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87-600: In 1769 he was appointed professor of medicine at the School of Public Health of Strasbourg, then, in 1778, professor of philosophy, before going on, in 1784, to succeed Jacob Reinbold Spielmann as chair of chemistry, natural history and materia medica . In 1794 he became professor of botany and materia medica in the new School of Medicine. He was the author of Tabula affinitatum animalium (1783) and Observationes zoologicae quibus novae complures , published posthumously in 1804. His collections and library of 18,000 volumes formed

174-555: A missionary general practitioner, and a cruise to Jamaica by a University of the West Indies lecturer in medicine. Chinese herbology Chinese herbology ( traditional Chinese : 中藥學 ; simplified Chinese : 中药学 ; pinyin : zhōngyào xué ) is the theory of traditional Chinese herbal therapy, which accounts for the majority of treatments in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). A Nature editorial described TCM as "fraught with pseudoscience ", and said that

261-747: A Christian living in Baghdad under the Khalif Motawakki) made an Arabic translation of De Materia Medica from the Greek in 854. In 948 the Byzantine Emperor Romanus II , son and co-regent of Constantine Porphyrogenitos , sent a beautifully illustrated Greek manuscript of De materia medica to the Spanish Khalif, Abd-Arrahman III . In 1250, Syriac scholar Bar Hebraeus prepared an illustrated Syriac version, which

348-451: A French zoologist is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about an ornithologist is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Materia medica Materia medica ( lit. : 'medical material/substance') is a Latin term from the history of pharmacy for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing (i.e., medications ). The term derives from

435-631: A bland ( 淡 ) flavor). Each of the Five Flavors corresponds to one of the zàng organs , which in turn corresponds to one of the Five Phases : A flavor implies certain properties and presumed therapeutic "actions" of a substance: saltiness "drains downward and softens hard masses"; sweetness is "supplementing, harmonizing, and moistening"; pungent substances are thought to induce sweat and act on qi and blood ; sourness tends to be astringent ( 澀 ; 涩 ) in nature; bitterness "drains heat , purges

522-578: A fact that could have made them limit their commentaries to avoid risks. Nevertheless, he was the physician of Charles V and the Pope Julius III , and that helped to establish his work as the last word in Materia Medica, and as the basis of Spanish botany. The physician Valerius Cordus , son of the famous botanist Euricius Cordus, went through many woods and mountains discovering hundreds of new herbs. He gave lectures on Dioscorides at

609-562: A few trials exist that are considered to have adequate methodology by scientific standards. Proof of effectiveness is poorly documented or absent. A 2016 Cochrane review found "insufficient evidence that Chinese Herbal Medicines were any more or less effective than placebo or hormonal therapy" for the relief of menopause related symptoms. A 2012 Cochrane review found no difference in decreased mortality for SARS patients when Chinese herbs were used alongside Western medicine versus Western medicine exclusively. A 2010 Cochrane review found there

696-620: A five-volume treatise concerning medical matters, entitled Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς in Greek or De materia medica in Latin. This famous commentary covered about 600 plants along with therapeutically useful animal and mineral products. It documented the effects of drugs made from these substances on patients. De materia medica was the first extensive pharmacopeia , including about a thousand natural product drugs (mostly plant-based), 4,740 medicinal usages for drugs, and 360 medical properties (such as antiseptic , anti-inflammatory , stimulant ). The book

783-776: A granular or powdered form. Herbal extracts, similar to patent medicines, are easier and more convenient for patients to take. The industry extraction standard is 5:1, meaning for every five pounds of raw materials, one pound of herbal extract is derived. There are several different methods to classify traditional Chinese medicinals: The Four Natures are: hot ( 熱 ; 热 ), warm ( 溫 ; 温 ), cool ( 涼 ), cold ( 寒 ) or neutral ( 平 ). Hot and warm herbs are used to treat cold diseases, while cool and cold herbs are used to treat hot diseases. The Five Flavors, sometimes also translated as Five Tastes , are: acrid/pungent ( 辛 ), sweet ( 甘 ), bitter ( 苦 ), sour ( 酸 ), and salty ( 鹹 ; 咸 ). Substances may also have more than one flavor, or none (i.e.,

870-560: A key to over 9,000 items; all references were to pages. This was the first annotated Latin translation of Dioscorides' Materia Medica , and so Barbaro became the earliest of the Renaissance translators of Dioscorides, a practice that saw its golden age in the 16th century. Barbaro's work was later corrected by Giovanni-Battista. Jean Ruel was the dean of the Faculty of Medicine and physician to King Francis I of France . He perfected

957-474: A massive contribution to the original text of Pedani's Dioscorides. In some sections Mattioli added information that exceeded 15 times the length of the original text. It resulted in a very big extension of the work, in beauty and information. It was later translated into German, French and Bohemian . Mattioli held a post in the Imperial Court as physician to Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria , and

