91-481: Joanna Neary is a British comedian, writer and actress. Her solo, character-based stage shows include Youth Club and Joanna Neary Is Not Feeling Herself , which received a Perrier Best Newcomer award nomination in 2004. She has also appeared in the TV shows Time Trumpet , Angelo's , That Mitchell and Webb Look , Skins , Dogface , Man Down and Ideal . Radio credits include acting as an ensemble member of
182-478: A Radio 4 comedy waiting to happen, both mocking and appealing to the middle-class demographic." Neary's 2016 Edinburgh show took the form of a PowerPoint presentation. Tim Wilcock described the show in Fringe Review: "art and education emerge as the twin themes of this really wacky and almost anarchic hour of character comedy from a very talented young comedienne that comes thoroughly recommended." Neary
273-542: A completely new set of characters. These were described by Colin Bramwell in Exeunt: "There are many memorable characters on offer here: Mr. Eddy, the youth club leader who annunciates each word with a new dance move; Eva, the madrigal-adapting new-girl from exotic Birmingham; Diana, the centrepiece of the story, who enjoys singing rude songs on the toilet and making things out of Weetabix boxes, and who fancies Gary, who knows
364-509: A downtrodden, dowdy Home Counties frump and Pollock reduced to a helpless feral dog-like caricature – smashing things up, pissing on carpets, chasing balls and hanging his head out of the car window with his tongue lolling – a version of Pollock's much discussed alcoholism and primitive urges. Krasner puts up a relentlessly optimistic front despite Greenberg's blatant misogyny and the art world's complete disinterest in her as anything other than Pollock's carer." In September 2016, Neary performed at
455-628: A highly polished performance.' New characters included the celebrity chefs Heston Blumenthal and Delia Smith . In one new sketch, written by Joseph Nixon, she appeared as a Katharine Hepburn type American actress, who says "My only regret is turning down Gone with the Wind ... and sleeping with Hitler." The show ended with another Pan's People dance, this time to the Charles Aznavour song " She ". For her 2011 show, Youth Club , Neary drew again on her teenage years in 1980s Cornwall, and created
546-536: A lecture as the sculptor, Dame Barbara Hepworth . Brimfield's 2012 exhibition, Between Genius and Desire , at the Ceri Hand Gallery in Covent Garden , dealt with the myth of the suffering male artist. It included a film, Clement Greenberg – Lee Krasner = Jackson Pollock , in which Neary played the role of Lee Krasner . According to the Ceri Hand Gallery's website, "Lee Krasner is re-imagined as
637-506: A long time. On the other hand, global human-caused emissions of sulfur into the atmosphere increased from less than 3 million tons per year in 1860 to 15 million tonnes in 1900, 40 million tonnes in 1940 and about 80 million tonnes in 1980. This meant that by 1980, the human-caused emissions from the burning of sulfur -containing fuels (mostly coal and bunker fuel ) became at least as large as all natural emissions of sulfur-containing compounds. The report also concluded that "in
728-471: A lower confidence level due to the lower number of observations. Later research found that over China, the dimming trend continued at a slower rate after 1990, and did not begin to reverse until around 2005. Due to these contrasting trends, no statistically significant change had occurred on a global scale from 2001 to 2012. Post-2010 observations indicate that the global decline in aerosol concentrations and global dimming continued, with pollution controls on
819-664: A marked decline in sulfate and black carbon emissions caused by the curtailed road traffic and industrial output. That decline did have a detectable warming impact: it was estimated to have increased global temperatures by 0.01–0.02 °C (0.018–0.036 °F) initially and up to 0.03 °C (0.054 °F) by 2023, before disappearing. Regionally, the lockdowns were estimated to increase temperatures by 0.05–0.15 °C (0.090–0.270 °F) in eastern China over January–March, and then by 0.04–0.07 °C (0.072–0.126 °F) over Europe, eastern United States, and South Asia in March–May, with
910-436: A natural change in cloud cover which occurred at the time was sufficient to explain these findings. When the global response to the 2020 coronavirus pandemic led to a reduction in global air traffic of nearly 70% relative to 2019, multiple studies found "no significant response of diurnal surface air temperature range" as the result of contrail changes, and either "no net significant global ERF" (effective radiative forcing) or
1001-631: A one-woman Fast Show ... Neary's alter egos are the products of a highly individual imagination." The show was nominated for the Perrier Newcomer Award and won the Comedy Report Best Character Actress Award. For her 2005 Edinburgh show, Neary was directed by David Sant of Peepolykus. She created a cast of new characters, including Les Miserables, the Aussie comic, Lee, an 11-year-old deer, who
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#17327983374531092-539: A paper comparing current level of clean air policies with a hypothetical maximum technically feasible action under otherwise the same climate change scenario found that the latter would increase the risk of temperature extremes by 30–50% in China and in Europe. Unfortunately, because historical records of aerosols are sparser in some regions than in others, accurate regional projections of aerosol impacts are difficult. Even
