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113-506: Jogging is running at a gentle pace ; its definition, as compared with running, is not standard. In general, jogging speed is between 4 and 6 miles per hour (6.4 and 9.7 km/h). The word jog originated in England in the mid-16th century. The etymology of the word is unknown, but it may be related to shog or have been a new invention. In 1593, William Shakespeare wrote in Taming of

226-586: A balanced weight gain. A Danish study released in 2015 reported that "light" and "moderate" jogging were associated with reduced mortality compared to both non-jogging and "strenuous" jogging. The optimal amount per week was 1 to 2.4 hours, the optimal frequency was less than or equal to 3 times per week and the optimal speed was "slow" or "average". A recent meta-analysis on running/jogging and mortality, including more than 230,000 participants found that runners were at 27% lower risk of death than non-runners, during 5.5-35 year follow-ups. Running Running

339-473: A component of their locomotion repertoire, such as the dung beetle when rolling a ball of dung, which combines both rolling and limb-based elements. The remainder of this article focuses on the anatomical and physiological distinctions involving terrestrial locomotion from the taxonomic perspective. Movement on appendages is the most common form of terrestrial locomotion, it is the basic form of locomotion of two major groups with many terrestrial members,

452-576: A fair number – woodlice having fourteen legs. Also, as previously mentioned, some insect larvae such as caterpillars and sawfly larvae have up to five (caterpillars) or nine (sawflies) additional fleshy prolegs in addition to the six legs normal for insects. Some species of invertebrate have even more legs, the unusual velvet worm having stubby legs under the length of its body, with around several dozen pairs of legs. Centipedes have one pair of legs per body segment, with typically around 50 legs, but some species have over 200. The terrestrial animals with

565-402: A few wild African ungulates, to even-toed ungulates, such as pigs, cows, deer, and goats. Mammals whose limbs have adapted to grab objects have what are called prehensile limbs. This term can be attributed to front limbs as well as tails for animals such as monkeys and some rodents. All animals that have prehensile front limbs are plantigrade, even if their ankle joint looks extended (squirrels are

678-449: A fully erect posture, though each evolved it independently. In these groups the legs are placed beneath the body. This is often linked with the evolution of endothermy , as it avoids Carrier's constraint and thus allows prolonged periods of activity. The fully erect stance is not necessarily the "most-evolved" stance; evidence suggests that crocodilians evolved a semi-erect stance in their forelimbs from ancestors with fully erect stance as

791-464: A good example). Among terrestrial invertebrates there are a number of leg forms. The arthropod legs are jointed and supported by hard external armor, with the muscles attached to the internal surface of this exoskeleton . The other group of legged terrestrial invertebrates, the velvet worms , have soft stumpy legs supported by a hydrostatic skeleton . The prolegs that some caterpillars have in addition to their six more-standard arthropod legs have

904-657: A key part of the ancient Olympic Games as well as the modern Olympics. The activity of running went through a period of widespread popularity in the United States during the running boom of the 1970s . Over the next two decades, as many as 25 million Americans were doing some form of running or jogging – accounting for roughly one tenth of the population. Today, road racing is a popular sport among non-professional athletes, who included over 7.7 million people in America alone in 2002. Footspeed , or sprint speed,

1017-465: A lateral wave travels down the snake's body in the opposite direction to the snake's motion and pushes the snake off irregularities in the ground. This mode of locomotion requires these irregularities to function. Another form of locomotion, rectilinear locomotion , is used at times by some snakes, especially large ones such as pythons and boa . Here large scales on the underside of the body, known as scutes are used to push backwards and downwards. This

1130-462: A layer of mucus that is secreted from their underside, reducing friction and protecting from injury when moving over sharp objects. Earthworms have small bristles ( setae ) that hook into the substrate and help them move. Some animals, such as leeches , have suction cups on either end of the body allowing two anchor movement . Some limbless animals, such as leeches, have suction cups on either end of their body, which allow them to move by anchoring

1243-453: A measured course over an established road (as opposed to track and cross country running ). These events normally range from distances of 5 kilometers to longer distances such as half marathons and marathons , and they may involve scores of runners or wheelchair entrants. Cross country running takes place over the open or rough terrain. The courses used for these events may include grass , mud , woodlands, hills, flat ground and water. It

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1356-440: A mid/forefoot strike may aid in propulsion. However, even among elite athletes, there are variations in self-selected footstrike types. This is especially true in longer distance events, where there is a prevalence of heel strikers. There does tend however to be a greater percentage of mid/forefoot striking runners in the elite fields, particularly in the faster racers and the winning individuals or groups. While one could attribute

1469-447: A result of adapting to a mostly aquatic lifestyle, though their hindlimbs are still held fully erect. For example, the mesozoic prehistoric crocodilian Erpetosuchus is believed to have had a fully erect stance and been terrestrial. The number of locomotory appendages varies much between animals, and sometimes the same animal may use different numbers of its legs in different circumstances. The best contender for unipedal movement

1582-418: A running body from the viewpoint of spring-mass mechanics is that changes in kinetic and potential energy within a stride co-occur, with energy storage accomplished by springy tendons and passive muscle elasticity. The term "running" can refer to a variety of speeds ranging from jogging to sprinting . Running in humans is associated with improved health and life expectancy . It is hypothesized that