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1044-574: A mythical god-like figure, who is said to have lived around 2800   BCE. He allegedly tasted hundreds of herbs and imparted his knowledge of medicinal and poisonous plants to farmers. His Shénnóng Běn Cǎo Jīng ( 神農本草經 , Shennong's Materia Medica ) is considered as the oldest book on Chinese herbal medicine. It classifies 365 species of roots, grass, woods, furs, animals and stones into three categories of herbal medicine: The original text of Shennong's Materia Medica has been lost; however, there are extant translations. The true date of origin

1131-456: A number of potentially toxic Chinese herbs. Chinese herbs have been used for centuries. Among the earliest literature are lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by the manuscript Recipes for 52 Ailments , found in the Mawangdui which were sealed in 168   BCE. The first traditionally recognized herbalist is Shénnóng ( 神農 , lit.   ' Divine Farmer ' ),

1218-505: A printed book was a Latin translation printed at Colle , Italy by Johanemm Allemanun de Mdemblik in 1478. The Greek version appeared in 1499 by Manutius at Venice . The most useful books of botany, pharmacy and medicine used by students and scholars were supplemented commentaries on Dioscorides, including the works of Fuchs , Anguillara , Mattioli , Maranta , Cesalpino , Dodoens , Fabius Columna, Gaspard and Johann Bauhin , and De Villanueva/Servetus . In several of these versions,

1305-411: A rough taxonomy of plants and details of medicinal herbs and herbal concoctions. Galen was a philosopher, physician, pharmacist and prolific medical writer. He compiled an extensive record of the medical knowledge of his day and added his own observations. He wrote on the structure of organs, but not their uses; the pulse and its association with respiration; the arteries and the movement of blood; and

1392-524: A second edition in 1552 printed by Arnoullet in Lyon and Vienne . Both works were illustrated with figures by Fuchs , but in this last edition there were also 30 woodcuts by the botanist and physician Jacob Dalechamp. It seems that the reason that he used his initials, H.B.P., and not his full name in the work; it could be that he practically transcribed commentaries of Mattioli . According to Spanish scholar González Echeverría in several communications in

1479-851: A serious health issue. Substances known to be potentially dangerous include aconite , secretions from the Asiatic toad , powdered centipede, the Chinese beetle ( Mylabris phalerata , Ban mao), and certain fungi. There are health problems associated with Aristolochia . Toxic effects are also frequent with Aconitum . To avoid its toxic adverse effects Xanthium sibiricum must be processed. Hepatotoxicity has been reported with products containing Reynoutria multiflora ( synonym Polygonum multiflorum ), glycyrrhizin , Senecio and Symphytum . The evidence suggests that hepatotoxic herbs also include Dictamnus dasycarpus , Astragalus membranaceus , and Paeonia lactiflora ; although there

1566-461: A similar effect at preventing and treating influenza as antiviral medication. Due to the poor quality of these medical studies, there is insufficient evidence to support or dismiss the use of Chinese medicinal herbs for the treatment of influenza. There is a need for larger and higher quality randomized clinical trials to determine how effective Chinese herbal medicine is for treating people with influenza. A 2005 Cochrane review found that although

1653-501: A sort of permanent catheter , which is more profitable than killing the bears. More than 12,000 asiatic black bears are held in "bear farms", where they suffer cruel conditions while being held in tiny cages. The catheter leads through a permanent hole in the abdomen directly to the gall bladder , which can cause severe pain. Increased international attention has mostly stopped the use of bile outside of China; gallbladders from butchered cattle ( 牛胆 ; 牛膽 ; niú dǎn ) are recommended as

1740-649: A substitute for this ingredient. Collecting American ginseng to assist the Asian traditional medicine trade has made ginseng the most harvested wild plant in North America for the last two centuries, which eventually led to a listing on CITES Appendix II . Chinese medicinal plant materials (CMPMs) release chemicals that attracts the Drugstore beetle , leading to the accumulation of this pest and further infestation and damage to these plants. Chinese herbology

1827-419: Is 'sweet herb,' an adequate description for the licorice root. Ku means 'bitter', thus Ku Shen ( Sophorae flavescentis ) translates as 'bitter herb.' The locations or provinces in which herbs are grown often figure into herb names. For example, Bei Sha Shen ( Radix glehniae ) is grown and harvested in northern China, whereas Nan Sha Shen ( Radix adenophorae ) originated in southern China. And

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1914-462: Is a pseudoscientific practice with potentially unreliable product quality, safety hazards or misleading health advice. There are regulatory bodies, such as China GMP (Good Manufacturing Process) of herbal products. However, there have been notable cases of an absence of quality control during herbal product preparation. There is a lack of high-quality scientific research on herbology practices and product effectiveness for anti-disease activity. In