1183-443: A rapid and violent return of the warming. In the 1970s, numerous studies showed that atmospheric aerosols could affect the propagation of sunlight through the atmosphere, a measure also known as direct solar irradiance . One study showed that less sunlight was filtering through at the height of 1.7 km (1.1 mi) above Los Angeles, even on those days when there was no visible smog. Another suggested that sulfate pollution or
1274-402: A recipe for air soup, and a photograph of a conker." It was nominated for Best Show at the 2016 Leicester Comedy Festival. Reviewing the show for Chortle , Steve Bennett wrote "In her compelling performance, Neary has impeccable comic instincts. The pauses are just perfect, and she knows when to ride a laugh, when to hold out for more, and when to move on swiftly. Faceful Of Issues is pretty much
1365-462: A regional scale than globally. For instance, a climate change scenario with high greenhouse gas emissions but strong reductions in air pollution would see 0.2 °C (0.36 °F) more global warming by 2050 than the same scenario with little improvement in air quality, but regionally, the difference would add 5 more tropical nights per year in northern China and substantially increase precipitation in northern China and northern India . Likewise,
1456-624: A silly voice and imagining what a dolphin would talk like." According to the review in The Scotsman , "(her) Pan's People pastiche of I Can’t Live if Living Is Without You is worth the price of the ticket alone as she rhythmically mimes her way through every method of suicide available." Brian Logan, in The Guardian , wrote, "There's one strong comic character after another in Joanna Neary's solo Fringe debut, which can feel like
1547-449: A very small warming effect. At the peak of global dimming, it was able to counteract the warming trend completely. By 1975, the continually increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases have overcome the masking effect and dominated ever since. Even then, regions with high concentrations of sulfate aerosols due to air pollution had initially experienced cooling, in contradiction to the overall warming trend. The eastern United States
1638-663: A volcano eruption could provoke the onset of an ice age . In the 1980s, Atsumu Ohmura , a geography researcher at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology , found that solar radiation striking the Earth's surface had declined by more than 10% over the three previous decades, even as the global temperature had been generally rising since the 1970s. In the 1990s, this was followed by the papers describing multi-decade declines in Estonia, Germany, Israel and across
1729-409: Is a proposed solar geoengineering intervention which aims to counteract global warming through intentional releases of reflective aerosols. Stratospheric aerosol injection could be very effective at stopping or reversing warming but it would also have substantial effects on the global water cycle, regional weather, and ecosystems . Furthermore, it would have to be carried out over centuries to prevent
1820-584: Is a regular collaborator with the visual and performance artist Mel Brimfield. In 2010, she appeared as the fictional performance artist, Alex Owens, in a series of photographs, later reproduced in Brimfield's book, This is Performance Art . In 2011, Brimfield staged a live performance, Barbara Hepworth > Henry Moore , at the ICA as part of Bob and Roberta Smith 's exhibition "Women Should Be in Charge". Neary gave
1911-484: Is a show that leaves you with a huge smile and a renewed sense of delight in daftness.' Neary's fourth Edinburgh show, in 2008, was reviewed by Brian Donaldson in The List : 'Whether Neary... is being a cat or a dolphin, impersonating celebrity chefs or transforming herself into bonkers old Björk singing about the credit crunch, each scene is infused with intricate details, layered by pinpoint writing and heightened with
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#17327983374532002-436: Is also a relevant phenomenon for certain proposals about slowing, halting or reversing global warming. An increase in planetary albedo of 1% would eliminate most of radiative forcing from anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and thereby global warming, while a 2% albedo increase would negate the warming effect of doubling the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. This is the theory behind solar geoengineering , and
2093-408: Is emitted by the Earth. Because contrails reflect sunlight only during the day, but trap heat day and night, they are normally considered to cause net warming, albeit very small. A 1992 estimate was between 3.5 mW/m and 17 mW/m – hundreds of times smaller than the radiative forcing from major greenhouse gases. However, some scientists argued that the daytime cooling effect from contrails
