142-502: Political Militant [REDACTED] Islam portal Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami ( Bengali : বাংলাদেশ জামায়াতে ইসলামী , lit. 'Bangladesh Islamic Congress'), previously known as Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh , is the largest Islamist political party in Bangladesh . The origin of the party can be traced back to the original Jamaat-e-Islami party founded by Abul A'la Maududi in 1941. Its predecessor,
284-520: A "medical visit" but made a strong plea for military aid which was not considered due to India's opposition. On 24 February 1954, Ayub signed the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) pact for Pakistan and his role in national politics, along with that of Defense Minister Mirza, began to grow In 1954, Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra 's relations with the military and Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad deteriorated on issues of
426-464: A Pakistani passport. Absent prosecution of Azam for war crimes, the Supreme Court ruled that he had to be allowed a Bangladeshi passport and the freedom to resume his political activities. Bangladesh Police arrested Jamaat-e-Islami chief and former Industry Minister Motiur Rahman Nizami from his residence in the capital in a graft case on 19 May 2008 and was charged with war crimes in 2009. He
568-500: A bid to lessen this burden on young learners, efforts have been made by educational institutions in the two main Bengali-speaking regions (West Bengal and Bangladesh) to address the opaque nature of many consonant clusters, and as a result, modern Bengali textbooks are beginning to contain more and more "transparent" graphical forms of consonant clusters, in which the constituent consonants of a cluster are readily apparent from
710-518: A crucial role in lobbying for the army post selection, by presenting convincing arguments to Prime Minister Ali Khan to promote the most junior Major-General, Ayub Khan (commissioned in 1928), to the post despite the fact that his name was not included in the nomination list. Ayub's papers of promotion were approved and he was appointed the first native commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army on 17 January 1951 by Prime Minister Ali Khan. This ended
852-596: A different word from a speaker of Standard Bengali in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bengali descent. For example, the word salt is লবণ lôbôṇ in the east which corresponds to নুন nun in the west. Bengali exhibits diglossia , though some scholars have proposed triglossia or even n-glossia or heteroglossia between the written and spoken forms of the language. Two styles of writing have emerged, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax : Linguist Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar categorises
994-480: A diphthong. The total number of diphthongs is not established, with bounds at 17 and 31. An incomplete chart is given by Sarkar (1985) of the following: In standard Bengali, stress is predominantly initial. Bengali words are virtually all trochaic ; the primary stress falls on the initial syllable of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd-numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as in সহযোগিতা shô -hô- jo -gi- ta "cooperation", where
1136-616: A joint petition. Jamaat e Islami chief Motiur Rahman Nizami , Secretary General Ali Ahsan Mujaheed and the Election Commission Secretary were given six weeks time to reply, but they did not. The ruling asked to explain as to "why the Jamaat's registration should not be declared illegal". As a verdict of the ruling, High Court cancelled the registration of the Jamaat-e-Islami on 1 August 2013, ruling that
1278-692: A large scale and were communally limited. Owing to Bengal's geographic location, Bengali areas bordering non-Bengali regions have been influenced by each other. Small numbers of people in Midnapore , which borders Odisha , have used the Odia script to write in Bengali. In the border areas between West Bengal and Bihar , some Bengali communities historically wrote Bengali in Devanagari , Kaithi and Tirhuta . In Sylhet and Bankura , modified versions of
1420-682: A majority in Bangladesh speaks dialects notably different from SCB. Some dialects, particularly those of the Chittagong region, bear only a superficial resemblance to SCB. The dialect in the Chittagong region is least widely understood by the general body of Bengalis. The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one variety – often, speakers are fluent in Cholitobhasha (SCB) and one or more regional dialects. Even in SCB,
1562-548: A part in the adoption of the English alphabet to write Bengali, with certain social media influencers publishing entire novels in Roman Bengali. Ayub Khan (Field Marshal) Political views Elections President of Pakistan Political Affiliations [REDACTED] Mohammad Ayub Khan (14 May 1907 – 19 April 1974) was a Pakistani four-star rank general and politician who served as
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#17327802499971704-763: A referendum, that functioned as the Electoral College , was held that asked the general public: "Do you have confidence in Muhammad Ayub Khan?". The voter turnout was recorded at 95.6% and such confirmation was used as impetus to formalise the new system – a presidential system . Ayub Khan was elected president for the next five years and decided to pay his first state visit to the United States with his wife and also daughter Begum Naseem Aurangzeb in July 1961. Highlights of his visit included
1846-514: A result of the trials, the activists of the 2013 Shahbag Protest have demanded that the government ban Jamaat from Bangladeshi politics. In response, the government started drafting a bill to ban Jamaat-e-Islami from Bangladeshi politics. On 28 February 2013, Delwar Hossain Sayeedi , the deputy of Jamaat, was found guilty of genocide, rape and religious persecution. He was sentenced to death by hanging. His defence lawyer had earlier complained that
1988-576: A rounded total of 280 million) worldwide. The Bengali language is native to the region of Bengal , which comprises the present-day nation of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal . Besides the native region it is also spoken by the Bengalis living in Tripura , southern Assam and the Bengali population in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Bengali is also spoken in
2130-526: A second term. In 1967, disapproval of price hikes of food prompted demonstrations across the country led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto . Following protests in East Pakistan , Ayub resigned in March 1969 and appointed Yahya Khan . Later, fighting a brief illness, he died in 1974. Khan remains the country's longest-serving president and second-longest serving head of state . His legacy remains mixed; his era
2272-408: A special diacritic, called the hôsôntô (্) , may be added below the basic consonant grapheme (as in ম্ [m] ). This diacritic, however, is not common and is chiefly employed as a guide to pronunciation. The abugida nature of Bengali consonant graphemes is not consistent, however. Often, syllable-final consonant graphemes, though not marked by a hôsôntô , may carry no inherent vowel sound (as in