2001-462: Is another Materia Medica with commentaries on a Ruel edition of 1537, printed by Simon de Colines . This work contains hundreds of manuscript marginaia, all along 420 out of 480 pages. The scholar Gonzalez Echeverria demonstrated in the ISHM with a graphological, historical and linguistic study that this task was carried out by Michel de Villeneuve. It also demonstrated that this document was written by

2088-453: Is believed to fall into the late Western Han dynasty (i.e., the first century BCE). The Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and Miscellaneous Illnesses was collated by Zhang Zhongjing , also sometime at the end of the Han dynasty , between 196 and 220 CE. Focusing on drug prescriptions, it was the first medical work to combine Yinyang and the Five Phases with drug therapy. This formulary

2175-514: Is interpreted as stating that these three rulers are not the three classes of Shénnóng mentioned previously. This chapter in particular outlines a more forceful approach. Later on Zhang Zihe ( a.k.a. Zhang Cong-zhen, 1156–1228) is credited with founding the 'Attacking School' which criticized the overuse of tonics. Arguably the most important of these later works is the Compendium of Materia Medica ( Bencao Gangmu , 本草綱目 ) compiled during

2262-419: Is mixed in to form a herbal dough. This dough is then machine cut into tiny pieces, a small amount of excipients are added for a smooth and consistent exterior, and they are spun into pills. These medicines are not patented in the traditional sense of the word. No one has exclusive rights to the formula. Instead, "patent" refers to the standardization of the formula. In China, all Chinese patent medicines of

2349-519: Is no evidence that they cause liver damage. Contrary to popular belief, Ganoderma lucidum mushroom extract, as an adjuvant for cancer immunotherapy, appears to have the potential for toxicity. Also, adulteration of some herbal medicine preparations with conventional drugs which may cause serious adverse effects, such as corticosteroids , phenylbutazone , phenytoin , and glibenclamide , has been reported. However, many adverse reactions are due to misuse or abuse of Chinese medicine. For example,

2436-493: Is not enough robust evidence to support the effectiveness of traditional Chinese medicine herbs to stop the bleeding from haemorrhoids . A 2008 Cochrane review found promising evidence for the use of Chinese herbal medicine in relieving painful menstruation , compared to conventional medicine such as NSAIDs and the oral contraceptive pill, but the findings are of low methodological quality. A 2012 Cochrane review found weak evidence suggesting that some Chinese medicinal herbs have

2523-402: Is similar etymology to the Greek pharmakon and so he uses the term pharmaceutic . Thus, the term medicinal (instead of herb ) is usually preferred as a translation for 藥 (pinyin: yào ). Research into the effectiveness of traditional Chinese herbal therapy is of poor quality and often tainted by bias, with little or no rigorous evidence of efficacy. There are concerns over

2610-604: The British Medical Journal ' s long-established "Materia Non Medica" column, the title indicating non-medical material that doctors wished to report from their travels and other experiences. For example, in June 1977, the journal contained "Materia Non Medica" reports on an exhibition at the Whitechapel Art Gallery by a London physician, the making of matches by hand in an Indian village by

2697-629: The Shennong Bencao Jing ( Shennong Emperor's Classic of Materia Medica ), was compiled in the 1st century AD during the Han dynasty , attributed to the mythical Shennong . It lists some 365 medicines, of which 252 are herbs. Earlier literature included lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by the Recipes for Fifty-Two Ailments found in the Mawangdui tomb, which was sealed in 168 BC. Succeeding generations augmented

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2784-564: The ISHM , the John M. Riddle Anonymous B (De Materia Medica of 1543) would be Michael Servetus , and that the Anonymous D (De Materia Medica of 1554 of Mattioli plus non-signed commentaries) is two commentarians, Servetus and Mattioi , being the last one hired for editing the " Lyons printers' Tribute to Michel de Villeneuve " edition. Michael Servetus, using the name "Michel de Villeneuve", who already had his first death sentence from

2871-541: The Inquisition contains Wieland, Anguillara , Gesner , Lusitanus and others. This made editions of Matioli's De Materia Medica omnipresent throughout the continent, especially in northern Europe. In 1554 the physician Andres Laguna published his Annotations on Dioscorides of Anazarbus printed by Guillaume Rouillé in Lyons. Laguna was the first to translate De Materia Medica into Castilian . His translation

2958-728: The Ming dynasty by Li Shizhen , which is still used today for consultation and reference. The use of Chinese herbs was popular during the medieval age in western Asian and Islamic countries. They were traded through the Silk Road from the East to the West. Cinnamon , ginger , rhubarb , nutmeg and cubeb are mentioned as Chinese herbs by medieval Islamic medical scholars Such as Rhazes (854–925 CE), Haly Abbas (930–994 CE) and Avicenna (980–1037 CE). There were also multiple similarities between