2184-678: Is impossible to fully estimate the warming impact of all greenhouse gases without accounting for the counteracting cooling from aerosols. Climate models started to account for the effects of sulfate aerosols around the IPCC Second Assessment Report ; when the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was published in 2007, every climate model had integrated sulfates, but only 5 were able to account for less impactful particulates like black carbon. By 2021, CMIP6 models estimated total aerosol cooling in
2275-489: Is in the lower atmospheric layer (the troposphere ), and only resides there for weeks. Because aerosols deposited in the stratosphere would last for years, far less sulfur would have to be emitted to result in the same amount of cooling. While Crutzen's initial proposal was focused on avoiding the warming caused by the reductions in air pollution, it was immediately understood that scaling up this proposal could slow, stop, or outright reverse warming. It has been estimated that
2366-463: Is looking forward to starting rutting even though he doesn't know quite what it entails, and Fiona, the gap-year student who likes bongos but is worried about global dimming . According to The Scotsman's review, "Her range of accents is amazing – she convincingly does no less than nine different English accents, yet the obvious choices of Brummie or Geordie are nowhere to be heard.' Neary returned to Edinburgh in 2007 with her third solo show. Alongside
2457-469: Is responsible for the majority (60 to 80%) of black carbon emissions in Asia and Africa, while diesel combustion produces 70% of black carbon in Europe and The Americas. Black carbon in the lower atmosphere is a major contributor to 7 million premature deaths caused by air pollution every year. Its presence is particularly visible, as the so-called "brown clouds" appear in heavily polluted areas. In fact, it
2548-640: Is the repressed housewife, Celia, based on Celia Johnson 's character in Brief Encounter . Writing in The List , Hannah Adcock commented "she dons a period hat and a perfectly modulated voice to become Celia Johnson. 'Arthur hasn't noticed' she confides, excitement ripening in her throat. 'He just thinks I'm an ordinary woman." Bruce Dessau, writing in Metro , described Celia as encapsulating "a lost age of repressed passion, snobbery and lumpy marmalade." In
2639-524: The AMOC (already expected to weaken due to climate change). Reductions from the stronger air quality policies could exacerbate this expected decline by around 10%, unless methane emissions are reduced by an equivalent amount. Most notably, multiple studies connect aerosols from the Northern Hemisphere to the failed monsoon in sub- Saharan Africa during the 1970s and 1980s, which then led to
2730-706: The Industrial Revolution , the main source of sulfate aerosols was dimethyl sulfide produced by some types of oceanic plankton. Emissions from volcano activity were the second largest source, although large volcanic eruptions , such as the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo , dominate in the years when they occur. In 1990, the IPCC First Assessment Report estimated dimethyl sulfide emissions at 40 million tons per year, while volcano emissions were estimated at 10 million tons. These annual levels have been largely stable for
2821-702: The Keep Corbyn rally in Brighton in support of Jeremy Corbyn 's campaign in the Labour Party leadership election . Time Trumpet Time Trumpet is a six-episode satirical television comedy series which aired on BBC Two in August 2006. The series was written by Armando Iannucci , Roger Drew and Will Smith in a similar manner to Iannucci's earlier one-off programmes, 2004: The Stupid Version and Clinton: His Struggle with Dirt . One sketch
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2912-502: The Sahel drought and the associated famine . However, model simulations of Sahel climate are very inconsistent, so it's difficult to prove that the drought would not have occurred without aerosol pollution, although it would have clearly been less severe. Some research indicates that those models which demonstrate warming alone driving strong precipitation increases in the Sahel are
3003-619: The ultraviolet part of the spectrum. Further, the dimming had occurred even when the skies were clear, and it was in fact stronger than during the cloudy days, proving that it was not caused by changes in cloud cover alone. Global dimming is primarily caused by the presence of sulfate particles which hang in the Earth's atmosphere as aerosols . These aerosols have both a direct contribution to dimming, as they reflect sunlight like tiny mirrors. They also have an indirect effect as nuclei , meaning that water droplets in clouds coalesce around
3094-470: The 1980s, with wetland methane emissions driving much of the recent growth, while air pollution is getting cleaned up aggressively. These trends are some of the main reasons why 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) warming is now expected around 2030, as opposed to the mid-2010s estimates where it would not occur until 2040. It has also been suggested that aerosols are not given sufficient attention in regional risk assessments, in spite of being more influential on
3185-739: The 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur Emissions under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution , and with similar improvements. On the other hand, a 2009 review found that dimming continued to increase in China after stabilizing in the 1990s and intensified in India, consistent with their continued industrialization, while the US, Europe, and South Korea continued to brighten. Evidence from Zimbabwe, Chile and Venezuela also pointed to increased dimming during that period, albeit at