1695-517: A similar form to those of velvet worms, and suggest a distant shared ancestry. Animals show a vast range of gaits , the order that they place and lift their appendages in locomotion. Gaits can be grouped into categories according to their patterns of support sequence. For quadrupeds , there are three main categories: walking gaits, running gaits, and leaping gaits . In one system (relating to horses), there are 60 discrete patterns: 37 walking gaits, 14 running gaits, and 9 leaping gaits . Walking

1808-448: A slow increase in speed and distance. While running, it is best to pay attention to how one's body feels. If a runner is gasping for breath or feels exhausted while running, it may be beneficial to slow down or try a shorter distance for a few weeks. If a runner feels that the pace or distance is no longer challenging, then the runner may want to speed up or run farther. Running can also have psychological benefits, as many participants in

1921-469: A study published in BMC Public Health reports that jogging outdoors can have the additional benefits of increased energy and concentration. Jogging outdoors is a better way to improve energy levels and advance mood than using a treadmill at the gym. Jogging also prevents muscle and bone damage that often occurs with age, improves heart performance and blood circulation and assists in preserving

2034-649: A tight ball when threatened. Pangolins have been reported to roll away from danger, by both gravity and self-powered methods. A pangolin in hill country in Sumatra , to flee from a researcher, ran to the edge of a slope and curled into a ball to roll down the slope, crashing through the vegetation, and covering an estimated 30 metres (100 ft) or more in 10 seconds. Caterpillars of the mother-of-pearl moth, Pleuroptya ruralis , when attacked, will touch their heads to their tails and roll backwards, up to 5 revolutions at about 40 centimetres per second (16 in/s), which

2147-467: A warm up or cool down for runners, preceding or following a workout or race. It is often used by serious runners as a means of active recovery during interval training . For example, a runner who completes a fast 400 meter repetition at a sub-5-minute mile pace (3 minute km) may drop to an 8-minute mile jogging pace (5 minute km) for a recovery lap. Jogging is an effective way to boost endurance and improve cardiovascular health while placing less stress on

2260-410: A “backward knee”, which is really their ankle. The extension of the joint helps store momentum and acts as a spring, allowing digitigrade creatures more speed. Digitigrade mammals are also often adept at quiet movement. Birds are also digitigrade. Hooved mammals are known as ungulates , walking on the fused tips of their fingers and toes. This can vary from odd-toed ungulates, such as horses, rhinos, and

2373-533: Is chafing , caused by repetitive rubbing of one piece of skin against another, or against an article of clothing. One common location for chafe to occur is the runner's upper thighs. The skin feels coarse and develops a rash-like look. A variety of deodorants and special anti-chafing creams are available to treat such problems. Chafe is also likely to occur on the nipple . There are a variety of home remedies that runners use to deal with chafing while running such as band-aids and using grease to reduce friction. Prevention

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2486-420: Is 1.5 body lengths per second (3.5 cm/s or 1.4 in/s). Researchers estimate that the stomatopod acts as a true wheel around 40% of the time during this series of rolls. The remaining 60% of the time it has to "jumpstart" a roll by using its body to thrust itself upwards and forwards. Pangolins have also been reported to roll away from danger by self-powered methods. Witnessed by a lion researcher in

2599-441: Is a method of terrestrial locomotion by which humans and other animals move rapidly on foot. Running is a gait with an aerial phase in which all feet are above the ground (though there are exceptions). This is in contrast to walking , where one foot is always in contact with the ground, the legs are kept mostly straight, and the center of gravity vaults over the stance leg or legs in an inverted pendulum fashion. A feature of

2712-429: Is a popular participatory sport and is one of the events which, along with track and field, road running, and racewalking , makes up the umbrella sport of athletics. The majority of popular races do not incorporate a significant change in elevation as a key component of a course. There are several, disparate variations that feature significant inclines or declines. These fall into two main groups. The naturalistic group

2825-404: Is able to run a certain distance in the shortest time. Today, competitive running events make up the core of the sport of athletics . Events are usually grouped into several classes, each requiring substantially different athletic strengths and involving different tactics, training methods, and types of competitors. Running competitions have probably existed for most of humanity's history and were

2938-531: Is about 40 times its normal speed. Nannosquilla decemspinosa , a species of long-bodied, short-legged mantis shrimp , lives in shallow sandy areas along the Pacific coast of Central and South America. When stranded by a low tide the 3 cm (1.2 in) stomatopod lies on its back and performs backwards somersaults over and over. The animal moves up to 2 metres (6.5 ft) at a time by rolling 20–40 times, with speeds of around 72 revolutions per minute. That

3051-545: Is based on outdoor racing over geographical features. Among these are the cross country-related sports of fell running (a tradition associated with Northern Europe) and trail running (mainly ultramarathon distances), the running/climbing combination of skyrunning (organised by the International Skyrunning Federation with races across North America, Europe and East Asia) and the mainly trail- and road-centred mountain running (governed by

3164-421: Is commonly known to stretch before and after a workout session, and also avoid heavy equipment especially during the first couple of workout sessions. Also to help prevent shin splints do not increase the intensity of a workout more than 10% a week. To treat shin splints it is important to rest with the least amount of impact on your legs and apply ice to the area. A survey showed that shin splints make up 12.7% of

3277-422: Is effective on a flat surface and is used for slow, silent movement, such as when stalking prey. Snakes use concertina locomotion for moving slowly in tunnels, here the snake alternates in bracing parts of its body on it surrounds. Finally the caenophidian snakes use the fast and unusual method of movement known as sidewinding on sand or loose soil. The snake cycles through throwing the front part of its body in