3045-768: The Shennong Bencao Jing , as in the Yaoxing Lun ( Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs ), a 7th-century Tang dynasty treatise on herbal medicine. In Greece, Hippocrates (born 460 BC) was a philosopher later known as the Father of Medicine. He founded a school of medicine that focused on treating the causes of disease rather than its symptoms. Disease was dictated by natural laws and therefore could be treated through close observation of symptoms. His treatises, Aphorisms and Prognostics , discuss 265 drugs,

3132-828: The Song dynasty . Succeeding generations augmented these works, as in the Yaoxing Lun ( 藥性論 ; 药性论 ; 'Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs'), a 7th-century Tang dynasty Chinese treatise on herbal medicine. There was a shift in emphasis in treatment over several centuries. A section of the Huangdi Neijing Suwen including Chapter 74 was added by Wang Bing in his 765 edition. In which it says: 主病之謂君，佐君之謂臣，應臣之謂使，非上下三品之謂也。 "Ruler of disease it called Sovereign, aid to Sovereign it called Minister, comply with Minister it called Envoy (Assistant), not upper lower three classes (qualities) it called." The last part

3219-687: The University of Paris , anonymously published a Dioscorides-De Materia Medica in 1543, printed by Jean & Francois Frellon in Lyon. It has 277 marginalia and 20 commentaries on a De Materia Medica of Jean Ruel. According to Gonzalez Echeverría, to be associated to an anonymous Pharmacopeia that "Michel de Villeneuve" published the same year, meant to be a single unit, which is typical when it comes to De Materia Medica-Pharmacopeia. This work had six later editions, in 1546 and 1547 by Jean Frellon, who considered Michael de Villeneuve "his friend and brother", another in 1547 by Thibaut Payen, etc. There

3306-476: The University of Wittenberg , which experts from the university attended. Cordus had no intention of publishing his work. Five years after his death, a Materia Medica with commentaries was published. It contained the index of the Botanologicon , the outstanding work of his father Euricius, who developed a scientific classification of the plants. The following pages are on Gesner 's Nomenclature, relating

3393-530: The black market with such substances, and the black market in rhinoceros horn, for example, has reduced the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years. Concerns have also arisen over the use of turtle plastron and seahorses . TCM recognizes bear bile as a medicinal. In 1988, the Chinese Ministry of Health started controlling bile production, which previously used bears killed before winter. Now bears are fitted with

3480-504: The Chinese words for north and south are respectively bei and nan . Chuan Bei Mu ( Bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae ) and Chuan Niu Xi ( Radix cyathulae ) are both found in Sichuan province, as the character chuan indicates in their names. Some herbs, like Fang Feng ( Radix Saposhnikoviae ), literally 'prevent wind,' preventing or treating wind-related illnesses. Xu Duan ( Radix Dipsaci ), literally 'restore

3567-685: The Emperor Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor . This position granted him an immense influence. He frequently tested the effects of poisonous plants on prisoners in order to popularize his works. He also affirmed that Jean Ruel had declared some information in the lycopsis chapter of his Materia Medica. This is false, but still Mattioli used it as a reason for attacking Ruel. He did not tolerate either rivals nor corrections. The naturalists and physicians daring to disagree with him, or who had corrected him, were attacked. The list of important characters that were admonished, rebuked, or pursued by

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3654-530: The Latin translation of the Materia Medica directly from the " princeps " edition. He tried to develop a translation joining philology , botany and medicine . This work, printed in 1516 by Henri Estienne/Stephano , became very popular, having 20 editions during the 16th century. He published editions until 1537, printed by Simon de Colines . From this point, Latin was the preferred language for presenting De Materia Medica, and Ruel's editions became

3741-473: The Materia Medica , which was highly valued by other medical practitioners throughout Europe. The work of the Italian physician and humanist Ermolao Barbaro was published in 1516, 23 years after his death. Poliziano wrote to Ermalao Barbaro, forwarding a manuscript of the 1st-century pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides , asking him to send it back "annotated by that very learned hand of yours, thus lending

3828-482: The annotations and comments exceed the Dioscoridean text and have much new botany. Printers were not merely printing the authentic materia medica, but hiring experts on the medical and botanical field for criticism, commentaries, that would raise the stature of the printers and the work. Most of these authors copied each other, from previous works. It was normal to add previous commentaries and marginalia, to make

3915-513: The basis from which many other important authors would start to create their own Materia Medica. Ruel was also teacher of two great De Materia Medica authors: Michel de Villeneuve and Andres Laguna. Bruyerinus Champier was the nephew of Symphorien Champier , and physician of Henry II of France . He was an Arabist, and translated works of Avicena . In 1550 he published his first Materia Medica, printed by Balthazar Arnoullet in Lyons . This work had