2414-616: A stalemate and peace was restored via the Tashkent Declaration . Domestically, Ayub subscribed to the laissez-faire policy of Western-aligned nations at the time. Khan privatised state-owned industries, and liberalised the economy generally. Large inflows of foreign aid and investment led to the fastest-growing economy in South Asia. His tenure was also distinguished by the completion of hydroelectric stations , dams, and reservoirs . Under Ayub, Pakistan's space program
2556-628: A state dinner at Mount Vernon , a visit to the Islamic Center of Washington , and a ticker tape parade in New York City. A constitutional commission was set-up under the Supreme Court to implement the work on the constitution that was led by Chief Justice Muhammad Shahabuddin and Supreme Court justices . The commission reported in 1961 with its recommendations but President Ayub remained unsatisfied; he eventually altered
2698-581: A state language of the then Dominion of Pakistan . On 21 February 1952, five students and political activists were killed during protests near the campus of the University of Dhaka ; they were the first ever martyrs to die for their right to speak their mother tongue. In 1956, Bengali was made a state language of Pakistan. 21 February has since been observed as Language Movement Day in Bangladesh and has also been commemorated as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO every year since 2000. In 2010,
2840-488: A view to punish its political opponent. By November 2011, the International Crimes Tribunal had charged two BNP leaders and ten Jamaat leaders with war crimes committed during the Bangladesh liberation war and 1971 Bangladesh genocide . Abul Kalam Azad, a nationally known Islamic cleric and a former member of Jamaat, was charged with genocide , rape, abduction, confinement and torture . He
2982-727: A village in the Abbottabad District of the North-West Frontier Province of British India into a Hindko -speaking Hazarewal family of Pashtun descent, belonging to the Tareen tribe. He was the first child of the second wife of Mir Dad Khan , a Risaldar-Major (an armoured corps JCO which was then known as VCO ) in the 9th Hodson's Horse which was a cavalry regiment of the British Indian Army . For his basic education, he
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#17327802499973124-463: A vowel in isolation from any preceding or following consonant, the independent form of the vowel is used. For example, in মই [moj] "ladder" and in ইলিশ [iliʃ] "Hilsa fish", the independent form of the vowel ই is used (cf. the dependent form ি) . A vowel at the beginning of a word is always realised using its independent form. In addition to the inherent-vowel-suppressing hôsôntô , three more diacritics are commonly used in Bengali. These are
3266-475: A witness who was supposed to testify for him was abducted from the gates of the courthouse on 5 November 2012, reportedly by police, and has not been heard from since. The government did not seem to take the issue seriously after the prosecution denied there was a problem. It is presumed that the security forces killed the witness as the entire judicial process was to vanish the opposition. Muhammad Kamaruzzaman , senior assistant secretary general of Jamaat-e-Islami
3408-500: Is Bangladesh's national march, written by The National Poet Kazi Nazrul Islam in Bengali in 1928. It was adopted as the national marching song by the Bangladeshi government in 1972. Additionally, the first two verses of Vande Mataram , a patriotic song written in Bengali by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee , was adopted as the "national song" of India in both the colonial period and later in 1950 in independent India. Furthermore, it
3550-547: Is a classical Indo-Aryan language from the Indo-European language family native to the Bengal region of South Asia. With over 237 million native speakers and another 41 million as second language speakers as of 2024, Bengali is the fifth most spoken native language and the seventh most spoken language by the total number of speakers in the world. It is the fifth most spoken Indo-European language . Bengali
3692-468: Is a cursive script with eleven graphemes or signs denoting nine vowels and two diphthongs , and thirty-nine graphemes representing consonants and other modifiers. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. The letters run from left to right and spaces are used to separate orthographic words . Bengali script has a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the graphemes that links them together called মাত্রা matra . Since
3834-795: Is also influential in the madrassa system. It's the successor of East Pakistan Islami Chatra Shangha, the East Pakistani wing of Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba . It is a member of the International Islamic Federation of Student Organisations and the World Assembly of Muslim Youth . Footnotes Citations Baxter, C (1997). Bangladesh, from a Nation to a State . Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3632-5 . OCLC 47885632 . Bengali language Bengali , also known by its endonym Bangla ( বাংলা , Bāṅlā , [ˈbaŋla] ),
3976-400: Is an abugida , a script with letters for consonants, with diacritics for vowels, and in which an inherent vowel (অ ô ) is assumed for consonants if no vowel is marked. The Bengali alphabet is used throughout Bangladesh and eastern India (Assam, West Bengal, Tripura). The Bengali alphabet is believed to have evolved from a modified Brahmic script around 1000 CE (or 10th–11th century). It
4118-707: Is believed by many that the national anthem of Sri Lanka ( Sri Lanka Matha ) was inspired by a Bengali poem written by Rabindranath Tagore , while some even believe the anthem was originally written in Bengali and then translated into Sinhala . After the contribution made by the Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force in the Sierra Leone Civil War under the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone ,
4260-721: Is considered a separate language, although it shares similarities to Northern Bengali dialects. During the standardisation of Bengali in the 19th century and early 20th century, the cultural centre of Bengal was in Kolkata , a city founded by the British. What is accepted as the standard form today in both West Bengal and Bangladesh is based on the West-Central dialect of Nadia and Kushtia District . There are cases where speakers of Standard Bengali in West Bengal will use
4402-404: Is known as Apabhraṃśa , by the end of the first millennium. The Bengali language evolved as a distinct language over the course of time. Though some archaeologists claim that some 10th-century texts were in Bengali, it is not certain whether they represent a differentiated language or whether they represent a stage when Eastern Indo-Aryan languages were differentiating. The local Apabhraṃśa of
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4544-561: Is often dubbed the "Decade of Development". Khan is credited with economic prosperity and industrialisation. He is denounced by critics for beginning the first of the intelligence agencies' incursions into national politics , for concentrating wealth in a corrupt few hands , and for geographically discriminatory policies that later led to the Bangladesh Liberation War . Ayub Khan was born on 14 May 1907 in Rehana ,