3390-490: Is key which is why form fitting clothes are important. An iliotibial band is a muscle and tendon that is attached to the hip and runs the length of the thigh to attach to the upper part of the tibia, and the band is what helps the knee to bend. This is an injury that is located at the knee and shows symptoms of swelling outside the knee. Iliotibial band syndrome is also known as "runner's knee" or "jogger's knee" because it can be caused by jogging or running. Once pain or swelling

3503-401: Is noticeable it is important to put ice on it immediately and it is recommended to rest the knee for better healing. Most knee injuries can be treated by light activity and much rest for the knee. In more serious cases, arthroscopy is the most common to help repair ligaments but severe situations reconstructive surgery would be needed. A survey was taken in 2011 with knee injuries being 22.7% of

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3616-849: Is sunny and warm. Running can improve mental alertness and sleep. Both research and clinical experience have shown that exercise can be a treatment for serious depression and anxiety even some physicians prescribe exercise to most of their patients. Running can have a longer-lasting effect than anti-depressants. The non-threatening environment offered by running generates a sense of achievement and belonging which helps with mental illness. Many injuries are associated with running because of its high-impact nature. Change in running volume may lead to development of patellofemoral pain syndrome , iliotibial band syndrome , patellar tendinopathy , plica syndrome , and medial tibial stress syndrome . Change in running pace may cause Achilles tendinitis , gastrocnemius injuries, and plantar fasciitis . Repetitive stress on

3729-414: Is supported by the legs, is an important aspect. There are three main ways in which vertebrates support themselves with their legs – sprawling, semi-erect, and fully erect. Some animals may use different postures in different circumstances, depending on the posture's mechanical advantages. There is no detectable difference in energetic cost between stances. The "sprawling" posture is the most primitive, and

3842-498: Is that the body adjusts to this flat surface running, and some of the muscles will become weaker, along with the added impact of running on a harder surface. Therefore, it can be beneficial to change terrain occasionally – such as trail, beach, or grass running. This is more unstable ground and allows the legs to strengthen different muscles. Runners should be wary of twisting their ankles on such terrain. Running downhill also increases knee stress and should, therefore, be avoided. Reducing

3955-470: Is the springtail , which while normally hexapedal , hurls itself away from danger using its furcula , a tail -like forked rod that can be rapidly unfurled from the underside of its body. A number of species move and stand on two legs, that is, they are bipedal . The group that is exclusively bipedal is the birds , which have either an alternating or a hopping gait. There are also a number of bipedal mammals . Most of these move by hopping – including

4068-793: Is the maximum speed at which a human can run. It is affected by many factors, varies greatly throughout the population, and is important in athletics and many sports. Air resistance for top sprinters can take up to 5% of their energy. The fastest human footspeed on record is 44.7 km/h (12.4 m/s; 27.8 mph), seen during a 100-meter sprint (average speed between the 60th and the 80th meter) by Usain Bolt . (see Category:Athletics (track and field) record progressions ) Track running events are individual or relay events with athletes racing over specified distances on an oval running track. The events are categorized as sprints , middle and long-distance , and hurdling . Road running takes place on

4181-699: Is the most common gait, where some feet are on the ground at any given time, and found in almost all legged animals. In an informal sense, running is considered to occur when at some points in the stride all feet are off the ground in a moment of suspension . Technically, however, moments of suspension occur in both running gaits (such as trot) and leaping gaits (such as canter and gallop). Gaits involving one or more moments of suspension can be found in many animals, and compared to walking they are faster but more energetically costly forms of locomotion. Animals will use different gaits for different speeds, terrain, and situations. For example, horses show four natural gaits,

4294-539: Is the original limb posture from which the others evolved. The upper limbs are typically held horizontally, while the lower limbs are vertical, though upper limb angle may be substantially increased in large animals. The body may drag along the ground, as in salamanders, or may be substantially elevated, as in monitor lizards . This posture is typically associated with trotting gaits , and the body flexes from side-to-side during movement to increase step length. All limbed reptiles and salamanders use this posture, as does

4407-579: Is the study of gait in humans and other animals. This may involve videoing subjects with markers on particular anatomical landmarks and measuring the forces of their footfall using floor transducers ( strain gauges ). Skin electrodes may also be used to measure muscle activity. There are a number of terrestrial and amphibious limbless vertebrates and invertebrates. These animals, due to lack of appendages, use their bodies to generate propulsive force. These movements are sometimes referred to as "slithering" or "crawling", although neither are formally used in

4520-495: Is too exhausted to flee, succumbing to "chase myopathy " (Sears 2001), and that human features such as the nuchal ligament , abundant sweat glands , the Achilles tendons , big knee joints and muscular glutei maximi , were changes caused by this type of activity (Bramble & Lieberman 2004, et al.). The theory as first proposed used comparative physiological evidence and the natural habits of animals when running, indicating

4633-527: The British Empire , and in his 1884 novel My Run Home , the Australian author Rolf Boldrewood wrote, "Your bedroom curtains were still drawn as I passed on my morning jog." In the United States jogging was called "roadwork" when athletes in training, such as boxers, customarily ran several miles each day as part of their conditioning. In New Zealand during the 1960s or 1970s, the word "roadwork"