4002-695: The basis of the Natural History Museum of Strasbourg , where a reconstruction of his natural history cabinet was opened in 1988. Hermann was also in charge of Strasbourg's botanical garden , where he was responsible for a large increase in the number of living plant species. The garden was threatened with closure by the city administration during the French Revolution, and was only saved by the efforts of Hermann. His zoological collection, including 200 mammals, 900 birds, more than 200 reptiles, many fish, invertebrates and dried plants,

4089-461: The bowels, and eliminates dampness". These categories mainly include: Many herbs earn their names from their unique physical appearance. Examples of such names include Niu Xi ( Radix cyathulae seu achyranthis ), 'cow's knees,' which has big joints that might look like cow knees; Bai Mu Er ( Fructificatio tremellae fuciformis ), 'white wood ear', which is white and resembles an ear; Gou Ji ( Rhizoma cibotii ), 'dog spine,' which resembles

4176-410: The broken,' treating torn soft tissues and broken bones. Many herbs indigenous to other countries have been incorporated into the Chinese materia medica. Xi Yang Shen ( Radix panacis quinquefolii ), imported from North American crops, translates as 'western ginseng,' while Dong Yang Shen ( Radix ginseng Japonica ), grown in and imported from North Asian countries, is 'eastern ginseng.' From

4263-558: The clinical uses of these herbs in Chinese and Islamic medicine. There are roughly 13,000 medicinals used in China and over 100,000 medicinal recipes recorded in the ancient literature. Plant elements and extracts are by far the most common elements used. In the classic Handbook of Traditional Drugs from 1941, 517 drugs were listed – out of these, only 45 were animal parts, and 30 were minerals. For many plants used as medicinals, detailed instructions have been handed down not only regarding

4350-574: The different synonyms used for referring to the same plants of the Dioscorides work. The abstracts of the lectures of Valerius Cordus go from page 449 to 553 as commentaries. This section consisted of a very refined explanation of Dioscorides' teachings with more specifics on the variety of plants and habitats, and corrections of errors. Cordus refers to both his and his father's observations. Eucharius Rösslin 's herbal illustrations are prominent in this work, followed by 200 of Fuchs . This work and

4437-865: The earliest records regarding the use of medicinals to today, the toxicity of certain substances has been described in all Chinese materia medica. Since TCM has become more popular in the Western world, there are increasing concerns about the potential toxicity of many traditional Chinese medicinals including plants, animal parts and minerals. For most medicinals, efficacy and toxicity testing are based on traditional knowledge rather than laboratory analysis. The toxicity in some cases could be confirmed by modern research (i.e., in scorpion ); in some cases it could not (i.e., in Curculigo ). Further, ingredients may have different names in different locales or in historical texts, and different preparations may have similar names for

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4524-458: The evidence was weak for the use of any single herb, there was low quality evidence that some Chinese medicinal herbs may be effective for the treatment of acute pancreatitis . Successful results have been scarce: artemisinin is one of few examples, as effective treatment for malaria derived from Artemisia annua , which is traditionally used to treat fever. Chinese herbology is largely pseudoscience , with no valid mechanism of action for

4611-1009: The herbal sources listed below, there is little or no evidence for efficacy or proof of safety across consumer age groups and disease conditions for which they are intended. There are over 300 herbs in common use. Some of the most commonly used herbs are Ginseng ( 人参 ; 人參 ; rénshēn ), wolfberry ( 枸杞子 ; gǒuqǐzǐ), dong quai ( Angelica sinensis , 当归 ; 當歸 ; dāngguī ), astragalus ( 黄耆 ; 黃耆 ; huángqí ), atractylodes ( 白术 ; 白朮 ; báizhú ), bupleurum ( 柴胡 ; cháihú ), cinnamon (cinnamon twigs ( 桂枝 ; guìzhī ) and cinnamon bark ( 肉桂 ; ròuguì )), coptis ( 黄连 ; 黃連 ; huánglián ), ginger ( 姜 ; 薑 ; jiāng ), hoelen ( 茯苓 ; fúlíng ), licorice ( 甘草 ; gāncǎo ), ephedra sinica ( 麻黄 ; 麻黃 ; máhuáng ), peony (white: 白芍 ; báisháo and reddish: 赤芍 ; chìsháo ), rehmannia ( 地黄 ; 地黃 ; dìhuáng ), rhubarb ( 大黄 ; 大黃 ; dàhuáng ), and salvia ( 丹参 ; 丹參 ; dānshēn ). In Chinese herbology, there are 50 "fundamental" herbs, as given in