3276-505: The Atlantic Ocean, where they block some of the sunlight from reaching the water surface, slightly cooling it and dampening the development of hurricanes. Likewise, it has been suggested since the early 2000s that since aerosols decrease solar radiation over the ocean and hence reduce evaporation from it, they would be "spinning down the hydrological cycle of the planet." In 2011, it was found that anthropogenic aerosols had been
3367-685: The Edinburgh Festival Fringe. In 2003, Neary performed with David Mounfield and Brian Mitchell in the sketch show, Take This and Shove It , at the Smirnoff Underbelly, Edinburgh. The sketches, including Tarzan and Jane and The Wombles , were written by Mitchell and Nixon. Neary also performed some of her own character pieces, including Celia, based on the female protagonist in Brief Encounter . In Neary's debut Edinburgh solo show in 2004, she appeared as multiple characters, including Mr Timkins (a sly cat mourning
3458-616: The Great Wall of China was the way to go." She went on to study visual and performing arts at the University of Brighton , where she wrote plays and performed her first character-based comedy shows. As well as writing her own material, she also acted in plays and sketches written by Brian Mitchell and Joseph Nixon . Many of the songs in her shows are written by Mitchell. Neary has said, "I don't like comic songs particularly but I do love singing and dancing about." In 1998-9, Neary played
3549-601: The Northern Hemisphere caused or at least exacerbated the monsoon failure behind the 1984 Ethiopian famine . Since the 1980s, a decrease in air pollution has led to a partial reversal of the dimming trend, sometimes referred to as global brightening. This global brightening had contributed to the acceleration of global warming, which began in the 1990s. According to climate models , the dimming effect of aerosols most likely offsets around 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) of warming as of 2021. As nations act to reduce
3640-628: The Philippines. However, even the major eruptions only result in temporary jumps of sulfur particles, unlike the more sustained increases caused by anthropogenic pollution. In 1990, the IPCC First Assessment Report acknowledged that "Human-made aerosols, from sulphur emitted largely in fossil fuel combustion can modify clouds and this may act to lower temperatures", while "a decrease in emissions of sulphur might be expected to increase global temperatures". However, lack of observational data and difficulties in calculating indirect effects on clouds left
3731-489: The Telegraph, Dominic Cavendish declared, "Her idea of crossing Celia Johnson's character from Brief Encounter with a contemporary (trapped) housewife – relaying her diary's 1940s-styled entries to us throughout the show – is so inspired, and beautifully executed, it deserves its own Radio 4 series." In 2007, Neary made a short film as Celia, Brief Encounter of an Ordinary Woman , with John Sackville as Trevor Howard . It
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3822-525: The United States, Comedy Central announced they would be remaking the series, with Iannucci as producer. Ultimately, the series was not picked up by the network, and Iannucci moved on to other projects. Global dimming Global dimming is a decline in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface . It is caused by atmospheric particulate matter , predominantly sulfate aerosols, which are components of air pollution. Global dimming
3913-583: The United States, sulfate aerosols have declined significantly since 1970 with the passage of the Clean Air Act , which was strengthened in 1977 and 1990. According to the EPA , from 1970 to 2005, total emissions of the six principal air pollutants, including sulfates, dropped by 53% in the US. By 2010, this reduction in sulfate pollution led to estimated healthcare cost savings valued at $ 50 billion annually. Similar measures were taken in Europe, such as
4004-403: The amount of sulfur needed to offset a warming of around 4 °C (7.2 °F) relative to now (and 5 °C (9.0 °F) relative to the preindustrial), under the highest-emission scenario RCP 8.5 would be less than what is already emitted through air pollution today, and that reductions in sulfur pollution from future air quality improvements already expected under that scenario would offset
4095-526: The amount of water held by the atmosphere. This was attributed to aerosols reducing droplet size within clouds, which led to those clouds retaining water for a longer time without raining. The phenomenon of aerosols suppressing rainfall through reducing cloud droplet size has been confirmed by subsequent studies. Later research found that aerosol pollution over South and East Asia didn't just suppress rainfall there, but also resulted in more moisture transferred to Central Asia, where summer rainfall had increased as