4686-401: Is remembered for successful industrialization in the impoverished country. Strong emphasis on capitalism and foreign direct investment (FDI) in the industry is often regarded as the "Great Decade" in the history of the country (both economical and political history ). The "Decade of Development" was celebrated, which highlighted the development plans executed during the years of Ayub's rule,
4828-490: Is set out below in the International Phonetic Alphabet (upper grapheme in each box) and romanisation (lower grapheme). Bengali is known for its wide variety of diphthongs , combinations of vowels occurring within the same syllable . Two of these, /oi̯/ and /ou̯/ , are the only ones with representation in script, as ঐ and ঔ respectively. /e̯ i̯ o̯ u̯/ may all form the glide part of
4970-555: Is the official , national , and most widely spoken language of Bangladesh , with 98% of Bangladeshis using Bengali as their first language. It is the second-most widely spoken language in India . It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura and the Barak Valley region of the state of Assam . It is also the second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. It
5112-508: Is the most widely spoken language in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal , and is spoken by significant populations in other states including Bihar , Arunachal Pradesh , Delhi , Chhattisgarh , Meghalaya , Mizoram , Nagaland , Odisha and Uttarakhand . Bengali is also spoken by the Bengali diasporas ( Bangladeshi diaspora and Indian Bengalis) across Europe, North America,
5254-471: The de facto student wing of Jamaat-e-Islami. The organisation has significant presence at many colleges and universities of Bangladesh, including the Chittagong College , Government Bangla College , Dhaka College , Government Titumir College , University of Chittagong , University of Dhaka , Rajshahi University , Islamic University , Begum Rokeya University , Carmichael College etc. It
5396-588: The 1954 provincial elections in East Pakistan , the Awami League formed the government there while West Pakistan was governed by the PML, but the PML government collapsed in 1956. He was called on to join the Cabinet as Defence Minister by Prime Minister H.S. Suhrawardy and maintained closer relations with Iskander Mirza who now had become the first President of the country after the successful promulgation of
5538-420: The 2nd President of Pakistan from 1958 to 1969. He rose to prominence following his 1958 Pakistani coup d'état against President Iskandar Ali Mirza . He also served as the 1st chief martial law administrator from 1958 to 1962 and the 3rd Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army from 1951 to 1958. Khan's presidency ended in 1969 when he resigned amidst widespread protests between 1968 and 1969. Born in
5680-509: The Aesop's Fables in Bengali was printed using Roman letters based on English phonology by the Scottish linguist John Gilchrist . Consecutive attempts to establish a Roman Bengali have continued across every century since these times, and have been supported by the likes of Suniti Kumar Chatterji , Muhammad Qudrat-i-Khuda , and Muhammad Enamul Haq . The Digital Revolution has also played
5822-675: The Arabic , Persian , and Turkic languages . The arrival of merchants and traders from the Middle East and Turkestan into the Buddhist -ruling Pala Empire , from as early as the 7th century, gave birth to Islamic influence in the region. In the 13th century, subsequent Arab Muslim and Turco-Persian expeditions to Bengal heavily influenced the local vernacular by settling among the native population. Bengali absorbed Arabic and Persian influences in its vocabulary and dialect, including
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5964-711: The Constitution in 1956. In 1957, President Mirza promoted him from acting full general to the substantive rank of full general. Around this time the MoD , led by General Ayub Khan, began to see the serious interservice rivalry between the General Headquarters staff and the Naval Headquarters staff. Commander in Chief of Navy Vice-Admiral HMS Choudri and his NHQ staff had been fighting with
6106-414: The Constitution of Bangladesh states Bengali to be the sole official language of Bangladesh. The Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987 , made it mandatory to use Bengali in all records and correspondences, laws, proceedings of court and other legal actions in all courts, government or semi-government offices, and autonomous institutions in Bangladesh. It is also the de facto national language of
6248-468: The Finance ministry and the MoD over the issues of rearmament and contingency plans. He reportedly complained about Admiral HMS Choudri to President Mirza and criticized Admiral Choudri for "neither having the brain, imagination, or depth of thought to understand such (defence) problems nor the vision or the ability to make any contribution". The impasse was broken with Admiral Choudri resigning from
6390-610: The God and the Prophet Muhammad and now cites to establish an equality and justice-based society. Many of Jamaat's leaders are accused of committing war crimes and genocide during the liberation war of Bangladesh in 1971 and several have been convicted by the International Crimes Tribunal . The International Crimes Tribunal was formed in 2009, shortly after the Awami League came to power with
6532-558: The Hilal-i-Jurat (HJ) by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan for non-combatant service and called back to General Headquarters as the Adjutant General of the army on November of the same year. General Gracey gave up the command of the Pakistan Army on 23 January 1951, under pressure of calls for "nationalisation" of the army. The Government of Pakistan had already called for appointing native commanders-in-chief of
6674-537: The Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan , strongly opposed the independence of Bangladesh and break-up of Pakistan. In 1971, paramilitary forces linked to the party collaborated with the Pakistan Army in mass killings of Bengali nationalists and intellectuals . Upon the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the new government banned Jamaat-e-Islami, along with all religion-based parties, Following
6816-579: The Kaithi script had some historical prominence, mainly among Muslim communities. The variant in Sylhet was identical to the Baitali Kaithi script of Hindustani with the exception of Sylhet Nagri possessing matra . Sylhet Nagri was standardised for printing in c. 1869 . Up until the 19th century, numerous variations of the Arabic script had been used across Bengal from Chittagong in
6958-524: The Nadia region . Bengali shows a high degree of diglossia , with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. Modern Bengali vocabulary is based on words inherited from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, along with tatsamas and reborrowings from Sanskrit and borrowings from Persian , Arabic , Austroasiatic languages and other languages with which it has historically been in contact. In