4698-530: The immolation of Michael de Villeneuve/Servetus, the editors and printers that had worked with him would have decided to make a new De Materia Medica as a tribute to their colleague and friend. All the commentaries that could identify Michel de Villeneuve as the author disappeared, but the rest are copied from his work of 1543. It is a very strange edition because there exist four different kinds of copies with different covers, one per editor: Jean Frellon, Guillaume Rouillé , Antoine Vicent and Balthazar Arnoullet, who

4785-463: The importance of diet and external treatments for diseases. Theophrastus (390–280 BC) was a disciple of Aristotle and a philosopher of natural history , considered by historians as the Father of Botany. He wrote a treatise entitled Historia Plantarium about 300 BC. It was the first attempt to organize and classify plants, plant lore, and botanical morphology in Greece. It provided physicians with

4872-431: The locations and areas where they grow best, but also regarding the best timing of planting and harvesting them. Some animal parts used as medicinals can be considered rather strange such as cows' gallstones. Furthermore, the classic materia medica Bencao Gangmu describes the use of 35 traditional Chinese medicines derived from the human body , including bones, fingernail, hairs, dandruff, earwax, impurities on

4959-467: The majority of its treatments. The traditional practice of using now- endangered species is controversial within TCM. Modern Materia Medicas such as Bensky, Clavey and Stoger's comprehensive Chinese herbal text discuss substances derived from endangered species in an appendix, emphasizing alternatives. Parts of endangered species used as TCM drugs include tiger bones and rhinoceros horn . Poachers supply

5046-681: The misuse of the dietary supplement Ephedra (containing ephedrine ) can lead to adverse events including gastrointestinal problems as well as sudden death from cardiomyopathy . Products adulterated with pharmaceuticals for weight loss or erectile dysfunction are one of the main concerns. Chinese herbal medicine has been a major cause of acute liver failure in China. Most Chinese herbs are safe but some have shown not to be. Reports have shown products being contaminated with drugs, toxins, or false reporting of ingredients. Some herbs used in TCM may also react with drugs, have side effects, or be dangerous to people with certain medical conditions. Only

5133-768: The model of botanical description and, many consider it the boldest innovation that was made by any botanist of the 16th century. The French physician Martin Mathee published in 1553 the French translation of De Materia Medica, printed by Balthazar Arnoullet, in Lyons. This granted much more access for the students of medicine to the teachings. The Greek version was reprinted in 1518, 1523 and 1529, and reprinted in 1518, 1523 and 1529. Between 1555 and 1752 there were at least 12 Spanish editions; and as many in Italian from 1542. French editions appeared from 1553; and German editions from 1546. The ancient phrase survives in modified form in

5220-566: The most obvious reason why it has not delivered many cures is that the majority of its treatments have no logical mechanism of action . The term herbology is misleading in the sense that, while plant elements are by far the most commonly used substances, animal, human, and mineral products are also used, some of which are poisonous. In the Huangdi Neijing they are referred to as 毒藥 (pinyin: dúyào ) which means toxin, poison, or medicine. Paul U. Unschuld points out that this

5307-437: The plants, provides their synonyms in different languages, and explains their uses in the 16th century. These qualities and the number of woodcuts made this work very popular and appreciated in medicine far beyond the 16th century. He had problems with Mattioli for using some of his commentaries without mentioning him. Laguna had problems with the Inquisition , just like Michel de Villeneuve , for both were jewish - converso ,

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5394-451: The properties of roots, juices, herbs and seeds used for food or medicine. Book four continued to describe the uses for roots and herbs, specifically narcotic and poisonous medicinal plants. Book five dealt with the medicinal uses for wine and metallic ores . It is a precursor to all modern pharmacopeias, and is considered one of the most influential herbal books in history. It remained in use until about 1600 AD. Avicenna (980–1037 AD)

5481-504: The recipes and teachings of Pedanius' Dioscorides. He also includes some animal and mineral products but only those related to simple medicines, that is, animal and mineral products that are medicine or are parts of a medical compound. This was not an illustrated work. In 1555 he re-edited this work with woodcuts . It was reprinted twenty-two times by the end of the 18th century; Laguna wrote very well, with explanations and practical commentaries. He refers to anecdotes, adds commentaries on

5568-628: The reference text, although these herbs are not universally recognized as such in other texts. The herbs are: In addition to the above, many other Chinese herbs and other substances are in common use, and these include: Traditional Chinese herbs are used either standalone, or in a grouping, jointly with other herbs. When several herbs are used together, this amalgamation is called a 'herbal formula'. There are, generally speaking, three types of herbal formulas used in TCM: 1. Classic Formulas - these are formulas which TCM practitioners believe have withstood

5655-536: The same hand that wrote the famous "Manuscript of Paris", a work also by Michel de Villeneuve, consisting of a draft for his Christianismo Restitutio. "The manuscript of the Complutense " is not just a union of the ideas of the previous works by Michel de Villeneuve, Syropum Ratio, etc., but also of the later works, Enquiridion, De Materia Medica of 1543, sharing with this last many of its 20 big commentaries, for instance. According to this theory, in 1554, after