4186-844: The cast in the first series of the Count Arthur Strong Radio Show , as well as appearing in numerous series of the Radio 4 show Out to Lunch . Harry Deansway, writing in The Guardian , described Neary as "a character actress par excellence; not only are her characters well observed and immaculately performed, but they are well written and, most importantly, funny....A Joyce Grenfell of our age." Neary grew up in Redruth , Cornwall. She told The West Briton , "After leaving Pool School I did an art degree at Falmouth and became interested in performance art. I decided that people tying themselves together naked and walking across
4277-409: The cooling from SAI stops 1–3 years after the last aerosol injection. This means that neither stratospheric aerosol injection nor other forms of solar geoengineering can be used as a substitute for reducing greenhouse gas emissions , because if solar geoengineering were to cease while greenhouse gas levels remained high, it would lead to "large and extremely rapid" warming and similarly abrupt changes to
4368-415: The day's highs and lows at a fixed station) was widened by 1.1 °C (2.0 °F) – the largest recorded increase in 30 years. In the southern US, the difference was diminished by about 3.3 °C (6 °F), and by 2.8 °C (5 °F) in the US midwest. This was interpreted by some scientists as a proof of a strong cooling influence of aircraft contrails. Ultimately, follow-up studies found that
4459-528: The extent of global warming experienced to date, with the most polluted regions even experiencing cooling in the 1970s. Global dimming has interfered with the water cycle by lowering evaporation, and thus has probably reduced rainfall in certain areas. It may have weakened the Monsoon of South Asia and caused the entire tropical rain belt to shift southwards between 1950 and 1985, with a limited recovery afterwards. Record levels of particulate pollution in
4550-505: The familiar characters, such as Celia Johnson , she created Chris, a swinger from Portslade , Björk singing a song about the property market, and Carol Streep, a nervous woman giving a talk on sex aids. The show was framed with readings from Neary's own teenage diaries, with stories of "life in Eighties Cornwall with a loose tooth and Lady Di haircut and the many boys that steadfastly ignored her." Stephanie Merritt reviewed
4641-604: The female lead, a French femme fatale , in The Ministry of Biscuits , a dystopian comic musical by Brian Mitchell and Philip Reeve . The musical was first performed in Brighton , followed by a national tour including a visit to the 1999 Edinburgh Festival Fringe . It was revived in Brighton in 2005 and again in 2017. In 2001, Neary teamed up with fellow Brighton character comedian, Graham Darg, to create Sean Hard vs Craft Woman , which they performed at Komedia Southside in
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#17327983374534732-489: The former Soviet Union . Subsequent research estimated an average reduction in sunlight striking the terrestrial surface of around 4–5% per decade over the late 1950s–1980s, and 2–3% per decade when 1990s were included. Notably, solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere did not vary by more than 0.1-0.3% in all that time, strongly suggesting that the reasons for the dimming were on Earth. Additionally, only visible light and infrared radiation were dimmed, rather than
4823-488: The global shipping industry playing a substantial role in the recent years. Since nearly 90% of the human population lives in the Northern Hemisphere , clouds there are far more affected by aerosols than in the Southern Hemisphere , but these differences have halved in the two decades since 2000, providing further evidence for the ongoing global brightening. Aerosols have a cooling effect, which has masked
4914-429: The high reflective potential of sulfate aerosols means that they were considered in this capacity starting from the 1970s. Because the historical levels of global dimming were associated with high mortality from air pollution and issues such as acid rain , the concept of relying on cooling directly from pollution has been described as a " Faustian bargain " and is not seriously considered by modern research. Instead,
5005-580: The indirect effect of soot particles acting as cloud nuclei is not strong enough to provide cooling: the "brown clouds" formed around soot particles were known to have a net warming effect since the 2000s. Black carbon pollution is particularly strong over India: thus, it is considered to be one of the few regions where cleaning up air pollution would reduce, rather than increase, warming. Aircraft leave behind visible contrails (also known as vapor trails) as they travel. These contrails both reflect incoming solar radiation and trap outgoing longwave radiation that
5096-502: The industrialized regions of Europe and North America, anthropogenic emissions dominate over natural emissions by about a factor of ten or even more". Another important type of aerosol is black carbon , colloquially known as soot . It is formed due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , as well as of wood and other plant matter. Globally, the single largest source of black carbon is from grassland and forest fires, including both wildfires and intentional burning. However, coal use