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4746-678: The East African Rift in Africa. The Tailteann Games , an Irish sporting festival in honor of the goddess Tailtiu , dates back to 1829 BCE and is one of the earliest records of competitive running. The origins of the Olympics and Marathon running are shrouded by myth and legend, though the first recorded games took place in 776 BCE. Running in Ancient Greece can be traced back to these games of 776 BCE. ...I suspect that

4859-554: The Namib desert, will actively roll down sand dunes. This action can be used to successfully escape predators such as the Pompilidae tarantula wasps , which lay their eggs in a paralyzed spider for their larvae to feed on when they hatch. The spiders flip their body sideways and then cartwheel over their bent legs. The rotation is fast, the golden wheel spider ( Carparachne aureoflava ) moving up to 20 revolutions per second, moving

4972-507: The Serengeti in Africa, a group of lions surrounded a pangolin, but could not get purchase on it when it rolled into a ball, and so the lions sat around it waiting and dozing. Surrounded by lions, it would unroll itself slightly and give itself a push to roll some distance, until by doing this multiple times it could get far enough away from the lions to be safe. Moving like this would allow a pangolin to cover distance while still remaining in

5085-549: The Sierra Nevada mountains. When disturbed or startled it coils itself up into a ball, often causing it to roll downhill. The pebble toad ( Oreophrynella nigra ) lives atop tepui in the Guiana highlands of South America . When threatened, often by tarantulas , it rolls into ball, and typically being on an incline, rolls away under gravity like a loose pebble. Namib wheeling spiders ( Carparachne spp. ), found in

5198-593: The World Mountain Running Association and based mainly in Europe). Terrestrial locomotion Terrestrial locomotion has evolved as animals adapted from aquatic to terrestrial environments. Locomotion on land raises different problems than that in water, with reduced friction being replaced by the increased effects of gravity . As viewed from evolutionary taxonomy , there are three basic forms of animal locomotion in

5311-695: The foot is attached. Within this form there is much variation in structure and shape. An alternative form of vertebrate 'leg' to the tetrapod leg is the fins found on amphibious fish . Also a few tetrapods , such as the macropods , have adapted their tails as additional locomotory appendages. The fundamental form of the vertebrate foot has five digits, however some animals have fused digits, giving them less, and some early fishapods had more; Acanthostega had eight toes. Only ichthyosaurs evolved more than 5 digits within tetrapods, while their transition from land to water again (limb terminations were becoming flippers). Feet have evolved many forms depending on

5424-721: The immune system and an improved self-esteem and emotional state. Running, like all forms of regular exercise, can effectively slow or reverse the effects of aging. Even people who have already experienced a heart attack are 20% less likely to develop serious heart problems if more engaged in running or any type of aerobic activity. Although an optimal amount of vigorous aerobic exercise such as running might bring benefits related to lower cardiovascular disease and life extension, an excessive dose (e.g., marathons ) might have an opposite effect associated with cardiotoxicity . Running can assist people in losing weight, staying in shape and improving body composition. Research suggests that

5537-454: The macropods such as kangaroos and various jumping rodents . Only a few mammals such as humans and the ground pangolin commonly show an alternating bipedal gait. In humans, alternating bipedalism is characterized by a bobbing motion, which is due to the utilization of gravity when falling forward. This form of bipedalism has demonstrated significant energy savings. Cockroaches and some lizards may also run on their two hind legs. With

5650-419: The platypus and several species of frogs that walk. Unusual examples can be found among amphibious fish , such as the mudskipper , which drag themselves across land on their sturdy fins. Among the invertebrates , most arthropods – which includes the most diverse group of animals, the insects – have a stance best described as sprawling. There is also anecdotal evidence that some octopus species (such as

5763-405: The vertebrates and the arthropods . Important aspects of legged locomotion are posture (the way the body is supported by the legs), the number of legs, and the functional structure of the leg and foot . There are also many gaits , ways of moving the legs to locomote, such as walking , running , or jumping . Appendages can be used for movement in a lot of ways: the posture, the way the body

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5876-596: The Shrew , "you may be jogging whiles your boots are green". At that point, it usually meant to leave. The term jog was often used in English and North American literature to describe short quick movements, either intentional or unintentional. It is also used to describe a quick, sharp shake or jar. Richard Jefferies , an English naturalist, wrote of "joggers", describing them as quickly moving people who brushed others aside as they passed. This usage became common throughout

5989-433: The absorption phases of running. The propulsion phase, which occurs from midstance to toe-off, is crucial for understanding how the body moves forward. In a full stride length model, elements of both the terminal swing and footstrike contribute to propulsion. The setup for propulsion begins at the end of the terminal swing when the hip joint flexes, allowing the hip extensors to generate force as they accelerate through

6102-533: The ancestors of humankind developed the ability to run for long distances about 2.6 million years ago, probably to hunt animals . Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various areas. Records of competitive racing date back to the Tailteann Games in Ireland between 632 BCE and 1171 BCE, while the first recorded Olympic Games took place in 776 BCE. Running has been described as

6215-429: The animal's needs. One key variation is where on the foot the animal's weight is placed. Some vertebrates: amphibians, reptiles, and some mammals such as humans , bears , and rodents, are plantigrade. This means the weight of the body is placed on the heel of the foot, giving it strength and stability. Most mammals, such as cats and dogs , are digitigrade , walking on their toes, giving them what many people mistake as