7100-935: The North-West Frontier Province , Khan was educated from the Aligarh Muslim University and trained at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst . He fought in the Second World War on the British side against the Imperial Japanese Army . After the Partition of British India in August 1947, he joined the Pakistan Army and was posted in East Bengal . In 1951, he became the first native commander-in-chief, succeeding General Gracey . From 1953 to 1958, he served in
7242-607: The University of Karachi (established by East Pakistani politicians before Independence of Bangladesh ) also offers regular programs of studies at the Bachelors and at the Masters levels for Bengali Literature. The national anthems of both Bangladesh ( Amar Sonar Bangla ) and India ( Jana Gana Mana ) were written in Bengali by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore . Notuner Gaan known as " Chol Chol Chol"
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#17327802499977384-499: The boldface represents primary and secondary stress. Native Bengali words do not allow initial consonant clusters ; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e., one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bengali restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as গেরাম geram (CV.CVC) for গ্রাম gram (CCVC) "village" or ইস্কুল iskul (VC.CVC) for স্কুল skul (CCVC) "school". The Bengali-Assamese script
7526-557: The civilian government as Defence and Home Minister and supported President Iskandar Ali Mirza 's decision to impose martial law against prime minister Feroze Khan's administration on 7 October 1958. Two weeks later, Khan seized presidency in a military coup , the first in the country's history . As president, Khan controversially appointed General Musa Khan to replace him as commander-in-chief, superseding decorated senior officers such as General's Adam Khan, Sher Ali Khan Pataudi and M.A. Latif Khan. He aligned Pakistan with
7668-557: The phonology of Eastern Bengali is seen through the lack of nasalised vowels and an alveolar articulation of what are categorised as the "cerebral" consonants (as opposed to the postalveolar articulation of western Bengal). Some varieties of Bengali, particularly Sylheti , Chittagonian and Chakma , have contrastive tone ; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bengali dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Hajong
7810-541: The print newspapers through his takeover of key opposition papers and, while Ayub Khan permitted a National Assembly, it had only limited powers. In 1961, he promulgated the "Muslim Family Law Ordinance". Through this ordinance, unmitigated polygamy was abolished. Consent of the current wife was made mandatory for a second marriage, and brakes were placed on the practice of instant divorce under Islamic tradition, where men could divorce women by saying: "I divorce you" three times. The Arbitration Councils were set up under
7952-481: The state religion and was viewed as a liberal constitution. It also provided for election of the president by 80,000 (later raised to 120,000) Basic Democrats who could theoretically make their own choice but who were essentially under his control. He justified this as analogous to the American Electoral College and cited Thomas Jefferson as his inspiration. The Ayub administration "guided"
8094-623: The 16th century, Portuguese missionaries began a tradition of using the Roman alphabet to transcribe the Bengali language. Though the Portuguese standard did not receive much growth, a few Roman Bengali works relating to Christianity and Bengali grammar were printed as far as Lisbon in 1743. The Portuguese were followed by the English and French respectively, whose works were mostly related to Bengali grammar and transliteration. The first version of
8236-407: The 1950s and, working with Prime Minister Ali Khan , forged a military alliance with the United States against regional communism. His obsession towards modernization of the armed forces in the shortest time possible saw relations with the United States as the only way to achieve his organizational and personal objectives as he argued against civilian supremacy that would affect American interests in
8378-477: The 1960s, the Pakistani military acquired American‑produced conventional weapons such as Jeep CJs , M48 Patton and M24 Chaffee tanks, M16 rifles , F-86 fighter airplanes, and the submarine PNS Ghazi ; all through the US Foreign Military Sales program. In 1961, President Ayub started the nation's full‑fledged space program in cooperation with the air force, and created the Suparco civilian space agency that launched sounding rockets throughout
8520-406: The 1960s. Ayub prioritized nuclear power generation over the use of nuclear technology for military purposes. He reportedly spent ₨. 724 million on the civilian Karachi Nuclear Power Plant and related education of engineers and scientists. Ayub Khan filled more and more civil administrative positions with army officers, increasing the military's influence over the bureaucracy. He expanded
8662-405: The 1971 war under the International Crimes Tribunal . By 2012, two leaders of the BNP, one leader from Jatiya Party and eight from Jamaat had been charged with war crimes and by March 2013, three Jamaat leaders were convicted of crimes. On 1 August 2013, the Bangladesh Supreme Court cancelled the registration of the Jamaat-e-Islami, ruling that the party is unfit to contest national elections. With
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#17327802499978804-487: The 19th and 20th centuries, there were two standard forms of written Bengali: In 1948, the government of Pakistan tried to impose Urdu as the sole state language in Pakistan, giving rise to the Bengali language movement . This was a popular ethnolinguistic movement in the former East Bengal (today Bangladesh ), which arose as a result of the strong linguistic consciousness of the Bengalis and their desire to promote and protect spoken and written Bengali's recognition as
8946-421: The 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. The ancestor of Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty . During the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterised by the elision of the word-final অ ô and the spread of compound verbs, which originated from the Sanskrit Schwa . Slowly, the word-final ô disappeared from many words influenced by
9088-715: The Appellate Division against the verdict after getting its full text. In February 2013, following the verdict by the International Crimes Tribunal (ICT), and the announcement of death sentence of Delwar Hossain Sayidee (a leader of Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami, during the Bangladesh liberation war of 1971), supporters of Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami and its student wing Islami Chhatra Shibir were involved in country-wide resistance and police killed 44 protesters and wounding 250. More than 50 temples were damaged, and more than 1,500 houses and business establishments of Hindus were torched in Gaibandha , Chittagong , Rangpur , Sylhet , Chapainawabganj , Bogra and in many other districts of