5187-726: The initial absorption by up to 40%. Because the rate at which these coatings are formed varies depending on the season, the warming from black carbon varies seasonally as well. Though this warming is weaker than the CO 2 -induced warming or the cooling from sulfates, it can be regionally significant when black carbon is deposited over ice masses like mountain glaciers and the Greenland ice sheet . There, it reduces their albedo and increases their absorption of solar radiation, which accelerates their melting. Black carbon also has an outsized contribution to local warming inside polluted cities. Even
5278-483: The largest economies or economic blocs could afford this intervention. Even so, these approaches would still be "orders of magnitude" cheaper than greenhouse gas mitigation, let alone the costs of unmitigated effects of climate change . Even if SAI were to stop or outright reverse global warming, weather patterns in many areas would still change substantially. The habitat of mosquitoes and other disease vectors would shift, though it's unclear how it would compare to
5369-501: The latest CMIP6 climate models can only accurately represent aerosol trends over Europe, but struggle with representing North America and Asia. This means that their near-future projections of regional impacts are likely to contain errors as well. On regional and global scale, air pollution can affect the water cycle , in a manner similar to some natural processes. One example is the impact of Sahara dust on hurricane formation: air laden with sand and mineral particles moves over
5460-445: The matter is not yet fully settled. The difference between model estimates mainly stems from disagreements over the indirect effects of aerosols on clouds. Regardless of the current strength of aerosol cooling, all future climate change scenarios project decreases in particulates and this includes the scenarios where 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and 2 °C (3.6 °F) targets are met: their specific emission reduction targets assume
5551-403: The most accurate, making it more likely that sulfate pollution was to blame for overpowering this response and sending the region into drought. Another dramatic finding had connected the impact of aerosols with the weakening of the Monsoon of South Asia . It was first advanced in 2006, yet it also remained difficult to prove. In particular, some research suggested that warming itself increases
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#17327983374535642-452: The need to make up for lower dimming. Since models estimate that the cooling caused by sulfates is largely equivalent to the warming caused by atmospheric methane (and since methane is a relatively short-lived greenhouse gas), it is believed that simultaneous reductions in both would effectively cancel each other out. Yet, in the recent years, methane concentrations had been increasing at rates exceeding their previous period of peak growth in
5733-479: The now-elderly actor making bizarre claims such as to be "pound for pound the world's strongest man". The third episode, which featured a jumbo jet crashing into the British Houses of Parliament and the subsequent assassination of Tony Blair, was due to be screened on 17 August 2006, but was cancelled in the wake of the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot , and replaced by another episode. The cancelled episode
5824-422: The particles. Increased pollution causes more particulates and thereby creates clouds consisting of a greater number of smaller droplets (that is, the same amount of water is spread over more droplets). The smaller droplets make clouds more reflective , so that more incoming sunlight is reflected back into space and less reaches the Earth's surface. In models, these smaller droplets also decrease rainfall. Before
5915-456: The peak impact of 0.3 °C (0.54 °F) in some regions of the United States and Russia. In the city of Wuhan , the urban heat island effect was found to have decreased by 0.24 °C (0.43 °F) at night and by 0.12 °C (0.22 °F) overall during the strictest lockdowns. Since changes in aerosol concentrations already have an impact on the global climate, they would necessarily influence future projections as well. In fact, it
6006-542: The plume can reach transcontinental scale (i.e. the Asian brown cloud .) Even so, the overall dimming from black carbon is much lower than that from the sulfate particles. After 1990, the global dimming trend had clearly switched to global brightening. This followed measures taken to combat air pollution by the developed nations , typically through flue-gas desulfurization installations at thermal power plants , such as wet scrubbers or fluidized bed combustion . In
6097-575: The predominant factor behind 20th century changes in rainfall over the Atlantic Ocean sector, when the entire tropical rain belt shifted southwards between 1950 and 1985, with a limited northwards shift afterwards. Future reductions in aerosol emissions are expected to result in a more rapid northwards shift, with limited impact in the Atlantic but a substantially greater impact in the Pacific. Some research also suggests that these reductions would affect
6188-411: The range from 0.1 °C (0.18 °F) to 0.7 °C (1.3 °F); The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report selected the best estimate of a 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) cooling provided by sulfate aerosols, while black carbon amounts to about 0.1 °C (0.18 °F) of warming. While these values are based on combining model estimates with observational constraints, including those on ocean heat content ,