6328-410: The ankle joint. On the other hand, a mid/forefoot strike helps in shock absorption, supporting plantar flexion from midstance to toe-off. Actual propulsion begins as the lower extremity enters midstance. The hip extensors continue contracting, assisted by gravity and the stretch reflex from maximal hip flexion during the terminal swing. Hip extension pulls the ground underneath the body, propelling

6441-457: The ankle undergoes plantar flexion. Propulsion continues until the leg is extended behind the body and toe-off occurs. This involves a maximal hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion for the subject, resulting in the body being pushed forward from this motion, and the ankle/foot leaves the ground as the initial swing begins. Research, especially in the footstrike debate, has primarily focused on identifying and preventing injuries during

6554-452: The ball of the foot, ball and heel of the foot simultaneously and heel of the foot respectively. During this time, the hip joint is undergoing extension from being in maximal flexion from the previous swing phase. For proper force absorption, the knee joint should be flexed upon the footstrike, and the ankle should be slightly in front of the body. Footstrike begins the absorption phase as forces from initial contact are attenuated throughout

6667-447: The beginning of the initial swing of one side, there is a flight phase where neither extremity is in contact with the ground due to the opposite side finishing terminal swing. As the footstrike of the one hand occurs, the initial swing continues. The opposing limbs meet with one in midstance and midswing, beginning the propulsion and terminal swing phases. The upper extremity function serves mainly in providing balance in conjunction with

6780-410: The body. Hip flexion and knee flexion occur, beginning the return of the limb to the starting position and setting up for another foot strike. The initial swing ends at midswing when the limb is again directly underneath the trunk, pelvis, and hip with the knee joint flexed and hip flexion continuing. Terminal swing then begins as hip flexion continues to the point of activation of the stretch reflex of

6893-432: The chin up and scrunching shoulders. Exercise physiologists have found that the stride rates are extremely consistent across professional runners, between 185 and 200 steps per minute. The main difference between long- and short-distance runners is the length of stride rather than the rate of stride. During running, the speed at which the runner moves may be calculated by multiplying the cadence (steps per minute) by

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7006-450: The continuous nature of running gait, no certain point is assumed to be the beginning. However, for simplicity, it will be assumed that absorption and footstrike mark the beginning of the running cycle in a body already in motion. Footstrike occurs when a plantar portion of the foot makes initial contact with the ground. Common footstrike types include forefoot, midfoot, and heel strike types. These are characterized by initial contact of

7119-496: The differences in the potential injury risks and shock absorption capabilities between heel and mid/forefoot footstrikes. It has been shown that heel striking is generally associated with higher rates of injury and impact due to inefficient shock absorption and inefficient biomechanical compensations for these forces. This is due to pressures from a heel strike traveling through bones for shock absorption rather than being absorbed by muscles. Since bones cannot disperse forces easily,

7232-454: The direction of motion and bringing the back part of its body into line crosswise. Although animals have never evolved wheels for locomotion, a small number of animals will move at times by rolling their whole body. Rolling animals can be divided into those that roll under the force of gravity or wind and those that roll using their own power. The web-toed salamander , a 10-centimetre (3.9 in) salamander, lives on steep hills in

7345-404: The distribution of species with limited locomotive range under their own power. There is less opportunity for passive locomotion on land than by sea or air, though parasitism ( hitchhiking ) is available toward this end, as in all other habitats . Many species of monkeys and apes use a form of arboreal locomotion known as brachiation , with forelimbs as the prime mover. Some elements of

7458-400: The exception of the birds, terrestrial vertebrate groups with legs are mostly quadrupedal – the mammals, reptiles , and the amphibians usually move on four legs. There are many quadrupedal gaits. The most diverse group of animals on earth, the insects , are included in a larger taxon known as hexapods , most of which are hexapedal, walking and standing on six legs. Exceptions among

7571-883: The faster speeds of elite runners compared to recreational runners with similar footstrikes to physiological differences, the hip, and joints have been left out of the equation for proper propulsion. This raises the question of how heel-striking elite distance runners can keep up such high paces with a supposedly inefficient and injurious foot strike technique. Biomechanical factors associated with elite runners include increased hip function, use, and stride length over recreational runners. An increase in running speeds causes increased ground reaction forces, and elite distance runners must compensate for this to maintain their pace over long distances. These forces are attenuated through increased stride length via increased hip flexion and extension through decreased ground contact time and more energy being used in propulsion. With increased propulsion in

7684-439: The forces are transmitted to other parts of the body, including ligaments, joints, and bones in the rest of the lower extremities up to the lower back. This causes the body to use abnormal compensatory motions in an attempt to avoid serious bone injuries. These compensations include internal rotation of the tibia, knee, and hip joints. Excessive compensation over time has been linked to a higher risk of injuries in those joints and

7797-433: The frequency and duration can also prevent injury. Barefoot running has been promoted as a means of reducing running related injuries, but this remains controversial and a majority of professionals advocate the wearing of appropriate shoes as the best method for avoiding injury. However, a study in 2013 concluded that wearing neutral shoes is not associated with increased injuries. Another common, running-related injury

7910-451: The genus Pinnoctopus ) can also drag themselves across land a short distance by hauling their body along by their tentacles (for example to pursue prey between rockpools) – there may be video evidence of this. The semi-erect posture is more accurately interpreted as an extremely elevated sprawling posture. This mode of locomotion is typically found in large lizards such as monitor lizards and tegus . Mammals and birds typically have