9230-401: The Bengali equivalent of a full stop – have been adopted from Western scripts and their usage is similar. Unlike in Western scripts (Latin, Cyrillic, etc.) where the letter forms stand on an invisible baseline, the Bengali letter-forms instead hang from a visible horizontal left-to-right headstroke called মাত্রা matra . The presence and absence of this matra can be important. For example,
9372-426: The Bengali script is an abugida, its consonant graphemes usually do not represent phonetic segments , but carry an "inherent" vowel and thus are syllabic in nature. The inherent vowel is usually a back vowel , either [ɔ] as in মত [m ɔ t] "opinion" or [o] , as in মন [m o n] "mind", with variants like the more open [ɒ] . To emphatically represent a consonant sound without any inherent vowel attached to it,
9514-419: The Burma Campaign; however, he was soon temporarily suspended without pay from that command for visible cowardice under fire. In 1946, he was posted back to British India and was stationed in the North-West Frontier Province . In 1947, he was promoted to Brigadier and commanded a brigade in South Waziristan . When the United Kingdom announced the Partition of British India into India and Pakistan, he
9656-409: The Hindu minority there were "killing Muslims and burning their homes." President Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was assassinated in August 1975 by a small group of Bangladesh Army officers. post-Mujibur governments were immediately recognised by both Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, and Jamaat-e-Islami once again resumed political activities in Bangladesh. Ziaur Rahman also allowed Azam to return to Bangladesh as
9798-507: The Islamic doctrine of the ummah . Maulana Maududi saw the partition as creating a temporal border that would divide Muslims from one another. He advocated for the whole of India to be reclaimed for Islam. After the creation of Pakistan, Jamaat-e-Islami divided into separate Indian and Pakistani national organisations. When East Pakistan became independent as Bangladesh , the East Pakistan wing of Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan became Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami. Jamaat-e-Islami participated in
9940-520: The Middle East and other regions. Bengali was accorded the status of a classical language by the government of India on 3 October 2024. It is the second most spoken and fourth fastest growing language in India , following Hindi in the first place, Kashmiri in the second place, and Meitei ( Manipuri ), along with Gujarati , in the third place, according to the 2011 census of India . Bengali has developed over more than 1,400 years. Bengali literature , with its millennium-old literary history,
10082-445: The Pakistani military in their campaign. East Pakistan JI head Ghulam Azam coordinated the development and operation of paramilitary forces during the war, including Razakar , Al-Shams , and Al-Badr in collaboration with the Pakistan Army. These units committed the Bangladesh genocide and other war crimes at the time, most notorious of which was the systematic execution of Bengali pro-liberation intellectuals on 14 December 1971. As
10224-398: The Supreme Court's Chief Justice Munir justified the coup under the doctrine of necessity , Ayub sent the military into the presidential palace and exiled Mirza to England. This was largely done with the support of: Admiral A. R. Khan , General Azam Khan , Nawab of Kalabagh Amir Khan , General Dr. Wajid Khan , General K. M. Sheikh, and General Sher Bahadur. Air Vice Marshal Asghar Khan
10366-535: The United States, and allowed American access to air bases inside Pakistan, most notably the airbase outside of Peshawar , from which spy missions over the Soviet Union were launched. Relations with neighboring China were strengthened but his alignment with the US worsened relations with the Soviet Union in 1962. He launched Operation Gibraltar against India in 1965, leading to an all-out war . It resulted in
10508-410: The armed forces from the interference of the politicians, and to unify the provinces of West Pakistan into one unit." The controversial One Unit Scheme integrated the four western provinces into one political entity, West Pakistan , as a counterbalance against the numerically superior population of East Bengal , which was renamed East Pakistan. The province of Punjab supported the project, but all
10650-529: The army, air force , and navy and dismissed deputation appointments from the British military . The General Headquarters sent the nomination papers to the Prime Minister's Secretariat for the appointment of commander-in-chief . There were four senior officers in the race: Major General's Akbar Khan , Iftikhar Khan , Ishfakul Majid , and Nawabzada Agha Mohammad Raza . Among these officers Akbar
10792-485: The assassination of the first president and the military coups in 1975, In 1979, the ban on Jamaat was lifted and Jamaat was reallowed to participate in politics by the Government of Ziaur Rahman and the new party Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh was formed. Exiled leaders were allowed to return. Abbas Ali Khan was the then acting Amir of Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh. In the 1980s, the Jamaat joined the multi-party alliance for
10934-536: The basis of modern standard colloquial Bengali. In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh ( Barisal , Chittagong , Dhaka and Sylhet Divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal and western Bangladesh are pronounced as fricatives . Western alveolo-palatal affricates চ [ tɕɔ ] , ছ [ tɕʰɔ ] , জ [ dʑɔ ] correspond to eastern চ [tsɔ] , ছ [tsʰɔ~sɔ] , জ [dzɔ~zɔ] . The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on
11076-600: The citizenship of Ghulam Azam , the leader of Jamaat-e-Islami who moved to Pakistan, the Middle East and the UK. Azam first fled to Pakistan and organised an " East Pakistan Recovery Week ". As information about his participation in the killing of civilians came to light "a strong groundswell of resentment against" East Pakistan JI leadership developed and Azam and Maulana Abdur Rahim were sent to Saudi Arabia . In Saudi Arabia, Azam and some of his followers successfully appealed for donations to "defend Islam" in Bangladesh, asserting that
11218-469: The consonant which comes first is put on top of or to the left of the one that immediately follows. In these ligatures, the shapes of the constituent consonant signs are often contracted and sometimes even distorted beyond recognition. In the Bengali writing system, there are nearly 285 such ligatures denoting consonant clusters. Although there exist a few visual formulas to construct some of these ligatures, many of them have to be learned by rote. Recently, in
11360-531: The constitution so that it was entirely different from the one recommended by the Shahabuddin Commission. The constitution reflected his personal views of politicians and the restriction of using religions in politics. His presidency restored the writ of government through the promulgated constitution and restored political freedom by lifting the martial law enforced since 1958. The new constitution respected Islam , but did not declare Islam as