5742-607: The same name will have the same proportions of ingredients, and manufactured in accordance with the PRC Pharmacopoeia, which is mandated by law. However, in western countries there may be variations in the proportions of ingredients in patent medicines of the same name, and even different ingredients altogether. Several producers of Chinese herbal medicines are pursuing FDA clinical trials to market their products as drugs in U.S. and European markets. Chinese herbal extracts are herbal decoctions that have been condensed into

5829-424: The same reason, which can create inconsistencies and confusion in the creation of medicinals, with the possible danger of poisoning. Edzard Ernst "concluded that adverse effects of herbal medicines are an important albeit neglected subject in dermatology, which deserves further systematic investigation." Research suggests that the toxic heavy metals and undeclared drugs found in Chinese herbal medicines might be

5916-570: The spine of a dog. Color is not only a valuable means of identifying herbs, but in many cases also provides information about the therapeutic attributes of the herb. For example, yellow herbs are referred to as huang (yellow) or jin (gold). Huang Bai ( Cortex Phellodendri ) means 'yellow fir," and Jin Yin Hua ( Flos Lonicerae ) has the label 'golden silver flower." Unique flavors define specific names for some substances. Gan means 'sweet,' so Gan Cao ( Radix glycyrrhizae )

6003-447: The teeth, feces, urine, sweat, and organs, but most are no longer in use. Typically, one batch of medicinals is prepared as a decoction of about 9 to 18 substances. Some of these are considered as main herbs, some as ancillary herbs; within the ancillary herbs, up to three categories can be distinguished. Some ingredients are added to cancel out toxicity or side-effects of the main ingredients; on top of that, some medicinals require

6090-625: The text look more enriched or thorough. There were several De Materia Medica works noted as Anonymous A, B, C and D by the expert on Dioscorides-De Materia Medica professor John M. Riddle . The Anonymous A has to do with authors on translations of handwriting. Riddle proved Anonymous C to be Bruyerinus Champier. During the 16th century, the most representative among them were Ermolao Barbaro , Jean Ruel, Broyeurinus, Michel de Villeneuva, Pietro Andrea Mattioli , Andres Laguna , Marcello Virgilio, Martin Mathee and Valerius Cordus . In 1789, William Cullen published his two volume A Treatise of

6177-589: The title of a work by the Ancient Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides in the 1st century AD, De materia medica , 'On medical material' (Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς, Peri hylēs iatrikēs , in Greek). The term materia medica was used from the period of the Roman Empire until the 20th century, but has now been generally replaced in medical education contexts by the term pharmacology . The term survives in

6264-486: The title of the British Medical Journal ' s "Materia Non Medica" column. The earliest known writing about medicine was a 110-page Egyptian papyrus . It was supposedly written by the god Thoth in about 16 BC. The Ebers papyrus is an ancient recipe book dated to approximately 1552 BC. It contains a mixture of magic and medicine with invocations to banish disease and a catalogue of useful plants, minerals, magic amulets and spells. The most famous Egyptian physician

6351-399: The use of other substances as catalysts . Chinese patent medicine ( 中成藥 ; 中成药 ; zhōngchéng yào ) is a kind of traditional Chinese medicine . They are standardized herbal formulas. From ancient times, pills were formed by combining several herbs and other ingredients, which were dried and ground into a powder. They were then mixed with a binder and formed into pills by hand. The binder

6438-625: The uses of theriacs . "In treatises such as On Theriac to Piso , On Theriac to Pamphilius , and On Antidotes , Galen identified theriac as a sixty-four-ingredient compound, able to cure any ill known". His work was rediscovered in the 15th century and became the authority on medicine and healing for the next two centuries. His medicine was based on the regulation of the four humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) and their properties (wet, dry, hot, and cold). The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides , of Anazarbus in Asia Minor, wrote

6525-643: The volume additional value and authority." Barbaro was professor of the University of Padua in 1477 and translated many texts from Greek to Latin. He sought to avoid mistakes by gathering as many manuscripts as he could for checking the texts. He claimed to have corrected 5000 mistakes between two editions of Pliny the Elder 's Naturalis historia , a work he found very similar to Materia Medica , for which he used at least two editions as well. The result of Barbaro's effort occupied no fewer than 58 pages printed in three columns of about 50 entries each. The work provides

6612-805: Was Imhotep , who lived in Memphis around 2500 B.C. Imhotep's materia medica consisted of procedures for treating head and torso injuries, tending of wounds, and prevention and curing of infections, as well as advanced principles of hygiene. In India, the Ayurveda is traditional medicine that emphasizes plant-based treatments, hygiene, and balance in the body's state of being. Indian materia medica included knowledge of plants, where they grow in all season, methods for storage and shelf life of harvested materials. It also included directions for making juice from vegetables, dried powders from herb, cold infusions and extracts. The earliest Chinese manual of materia medica ,