8023-404: The ground, returning from dorsiflexion in midstance. This can occur either by releasing the elastic load from an earlier mid/forefoot strike or through concentric contraction from a heel strike. With a forefoot strike, the ankle and knee joints release their stored elastic energy from the footstrike/absorption phase. The quadriceps group/knee extensors fully extend the knee, pushing the body off

8136-409: The ground. Simultaneously, the knee flexors and stretch reflex pull the knee back into flexion, initiating the initial swing phase. The hip extensors extend to the maximum, contributing to forces pulling and pushing off the ground, as well as initiating knee flexion and the initial swing phase. Initial swing is the response of both stretch reflexes and concentric movements to the propulsion movements of

8249-505: The gymnastic sport of uneven bars resemble brachiation, but most adult humans do not have the upper body strength required to sustain brachiation. Many other species of arboreal animal with tails will incorporate their tails into the locomotion repertoire, if only as a minor component of their suspensory behaviors . Locomotion on irregular, steep surfaces require agility and dynamic balance known as sure-footedness . Mountain goats are famed for navigating vertiginous mountainsides where

8362-469: The heel and facilitates the use of the spring mechanism of the foot. Additionally, it facilitates avoiding the braking effect that occurs when a runner lands their foot in front of the center of mass. Although maintaining an upright posture is crucial, runners should also keep their frame relaxed and engage their core to keep their posture stable. This helps prevent injury as long as the body is neither rigid nor tense. The most common running mistakes are tilting

8475-671: The hind legs of kangaroos are very elastic , allowing kangaroos to effectively bounce along conserving energy from hop to hop, making saltation a very energy efficient way to move around in their nutrient poor environment. Saltation is also used by many small birds, frogs , fleas , crickets , grasshoppers , and water fleas (a small planktonic crustacean ). Most animals move in the direction of their head. However, there are some exceptions. Crabs move sideways, and naked mole rats , which live in tight tunnels and can move backward or forward with equal facility. Crayfish can move backward much faster than they can move forward. Gait analysis

8588-435: The hip extensors. The knee begins to extend slightly as it swings to the anterior portion of the body. The foot then makes contact with the ground with a foot strike, completing the running cycle of one side of the lower extremity. Each limb of the lower extremity works opposite to the other. When one side is in toe-off/propulsion, the other hand is in the swing/recovery phase preparing for footstrike. Following toe-off and

8701-403: The horizontal plane, less impact occurs from the decreased force in the vertical plane. Increased hip flexion allows for increased use of the hip extensors through midstance and toe-off, allowing for more force production. The difference even between world-class and national-level 1500-m runners has been associated with more efficient hip joint function. The increase in velocity likely comes from

8814-679: The increased range of motion in hip flexion and extension, allowing for greater acceleration and speed. The hip extensors and extension have been linked to more powerful knee extension during toe-off, contributing to propulsion. Stride length must be appropriately increased with some degree of knee flexion maintained through the terminal swing phases, as excessive knee extension during this phase along with footstrike has been associated with higher impact forces due to braking and an increased prevalence of heel striking. Elite runners tend to exhibit some degree of knee flexion at footstrike and midstance, which first serves to eccentrically absorb impact forces in

8927-572: The insects include praying mantises and water scorpions , which are quadrupeds with their front two legs modified for grasping, some butterflies such as the Lycaenidae (blues and hairstreaks) which use only four legs, and some kinds of insect larvae that may have no legs (e.g., maggots ), or additional prolegs (e.g., caterpillars ). Spiders and many of their relatives move on eight legs – they are octopedal . However, some creatures move on many more legs. Terrestrial crustaceans may have

9040-434: The joints and circulatory system compared to more intense exercises. According to a study by Stanford University School of Medicine , jogging is effective in increasing human lifespan, and decreasing the effects of aging , with benefits for the cardiovascular system . Jogging is useful for fighting obesity and staying healthy. However, individuals who are moderately or extremely obese should exercise jogging with caution, as

9153-507: The least misstep could lead to a fatal fall . Many species of animals must sometimes locomote while safely conveying their young. Most often this task is performed by adult females. Some species are specially adapted to conveying their young without occupying their limbs, such as marsupials with their special pouch. In other species, the young are carried on the mother's back, and the offspring have instinctual clinging behaviours. Many species incorporate specialized transportation behaviours as

9266-412: The leg waves travelling forward as they walk, while larger centipedes move with the leg waves travelling backward. The legs of tetrapods , the main group of terrestrial vertebrates (which also includes amphibious fish ), have internal bones, with externally attached muscles for movement, and the basic form has three key joints : the shoulder joint, the knee joint, and the ankle joint, at which

9379-566: The likelihood of this activity as a successful hunting method. Further evidence from observation of modern-day hunting practices also indicated this likelihood (Carrier et al. 1984). According to Sears (p. 12) scientific investigation (Walker & Leakey 1993) of the Nariokotome skeleton provided further evidence for the Carrier theory. Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various areas such as Greece, Egypt, Asia, and

9492-412: The lower extremity. Absorption of forces continues as the body moves from footstrike to midstance due to vertical propulsion from the toe-off during a previous gait cycle. Midstance is when the lower extremity limb of focus is in knee flexion directly underneath the trunk, pelvis, and hips. At this point, propulsion begins to occur as the hips undergo hip extension, the knee joint undergoes extension, and