11502-502: The country's farmland to onetime tenant farmers. In Karachi , around 100,000 refugees displaced by the partition of India were moved from slums to new housing colonies. His administration also eliminated the need for bribes , known as "tea money" in Pakistan, to access government officials, contributing to a reduction in corruption within Pakistan's government relative to other Asian nations during his tenure. An oil refinery
11644-499: The country, By March 2013, at least 87 people killed by the government security forces. The Jamaat-e-Islami supporters called for the fall of the government. Supporters of Jamaat and its student wing Shibir have been involved in violence. As a result of involvement of Jamaat-e Islami in Bangladesh Quota protest , the Bangladesh government under Hasina Administration decided to fully ban the party on 1 August 2024. However, it
11786-507: The country. In India, Bengali is one of the 23 official languages . It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal , Tripura and in Barak Valley of Assam . Bengali has been a second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. In Pakistan , Bengali is a recognised secondary language in the city of Karachi mainly spoken by stranded Bengalis of Pakistan . The Department of Bengali in
11928-657: The country. During 1960–66, the annual GDP growth was recorded at 6.8%. Several hydroelectric projects were completed, including the Mangla Dam (one of the world's largest dams), several small dams and water reservoirs in West Pakistan, and one dam in East Pakistan, the Kaptai Dam . President Ayub authorized planning of nuclear power plants . Dr. Abdus Salam , supported by the President, personally approved
12070-420: The coup the next morning; only U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan James M. Langley was kept fully informed of political developments in the country. Ayub justified his part by declaring that: "History would never have forgiven us if the present chaotic conditions were allowed to go on any further," and that his goal was to restore a democracy that the "people can understand and work", not to rule indefinitely. When
12212-603: The creation of a separate state of Pakistan for the Muslims of India . It also did not support the Muslim League , then the largest Muslim party in the election of 1946. nor did it support the "Composite Nationalism" ( Muttahida Qaumiyat Aur Islam ) of the Jamiat Ulama e-Hind. Maulana Abul Ala Maududi , the founder of Jamaat-e-Islami, actively worked to prevent the partition of India, arguing that concept violated
12354-472: The crippling birth rate, and take appropriate steps, including land reforms and technological innovation, to develop agriculture so that the country could feed itself". Ayub finally "restored civil administration", although he maintained the Presidency and relied on an intricate web of spy agencies to maintain supremacy over the bureaucracy, including calling upon civilian intelligence agencies. In 1960,
12496-503: The democratic movement in Pakistan during the Period of Martial Law declared by Ayub Khan . An all-party democratic alliance (DAC) was formed in 1965. Jamaat head of East Pakistan, Ghulam Azam was a member of the alliance, which also included Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman . As an Islamist party, JI was uninterested in ethnic issues or local languages but strongly supported Islamic unity, and so supported
12638-604: The development of Dobhashi . Bengali acquired prominence, over Persian, in the court of the Sultans of Bengal with the ascent of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah . Subsequent Muslim rulers actively promoted the literary development of Bengali, allowing it to become the most spoken vernacular language in the Sultanate. Bengali adopted many words from Arabic and Persian , which was a manifestation of Islamic culture on
12780-644: The east to Meherpur in the west. The 14th-century court scholar of Bengal, Nur Qutb Alam , composed Bengali poetry using the Persian alphabet . After the Partition of India in the 20th century, the Pakistani government attempted to institute the Perso-Arabic script as the standard for Bengali in East Pakistan ; this was met with resistance and contributed to the Bengali language movement. In
12922-553: The eastern subcontinent, Purbi Apabhraṃśa or Abahatta (lit. 'meaningless sounds'), eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups, the Bengali–Assamese languages , the Bihari languages , and the Odia language . The language was not static: different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects in this period. For example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around
13064-476: The economy. Pressure built up to reconstruct the cabinet which eventually witnessed General Ayub Khan becoming the defence minister and Iskander Mirza as home minister in October 1954. Ayub Khan disdained civilian politicians, whose factional infighting had for years prevented adoption of a constitution. He wrote that he reluctantly joined the cabinet as defence minister with "two clear objectives: to save
13206-466: The final ন in মন [m o n] or the medial ম in গামলা [ɡamla] ). A consonant sound followed by some vowel sound other than the inherent [ɔ] is orthographically realised by using a variety of vowel allographs above, below, before, after, or around the consonant sign, thus forming the ubiquitous consonant-vowel typographic ligatures . These allographs, called কার kar , are diacritical vowel forms and cannot stand on their own. For example,
13348-726: The government of Ahmad Tejan Kabbah declared Bengali as an honorary official language in December 2002. In 2009, elected representatives in both Bangladesh and West Bengal called for Bengali to be made an official language of the United Nations . Regional varieties in spoken Bengali constitute a dialect continuum . Linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji grouped the dialects of Bengali language into four large clusters: Rarhi , Vangiya , Kamrupi and Varendri ; but many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed. The south-western dialects ( Rarhi or Nadia dialect) form
13490-499: The graph মি [mi] represents the consonant [m] followed by the vowel [i] , where [i] is represented as the diacritical allograph ি (called ই-কার i-kar ) and is placed before the default consonant sign. Similarly, the graphs মা [ma] , মী [mi] , মু [mu] , মূ [mu] , মৃ [mri] , মে [me~mɛ] , মৈ [moj] , মো [mo] and মৌ [mow] represent the same consonant ম combined with seven other vowels and two diphthongs. In these consonant-vowel ligatures,
13632-412: The graphical form. However, since this change is not as widespread and is not being followed as uniformly in the rest of the Bengali printed literature, today's Bengali-learning children will possibly have to learn to recognise both the new "transparent" and the old "opaque" forms, which ultimately amounts to an increase in learning burden. Bengali punctuation marks, apart from the downstroke । daṛi –
13774-494: The language as: While most writing is in Standard Colloquial Bengali (SCB), spoken dialects exhibit a greater variety. People in southeastern West Bengal, including Kolkata, speak in SCB. Other dialects, with minor variations from Standard Colloquial, are used in other parts of West Bengal and western Bangladesh, such as the Midnapore dialect, characterised by some unique words and constructions. However,