6699-448: Was a Persian philosopher, physician, and Islamic scholar. He wrote about 40 books on medicine. His two most famous books are The Canon of Medicine and The Book of Healing , used in medieval universities as medical textbooks. He did much to popularize the connection between Greek and Arabic medicine, translating works by Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen into Arabic. Avicenna stressed the importance of diet, exercise, and hygiene. He also

6786-512: Was a veritable glossary of herbs and drugs used during the medieval period. Donnollo was widely travelled and collected information from Arabic, Greek and Roman sources. In the Early and High Middle Ages Nestorian Christians were banished for their heretical views that they carried to Asia Minor . The Greek text was translated into Syriac when pagan Greek scholars fled east after Constantine ’s conquest of Byzantium , Stephanos (son of Basilios,

6873-594: Was also the earliest Chinese medical text to group symptoms into clinically useful "patterns" ( zheng , 證 ) that could serve as targets for therapy. Having gone through numerous changes over time, it now circulates as two distinct books: the Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and the Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Casket , which were edited separately in the eleventh century, under

6960-583: Was also the printer of this unique edition, in Lyons . For developing a bigger work and to blur the mark of Michel de Villeneuve, they hired the expert on De Materia Medica, Pietro Andrea Mattioli . Pietro Andrea Mattioli was a renowned botanist and physician. He published a translation of De Materia Medica into Italian in 1544 and ten years later published a work in Latin with all the plants of Dioscorides and 562 woodcut illustrations. It appeared in 1554, printed by Vicenzo Valgrisi, in Venice . Mattioli made

7047-562: Was an important precedent for botanical gardens and physic gardens that were established in the 16th century. It was also the beginning of the study of botany as a separate discipline. In about the 12th century, medicine and pharmacy began to be taught in universities. Shabbethai Ben Abraham, better known as Shabbethai Donnolo , (913– c .982) was a 10th-century Italian Jew and the author of an early Hebrew text, Antidotarium . It consisted of detailed drug descriptions, medicinal remedies, practical methods for preparing medicine from roots. It

7134-673: Was bought by the city of Strasbourg in 1804 and served as the base for the Strasbourg zoological Museum . His brother, Jean-Frédéric Hermann (1743–1820), Professor of Law, was a member of the Lower Rhine and Mayor of Strasbourg. His son, Jean-Frédéric Hermann (1768–1793), would follow in his footsteps both in medicine and in natural history, until his untimely death during the revolutionary wars put an end to his ambitions. Hermann's name survives most famously through Hermann's tortoise ( Testudo hermanni ). This article about

7221-579: Was heavily translated, and portrayed some of the emblematic actions of physicians and herbalists. One such page is Physician Preparing an Elixir . Dioscorides' plant descriptions use an elementary classification, though he cannot be said to have used botanical taxonomy . Book one describes the uses for aromatic oils, salves and ointments , trees and shrubs , and fleshy fruits, even if not aromatic. Book two included uses for animals, parts of animals, animal products, cereals, leguminous , malvaceous, cruciferous , and other garden herbs . Book three detailed

7308-467: Was made from one of the Latin editions of Jean Ruel. It was also based on classes Laguna took from Ruel as his pupil in Paris. Laguna points out some of his teacher's erroneous translations, and adds many commentaries, which make up more than half of the total work. Laguna explored many Mediterranean areas and obtained results concerning many new herbs; he also added these prescriptions and commentaries to

7395-438: Was the first to describe parasitic infection, to use urine for diagnostic purposes and discouraged physicians from the practice of surgery because it was too base and manual. In medieval Europe, medicinal herbs and plants were cultivated in monastery and nunnery gardens beginning about the 8th century. Charlemagne gave orders for the collection of medicinal plants to be grown systematically in his royal garden. This royal garden

7482-403: Was traditionally honey. Modern teapills, however, are extracted in stainless steel extractors to create either a water decoction or water-alcohol decoction, depending on the herbs used. They are extracted at a low temperature (below 100 °C (212 °F)) to preserve essential ingredients. The extracted liquid is then further condensed, and some raw herb powder from one of the herbal ingredients

7569-626: Was translated into Arabic. Matthaeus Silvaticus , Avicenna , Galen , Dioscorides , Platearius and Serapio inspired the appearance of three main works printed in Mainz : In 1484 the Herbarius , the following year the Gart der Gesundheit , and in 1491 the Ortus Sanitatis . The works contain 16, 242 and 570 references to Dioscorides, respectively. The first appearance of Dioscorides as

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