9605-450: The maximal range of motion. As the hip extensors transition from inhibitory to primary muscle movers, the lower extremity moves back towards the ground, aided by the stretch reflex and gravity. The footstrike and absorption phases follow, leading to two possible outcomes. With a heel strike, this phase may be just a continuation of momentum from the stretch reflex, gravity, and light hip extension, offering little force absorption through

9718-409: The most common injuries in running, with blisters being the top percentage at 30.9%. Running is both a competition and a type of training for sports that have running or endurance components. As a sport, it is split into events divided by distance and sometimes includes permutations such as the obstacles in steeplechase and hurdles . Running races are contests to determine which of the competitors

9831-456: The most common injuries. A more known injury is medial tibial stress syndrome (MTSS) which is the accurate name for shin splints. This is caused during running when the muscle is being overused along the front of the lower leg with symptoms that affect 2 to 6 inches of the muscle. Shin splints have sharp, splinter-like pain, that is typically X-rayed by doctors but is not necessary for shin splints to be diagnosed. To help prevent shin splints it

9944-449: The most legs are the millipedes . They have two pairs of legs per body segment, with common species having between 80 and 400 legs overall – with the rare species Illacme plenipes having up to 750 legs. Animals with many legs typically move them in metachronal rhythm , which gives the appearance of waves of motion travelling forward or backward along their rows of legs. Millipedes, caterpillars, and some small centipedes move with

10057-540: The motion of legs on either side of the body alternates, i.e. is out of phase. Other animals, such as a horse when galloping, or an inchworm , alternate between their front and back legs. In saltation (hopping) all legs move together, instead of alternating. As a main means of locomotion, this is usually found in bipeds, or semi-bipeds. Among the mammals saltation is commonly used among kangaroos and their relatives, jerboas , springhares , kangaroo rats , hopping mice , gerbils , and sportive lemurs . Certain tendons in

10170-492: The muscles involved in those motions. Conversely, a mid/forefoot strike has been associated with greater efficiency and lower injury risk due to the triceps surae being used as a lever system to absorb forces with the muscles eccentrically rather than through the bone. Landing with a mid/forefoot strike has also been shown to properly attenuate shock and allow the triceps surae to aid in propulsion via reflexive plantarflexion after stretching to absorb ground contact forces. Thus

10283-586: The newspaper suggested that the club "may be called the Auckland Joggers' Club"—which is thought to be the first use of the noun "jogger". University of Oregon track coach Bill Bowerman , after jogging with Lydiard in New Zealand in 1962, started a joggers' club in Eugene in early 1963. He published the book Jogging in 1966, popularizing jogging in the United States. Jogging may also be used as

10396-500: The number of newly created neurons within the brain. This finding could have significant implications in aging as well as learning and memory. A recent study published in Cell Metabolism has also linked running with improved memory and learning skills. Running is an effective way to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and inflammation. It helps people who struggle with seasonal affective disorder by running outside when it

10509-474: The opposing side of the lower extremity. The movement of each leg is paired with the opposite arm, which serves to counterbalance the body, particularly during the stance phase. The arms move most effectively (as seen in elite athletes) with the elbow joint at approximately 90 degrees or less, the hands swinging from the hips up to mid-chest level with the opposite leg, the Humerus moving from being parallel with

10622-573: The opposite direction to motion, known as retrograde waves , or in the same direction as motion, known as direct waves. Earthworms move by retrograde waves alternatively swelling and contracting down the length of their body, the swollen sections being held in place using setae . Aquatic molluscs such as limpets , which are sometimes out of the water, tend to move using retrograde waves. However, terrestrial molluscs such as slugs and snails tend to use direct waves. Lugworms and seals also use direct waves. Most snakes move using lateral undulation where

10735-404: The person of average weight will burn approximately 100 calories per mile run. Running increases one's metabolism , even after running; one will continue to burn an increased level of calories for a short time after the run. Different speeds and distances are appropriate for different individual health and fitness levels. For new runners, it takes time to get into shape. The key is consistency and

10848-426: The potential for injury while running (just as there is in any sport), there are many benefits. Some of these benefits include potential weight loss , improved cardiovascular and respiratory health (reducing the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases), improved cardiovascular fitness, reduced total blood cholesterol , strengthening of bones (and potentially increased bone density), possible strengthening of

10961-459: The quadriceps muscle group. Secondly it allows for the knee joint to contract concentrically and provides significant aid in propulsion during toe-off as the quadriceps group is capable of producing large amounts of force. Recreational runners have been shown to increase stride length through increased knee extension rather than increased hip flexion, as exhibited by elite runners, which provides an intense braking motion with each step and decreases

11074-407: The rate and efficiency of knee extension during toe-off, slowing down speed. Knee extension, however, contributes to additional stride length and propulsion during toe-off and is seen more frequently in elite runners as well. ‹The template How-to is being considered for merging .›   Leaning forward places a runner's center of mass on the front part of the foot, which avoids landing on

11187-530: The rear end and then moving forward the front end, which is then anchored and then the back end is pulled in, and so on. This is known as two-anchor movement . A legged animal, the inchworm , also moves like this, clasping with appendages at either end of its body. Limbless animals can also move using pedal locomotory waves , rippling the underside of the body. This is the main method used by molluscs such as slugs and snails, and also large flatworms, some other worms, and even earless seals . The waves may move in