13916-523: The language movement. Although Sanskrit has been spoken by Hindu Brahmins in Bengal since the 3rd century BC, the local Buddhist population spoke varieties of the Prakrit . These varieties are generally referred to as "eastern Magadhi Prakrit ", as coined by linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji , as the Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were influential in the first millennium when Bengal
14058-547: The language. Major texts of Middle Bengali (1400–1800) include Yusuf-Zulekha by Shah Muhammad Sagir and Srikrishna Kirtana by the Chandidas poets. Court support for Bengali culture and language waned when the Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the late 16th and early 17th century. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the west-central dialect spoken in
14200-430: The law in the urban and rural areas to deal with cases of: (a) grant of sanction to a person to contract a second marriage during the subsistence of a marriage; (b) reconciliation of a dispute between a husband and a wife; (c) grant of a maintenance allowance to the wife and children. Industrialization and rural development through constructing modern national freeways are considered his greatest achievements and his era
14342-493: The leader of Jamaat-e-Islami. After the end of military rule in 1990, mass protests began against Azam and Jamaat-e-Islami, who were accused by the protesters of committing war crimes . The protests were headed by Jahanara Imam , an author who lost her elder son, Shafi Imam Rumi , in the liberation war. Azam's citizenship was challenged in a case that went to the Bangladesh Supreme Court , as he held only
14484-428: The letter ত tô and the numeral ৩ "3" are distinguishable only by the presence or absence of the matra , as is the case between the consonant cluster ত্র trô and the independent vowel এ e , also the letter হ hô and Bengali Ôbogroho ঽ (~ô) and letter ও o and consonant cluster ত্ত ttô . The letter-forms also employ the concepts of letter-width and letter-height (the vertical space between
14626-423: The navy in protest as a result of having differences with the navy's plans of expansion and modernization. Suhrawardy and Feroz began campaigning to become prime minister and president in the upcoming general elections. Meanwhile, the conservative Pakistan Muslim League , led by its President Abdul Qayyum Khan , was threatening to engage in civil disobedience. These events were against President Mirza hence he
14768-605: The neighbouring states of Odisha , Bihar , and Jharkhand , and sizeable minorities of Bengali speakers reside in Indian cities outside Bengal, including Delhi , Mumbai , Thane , Varanasi , and Vrindavan . There are also significant Bengali-speaking communities in the Middle East , the United States , Singapore , Malaysia , Australia , Canada , the United Kingdom , and Italy . The 3rd article of
14910-535: The other provinces protested against it and its centralisation of power. Opposition was particularly strong in East Bengal, where it was seen as an attack on the democratic principle of political egalitarianism . In 1955, Prime Minister Bogra was dismissed by Governor-General Malik Ghulam Muhammad and he was succeeded by the new Prime Minister Chaudhry Muhammad Ali as the Defence Minister. After
15052-517: The parliament of Bangladesh and the legislative assembly of West Bengal proposed that Bengali be made an official UN language. As of January 2023, no further action has been yet taken on this matter. However, in 2022, the UN did adopt Bangla as an unofficial language, after a resolution tabled by India. In 2024, the government of India conferred Bengali with the status of classical language . Approximate distribution of native Bengali speakers (assuming
15194-581: The party is unfit to contest national polls because its charter puts God above democratic process. On 5 August 2013, the Supreme Court rejected Jamaat's plea against the High Court. The chamber judge of the Appellate Division Justice AHM Shamsuddin Choudhury Manik while rejecting the Jamaat's petition seeking stay on the High Court verdict, said that the Jamaat could move a regular appeal before
15336-434: The private consortium companies and industries, and is credited with creating an environment where the private sector was encouraged to establish medium and small-scale industries in Pakistan. This opened up avenues for new job opportunities and thus the economic graph of the country started rising. He oversaw the development and completion of mega projects such as hydroelectric dams , power stations , and barrages all over
15478-766: The project in Karachi while the project in East Pakistan never materialized. Extensive education reforms were supposedly carried out and 'scientific development efforts' were also supposedly made during his years. These policies could not be sustained after 1965, when the economy collapsed and led to economic declines which he was unable to control. Ayub introduced new curricula and textbooks for universities and schools. Many public-sector universities and schools were built during his era. He also introduced agricultural reforms preventing anyone from occupying more than 500 acres of irrigated and 1000 acres of unirrigated land. His administration, redistributed approximately 23 percent of
15620-405: The public was informed, public reactions were mixed. The immediate crackdown on smuggling, corruption, and trafficking won Ayub plenty of support from the commoners. The middle-class and the upper-middle class were more apprehensive. President Mirza himself was apprehensive, though for a different reason. He had been contemplating replacing Ayub Khan, and it seems that Ayub knew. Immediately after
15762-511: The region as a result of an election. The Central Intelligence Agency leased Peshawar Air Station in the 1950s and spying into the Soviet Union from the air station grew immensely, with Ayub's full knowledge, during his presidency. When these activities were exposed in 1960 after a U-2 flying out of the air station was shot down and its pilot captured by the USSR, President Ayub was in
15904-599: The restoration of democracy. It later allied with the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and Jamaat leaders became ministers in the two BNP-led governments of prime minister Begum Khaleda Zia (from 1991 to 1996 and from 2001 to 2006). Awami League also got involved with Jamaat to come to power in 1996. In 2008, it won two of 300 elected seats in Parliament. In 2010, the government led by the Awami League , began prosecution of war crimes committed during
16046-529: The size of the army by more than half from the early 1960s to 1969, and maintained a high level of military spending as a percentage of GDP during that period, peaking in the immediate aftermath of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 . The main feature of Ayub Khan's foreign policy was prioritized relations with the United States and Europe. Foreign relations with the Soviet Union were downplayed. He enjoyed support from President Dwight Eisenhower in
