with
12138-509: The side of a river," and a district near Magdeburg is still called the lange Börde. According to this view Langobardi would signify "inhabitants of the long bord of the river;" and traces of their name are supposed still to occur in such names as Bardengau and Bardewick in the neighborhood of the Elbe. According to the Gallaecian Christian priest , historian and theologian Paulus Orosius (translated by Daines Barrington ),
12257-656: The title "King of the Lombards". Before then the Germanic kingdoms had frequently conquered each other, but none had adopted the title of King of another people. Charlemagne took part of the Lombard territory to create the Papal States . The Lombardy region in Italy, which includes the cities of Brescia, Bergamo, Milan, and the old capital Pavia, is a reminder of the presence of the Lombards. Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] )
12376-544: The toils of war." During the reign of King Claffo , the Langobards occupied parts of modern-day Upper and Lower Austria and converted to Arian Christianity . In 505 the Herulians attacked and defeated them, obliging them to pay tax and withdraw to Northern Bohemia . In 508, King Rodulf sent his brother to the Lombard court to collect tribute and extend the truce; however, he was stabbed by Rometrud, sister of King Tato . Rodulf personally led his forces against Tato, but
12495-539: The twelfth century. Wherever they went, they were joined by the Ostrogothic population, which was allowed to live peacefully in Italy with their Rugian allies under Roman sovereignty. The Byzantines managed to retain control of the area of Ravenna and Rome, linked by a thin corridor running through Perugia . When they entered Italy, some Lombards retained their native form of paganism , while some were Arian Christians. Hence they did not enjoy good relations with
12614-503: The younger Leupichis was Warnefrid, who by his wife Theodelinda became the father of Paul. Paulus was his monastic name; he was born Winfrid, son of Warnefrid, about 720 in the Duchy of Friuli . Thanks to the possible noble status of his family, Paul received an exceptionally good education, probably at the court of the Lombard king Ratchis in Pavia , learning the rudiments of Greek from
12733-454: Was almost unopposed. By late 569, they had conquered all of northern Italy and the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia , which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central and southern Italy. They established a Lombard Kingdom in north and central Italy, which reached its zenith under the eighth-century ruler Liutprand . In 774, the kingdom was conquered by
12852-521: Was ambushed and killed from a hill. In the 540s, Audoin (ruled 546–560) led the Lombards across the Danube once more into Pannonia . Thurisind , King of the Gepids attempted to expel them, and both peoples asked for help from the Byzantines. Justinian I sent his army against the Gepids; however, it was routed on the way by the Herulians and the sides signed a two-year truce. Revenging what he felt as
12971-458: Was facing east, and woke him. So Godan spotted the Winnili first and asked, "Who are these long-beards?," and Frea replied, "My lord, thou hast given them the name, now give them also the victory." From that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Longbeards (Latinised as Langobardi , Italianised as Longobardi , and Anglicized as Langobards or Lombards ). When Paul the Deacon wrote
13090-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at
13209-613: Was further east, perhaps on the right bank of the Oder . Schmidt considers the name the equivalent of Gotland , meaning simply "good land". This theory is highly plausible; Paul the Deacon mentions the Lombards crossing a river, and they could have reached Rugiland from the Upper Oder area via the Moravian Gate . Moving out of Golanda, the Lombards passed through Anthaib and Banthaib until they reached Vurgundaib, believed to be
13328-456: Was in Francia, Charlemagne asked him to compile a collection of homilies . Paul granted this request after returning to Monte Cassino; the compilation was largely used in the Frankish churches. Paul also composed two important homilies In Assumptione , in the second of which, unlike Ambrose Autpert , he admits the possibility of Mary's bodily assumption into heaven. A life of Pope Gregory
13447-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and
13566-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in
13685-551: Was reportedly derived from the distinctively long beards of the Lombards. It is probably a compound of the Proto-Germanic elements * langaz (long) and * bardaz (beard). According to their own legends, the Lombards originated in Northern Germany/Denmark zone including modern-day Denmark. The Germanic origins of the Lombards is supported by genetic, anthropological, archaeological and earlier literary evidence. A legendary account of Lombard origins, history, and practices
13804-482: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include
13923-454: Was the land east of the Elbe. The crossing into Mauringa was very difficult. The Assipitti (possibly the Usipetes ) denied them passage through their lands and a fight was arranged for the strongest man of each tribe. The Lombard was victorious, passage was granted, and the Lombards reached Mauringa. The Lombards departed from Mauringa and reached Golanda. Scholar Ludwig Schmidt thinks this
14042-737: Was the lands of the lower Elbe. In the mid-second century, the Lombards supposedly appeared in the Rhineland , because according to Claudius Ptolemy , the Suebic Lombards lived "below" the Bructeri and Sugambri , and between these and the Tencteri . To their east stretching northwards to the central Elbe are the Suebi Angili . But Ptolemy also mentions the "Laccobardi" to the north of the above-mentioned Suebic territories, east of
14161-557: Was then freed. After Paul's literary achievements had drawn the attention of Charlemagne , he became an important contributor to the Carolingian Renaissance . In 787 he returned to Monte Cassino, where he died on 13 April probably in the year 799. His epithet Diaconus indicates that he took orders as a deacon ; and some believe he was a monk before the fall of the Lombard Kingdom . Paul's chief work
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