11300-540: The risk of injury increases. The National Cancer Institute has performed studies that suggest jogging and other types of aerobic exercise can reduce the risk of lung, colon, breast and prostate cancers, among others. It is suggested by the American Cancer Society that jogging for at least 30 minutes five days a week can help in cancer prevention. While jogging on a treadmill will provide health benefits such as cancer prevention, and aid in weight loss,

11413-468: The runner forward. During midstance, the knee should be slightly flexed due to elastic loading from the absorption and footstrike phases, preserving forward momentum. The ankle joint is in dorsiflexion at this point, either elastically loaded from a mid/forefoot strike or preparing for stand-alone concentric plantar flexion. The final propulsive movements during toe-off involve all three joints: ankle, knee, and hip. The plantar flexors push off from

11526-503: The same tissues without enough time for recovery or running with improper form can lead to many of the above. Runners generally attempt to minimize these injuries by warming up before exercise, focusing on proper running form, performing strength training exercises, eating a well balanced diet, allowing time for recovery, and "icing" (applying ice to sore muscles or taking an ice bath). Some runners may experience injuries when running on concrete surfaces. The problem with running on concrete

11639-548: The scientific literature and the latter term is also used for some animals moving on all four limbs. All limbless animals come from cold-blooded groups; there are no endothermic limbless animals, i.e. there are no limbless birds or mammals. Where the foot is important to the legged mammal, for limbless animals the underside of the body is important. Some animals such as snakes or legless lizards move on their smooth dry underside. Other animals have various features that aid movement. Molluscs such as slugs and snails move on

11752-482: The slipperiness of ice and snow as part of their locomotion repertoire. Beavers are known to take advantage of a mud slick known as a "beaver slide" over a short distance when passing from land into a lake or pond. Human locomotion in mud is improved through the use of cleats . Some snakes use an unusual method of movement known as sidewinding on sand or loose soil. Animals caught in terrestrial mudflows are subject to involuntary locomotion; this may be beneficial to

11865-472: The slowest horse gait is the walk , then there are three faster gaits which, from slowest to fastest, are the trot , the canter , and the gallop . Animals may also have unusual gaits that are used occasionally, such as for moving sideways or backwards. For example, the main human gaits are bipedal walking and running , but they employ many other gaits occasionally, including a four-legged crawl in tight spaces. In walking, and for many animals running,

11978-429: The spider at 1 metre per second (3.3 ft/s). Coastal tiger beetle larvae when threatened can flick themselves into the air and curl their bodies to form a wheels, which the wind blows, often uphill, as far as 25 m (80 ft) and as fast as 11 km/h (3 m/s; 7 mph). They also may have some ability to steer themselves in this state. Pangolins , a type of mammal covered in thick scales, roll into

12091-418: The sport report feeling an elated, euphoric state, often referred to as a " runner's high ". Running is frequently recommended as therapy for people with clinical depression and people coping with addiction. A possible benefit may be the enjoyment of nature and scenery, which also improves psychological well-being (see Ecopsychology § Practical benefits ). In animal models, running has been shown to increase

12204-578: The stride length. Running is often measured in terms of pace , expressed in units of minutes per mile or minutes per kilometer (the inverse of speed, in mph or km/h). Some coaches advocate training at a combination of specific paces related to one's fitness to stimulate various physiological improvements. Different types of stride are necessary for different types of running. When sprinting, runners stay on their toes bringing their legs up, using shorter and faster strides. Long-distance runners tend to have more relaxed strides that vary. While there exists

12317-467: The sun, moon, earth, stars, and heaven, which are still the gods of many barbarians, were the only gods known to the aboriginal Hellenes. Seeing that they were always moving and running, from their running nature they were called gods or runners (Thus, Theontas)... Running gait can be divided into two phases regarding the lower extremity : stance and swing. These can be further divided into absorption, propulsion, initial swing, and terminal swing. Due to

12430-633: The terrestrial environment: Some terrains and terrestrial surfaces permit or demand alternative locomotive styles. A sliding component to locomotion becomes possible on slippery surfaces (such as ice and snow ), where location is aided by potential energy , or on loose surfaces (such as sand or scree ), where friction is low but purchase (traction) is difficult. Humans, especially, have adapted to sliding over terrestrial snowpack and terrestrial ice by means of ice skates , snow skis , and toboggans . Aquatic animals adapted to polar climates , such as ice seals and penguins also take advantage of

12543-520: The trunk to approximately 45 degrees shoulder extension (never passing the trunk in flexion) and with as little movement in the transverse plane as possible. The trunk also rotates in conjunction with arm swing. It mainly serves as a balance point from which the limbs are anchored. Thus trunk motion should remain mostly stable with little motion except for slight rotation, as excessive movement would contribute to transverse motion and wasted energy. Recent research into various forms of running has focused on

12656-403: The world's most accessible sport. It is thought that human running evolved at least four and a half million years ago out of the ability of the ape-like Australopithecus , an early ancestor of humans, to walk upright on two legs . Early humans most likely developed into endurance runners from the practice of persistence hunting of animals, the activity of following and chasing until a prey

12769-540: Was mostly supplanted by the word "jogging", promoted by coach Arthur Lydiard , who is credited with popularizing jogging. The idea of jogging as an organised activity was mooted in a sports page article in The New Zealand Herald in February 1962, which told of a group of former athletes and fitness enthusiasts who would meet once a week to run for "fitness and sociability". Since they would be jogging,

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