6279-428: The recent loss of his "dingle"), a bespectacled dolphin commenting on news stories from a soggy newspaper, and her own mother and grandmother. She told The Scotsman , "The animals all started off with a dolphin which was an inflatable toy that I found in a bargain bin in a charity shop for a pound. It was my size so I slit it down the back, made a hole for my face and climbed inside it. Then I walked around my flat doing
6370-654: The report unable to estimate whether the total impact of all anthropogenic aerosols on the global temperature amounted to cooling or warming. By 1995, the IPCC Second Assessment Report had confidently assessed the overall impact of aerosols as negative (cooling); however, aerosols were recognized as the largest source of uncertainty in future projections in that report and the subsequent ones. Unlike sulfate pollution, black carbon contributes to both global dimming and global warming, since its particles absorb sunlight and heat up instead of reflecting it away. These particles also develop thick coatings over time, which can increase
6461-495: The result. In the United States, effects of climate change on the water cycle would typically increase both mean and extreme precipitation across the country, but these effects have so far been "masked" by the drying due to historically strong aerosol concentrations. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report had also linked changes in aerosol concentrations to altered precipitation in the Mediterranean region. Global dimming
6552-420: The risk of monsoon failure, potentially pushing it past a tipping point . By 2021, however, it was concluded that global warming consistently strengthened the monsoon, and some strengthening was already observed in the aftermath of lockdown-caused aerosol reductions. In 2009, an analysis of 50 years of data found that light rains had decreased over eastern China, even though there was no significant change in
6643-468: The seminal 2006 paper by Paul Crutzen suggested that the way to avoid increased warming as the sulfate pollution decreased was to revisit the 1974 proposal by the Soviet researcher Mikhail Budyko . The proposal involved releasing sulfates from the airplanes flying in the upper layers of the atmosphere, in what is now described as stratospheric aerosol injection , or SAI. In comparison, most air pollution
6734-516: The series. Every episode is narrated by Iannucci, who is also seen interviewing guests, but at an oblique angle and with a different physical appearance. Series co-creator Will Smith also appears in the series. Each episode has a main theme running throughout, such as the Olympics or the war in Iraq. The main running gag is the promise of a catch-up with "an increasingly odd Tom Cruise " and features
6825-401: The shifts that are otherwise likely to occur from climate change . Lower sunlight would affect crop yields and carbon sinks due to reduced photosynthesis , but this would likely be offset by lack of thermal stress from warming and the greater CO 2 fertilization effect relative to now. Most importantly, the warming from CO 2 emissions lasts for hundreds to thousands of years, while
6916-433: The show as "top cultural commentators slash TV pundits", speaking about the events of the past. These include Stewart Lee (also appearing as the bald-headed 'Stu Lee', the implication being that he was contractually obliged to shave his head and change his name), Richard Ayoade , Jo Enright , Matthew Holness , Adam Buxton , Mark Watson and David Sant . Additionally, Katy Wix and Tim Key appear in sketches throughout
7007-553: The show in The Observer : "For character comedy that is glorious fun with no underlying point whatsoever, Joanna Neary's Little Moments (Pleasance) would be hard to better. Neary is a fiercely gifted actor and her short monologues are peppered with clever songs and silly dances. The real joy here is the character based on Celia Johnson in Brief Encounter, a pitch-perfect impersonation taken to its logical conclusion. This
7098-436: The sulfur used for geoengineering . The trade-off is increased cost. Although there's a popular narrative that stratospheric aerosol injection can be carried out by individuals, small states, or other non-state rogue actors, scientific estimates suggest that cooling the atmosphere by 1 °C (1.8 °F) through stratospheric aerosol injection would cost at least $ 18 billion annually (at 2020 USD value), meaning that only
7189-486: The toll of air pollution on the health of their citizens, the masking effect on global warming is expected to decline further. The scenarios for climate action required to meet 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and 2 °C (3.6 °F) targets incorporate the predicted decrease in aerosol levels. However, model simulations of the effects of aerosols on weather systems remain uncertain. The processes behind global dimming are similar to stratospheric aerosol injection . This
7280-640: The total extent of global warming experienced to date. It has been understood for a long time that any effect on solar irradiance from aerosols would necessarily impact Earth's radiation balance . Reductions in atmospheric temperatures have already been observed after large volcanic eruptions such as the 1963 eruption of Mount Agung in Bali , 1982 El Chichón eruption in Mexico, 1985 Nevado del Ruiz eruption in Colombia and 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in
7371-473: The word for kite in Swahili... To effortlessly switch between a whole ensemble of characters takes considerable skill, and Neary pulls it off with no small amount of aplomb. Her talent for physical comedy is also impressive. The simulation of a young girl attempting an impromptu dance to a destroyed tape of the latest pop hit is both sympathetic and hilarious." Neary's most popular and lasting character creation
7462-514: The year in Western Europe would have been substantially less hot if aerosol concentrations had stayed the same as before. Some of the acceleration of sea level rise , as well as Arctic amplification and the associated Arctic sea ice decline , was also attributed to the reduction in aerosol masking. In Europe, the declines in aerosol concentrations since the 1980s had also reduced the associated fog , mist and haze : altogether, it
7553-483: Was 1970s research into the Denver brown cloud which had first found that black carbon particles absorb solar energy and so can affect the amount of visible sunlight. Later research found that black carbon is 190 times more effective at absorbing sunlight within clouds than the regular dust from soil particles. At worst, all clouds within an atmospheric layer 3–5 km (1.9–3.1 mi) thick are visibly darkened, and
7644-500: Was a prominent example: the temperatures there declined by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1970 and 1980, and by up to 1 °C (1.8 °F) in the Arkansas and Missouri . Starting in the 1980s, the reduction in global dimming has contributed to higher global temperatures. Hot extremes accelerated as global dimming abated. It has been estimated that since the mid-1990s, peak daily temperatures in northeast Asia and hottest days of
7735-492: Was filmed by the BBC Reversioning Unit for BBC Mini Movies, and directed by Vanessa Frances. For Neary's 2015 show Faceful of Issues , she remained in character as Celia, now the host of The Toxborough Village Hall Chat Show , in aid of the animal hospital for a kitten who needs an iron lung. The show features "topical talks, showbiz exclusives, celebrity interviews – plus a local locksmith's bawdy confessions,
7826-907: Was later spun off by network in Ireland, RTÉ , into the cult television series Soupy Norman , in May 2007. Time Trumpet is set in the year 2031, and is a retrospective documentary on the first thirty years of the 21st century. Actors and actresses play the parts of 'today's stars' thirty years on, who are interviewed as part of the show. These 'older selves' include David Beckham , Anne Robinson , David Cameron , Sebastian Coe , Kate Middleton , Charlotte Church , Ant & Dec , June Sarpong , Tony Blair , Alastair Campbell , Charles Clarke , Noel Edmonds , Chris Moyles , Gordon Brown , David Miliband , Bob Geldof , Saddam Hussein , Natasha Kaplinsky , Prince Harry , Jamie Oliver and Paul Burrell . The show also includes interviews with comedians, billed in
7917-471: Was much stronger than usually estimated, and this argument attracted attention following the September 11 attacks . Because no commercial aircraft flew across the US in the immediate aftermath of the attacks, this period was considered a real-world demonstration of contrail-free weather. Across 4,000 weather stations in the continental United States, the diurnal temperature variation (the difference in
8008-409: Was observed soon after the first systematic measurements of solar irradiance began in the 1950s. This weakening of visible sunlight proceeded at the rate of 4–5% per decade until the 1980s. During these years, air pollution increased due to post-war industrialization. Solar activity did not vary more than the usual during this period. As aerosols have a cooling effect, and global dimming has masked
8099-605: Was reduced, even as sulfate particles still accounted for around 25% of all particulates . By 2021, the northeastern coast of the United States was one of the fastest-warming regions of North America, as the slowdown of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation increased temperatures in that part of the North Atlantic Ocean. In 2020, COVID-19 lockdowns provided a notable "natural experiment", as there had been
8190-577: Was responsible for about 10–20% of daytime warming across Europe, and about 50% of the warming over the more polluted Eastern Europe. Because aerosol cooling depends on reflecting sunlight, air quality improvements had a negligible impact on wintertime temperatures, but had increased temperatures from April to September by around 1 °C (1.8 °F) in Central and Eastern Europe. The central and eastern United States experienced warming of 0.3 °C (0.54 °F) between 1980 and 2010 as sulfate pollution
8281-484: Was subsequently shown a week later, without the footage of an assassinated Blair. However, a related sketch was aired, involving a play on the events of 9/11 , where two towers are flown into an aeroplane. A DVD of the series was released on 27 April 2009. The assassination of Tony Blair sketch was removed from this, as were some sketches that included footage of the Olympic Games. In December 2011, network in
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