16188-427: The so-called "inherent" vowel [ɔ] is first expunged from the consonant before adding the vowel, but this intermediate expulsion of the inherent vowel is not indicated in any visual manner on the basic consonant sign ম [mɔ] . The vowel graphemes in Bengali can take two forms: the independent form found in the basic inventory of the script and the dependent, abridged, allograph form (as discussed above). To represent
16330-536: The superposed chôndrôbindu (ঁ) , denoting a suprasegmental for nasalisation of vowels (as in চাঁদ [tʃãd] "moon"), the postposed ônusbar (ং) indicating the velar nasal [ŋ] (as in বাংলা [baŋla] "Bengali") and the postposed bisôrgô (ঃ) indicating the voiceless glottal fricative [h] (as in উঃ! [uh] "ouch!") or the gemination of the following consonant (as in দুঃখ [dukʰːɔ] "sorrow"). The Bengali consonant clusters ( যুক্তব্যঞ্জন juktôbênjôn ) are usually realised as ligatures, where
16472-425: The surge of July Revolution , then Sheikh Hasina government banned the party fully on 1 August 2024. However, after the fall of Sheikh Hasina , The decision was reversed on 28 August by the interim government . The Jamaat-e-Islami was founded in pre-partition British India by Syed Abul A'la Maududi at Islamia Park, Lahore on 26 August 1941 as a movement to promote social and political Islam . Jamaat opposed
16614-484: The transitional role of British military officers. Although the Pakistani government announced the appointment of the navy's native commander in chief in 1951, it was Ayub Khan who helped Vice-Admiral HMS Choudri to be appointed as the first native navy commander in chief, also in 1953. The events surrounding Ayub's appointment set the precedent for a native general being promoted out of turn, ostensibly because he
16756-494: The victims. They were taken blindfolded to torture cells in Mirpur , Mohammadpur , Nakhalpara , Rajarbagh and other locations in different sections of the city. Later, they were executed en masse , most notably at Rayerbazar and Mirpur . Jamaat was banned after the independence of Bangladesh in December 1971, and its top leaders fled to West Pakistan. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman , the first president of Bangladesh, also cancelled
16898-484: The visible matra and an invisible baseline). There is yet to be a uniform standard collating sequence (sorting order of graphemes to be used in dictionaries, indices, computer sorting programs, etc.) of Bengali graphemes. Experts in both Bangladesh and India are currently working towards a common solution for this problem. Throughout history, there have been instances of the Bengali language being written in different scripts, though these employments were never popular on
17040-435: The vocabulary may differ according to the speaker's religion: Muslims are more likely to use words of Persian and Arabic origin, along with more words naturally derived from Sanskrit ( tadbhava ), whereas Hindus are more likely to use tatsama (words directly borrowed from Sanskrit). For example: The phonemic inventory of standard Bengali consists of 29 consonants and 7 vowels, as well as 7 nasalised vowels . The inventory
17182-543: The war neared its end, a final effort to wipe off as many intellectuals as possible took place, to eliminate the future leaders of the new nation. On 14 December 1971, over 200 of East Pakistan's intellectuals including professors, journalists, doctors, artists, engineers, and writers were picked up from their homes in Dhaka by the Al-Badr militias. Notable novelist Shahidullah Kaiser and playwright Munier Choudhury were among
17324-715: Was Joyanto Nath Chaudhuri , who served as the Chief of the Army Staff (India) from 1962 to 1966 while Ayub was the president of Pakistan. After the standard probationary period of service in the British Army , he was appointed to the British Indian Army on 10 April 1929, joining the 1/14th Punjab Regiment Sherdils , now known as the 5th Punjab Regiment. He was promoted to lieutenant on 2 May 1930 and to captain on 2 February 1937. During World War II , he
17466-568: Was a part of the Greater Magadhan realm. The local varieties had no official status during the Gupta Empire , and with Bengal increasingly becoming a hub of Sanskrit literature for Hindu priests, the vernacular of Bengal gained a lot of influence from Sanskrit. Magadhi Prakrit was also spoken in modern-day Bihar and Assam , and this vernacular eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi . Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what
17608-434: Was able to introduce submarines and slowly modified itself by acquiring warships. However, Ayub drastically reduced funding of the military in the 1950s and de-prioritized nuclear weapons in the 1960s. The military relied on donations from the United States for major weapons procurements. Major funding was made available for military acquisitions and procurement towards conventional weaponry for conventional defence . In
17750-487: Was asked by General Ayub Khan to join the Generals to demand Mirza's resignation, but Asghar Khan declined the request, stating that he "found the whole exercise distasteful." The regime came to power with the intent of instituting widespread reform. Like Mirza, Ayub advocated for greater centralization of power, and his ruling style was more American than British. He "vowed to give people access to speedier justice, curb
17892-576: Was concerned, as Jamaat-e-Islami had been their primary political partner in the Four-Party Alliance. On 27 January 2009, the Bangladesh Supreme Court issued a ruling after 25 people from different Islamic organisations, including Bangladesh Tariqat Federation's Secretary General Syed Rezaul Haque Chandpuri, Jaker Party's Secretary General Munshi Abdul Latif and Sammilita Islami Jote's President Maulana Ziaul Hasan, filed
18034-614: Was enrolled in a school in Sarai Saleh , which was about 4 miles from his village. He used to go to school on a mule 's back and was shifted to a school in Haripur , where he started living with his grandmother. He went on to study at Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) and while pursuing his college education, he was accepted into the Royal Military College, Sandhurst on the recommendation of General Andrew Skeen ; he trained first in India and then departed for Great Britain. Ayub Khan
18176-503: Was established in Karachi. These reforms led to 15% GNP growth of the country that was three times greater than that of India. Despite the increase in the GNP growth, the profit and revenue was gained by the famous 22 families of the time that controlled 66% of the industries and land of the country and 80% of the banking and insurance companies of Pakistan. During the Ayub era, the navy
18318-481: Was established, and the country launched its first uncrewed space-mission by 1962. However, the failure of land reforms and a weak taxation system meant that most of this growth landed in the hands of the elite. In 1965, Khan entered the presidential race as the Convention Muslim League 's candidate to counter the opposition candidate Fatima Jinnah . Ayub won the elections and was re-elected for
18460-557: Was extensively developed during the Bengali Renaissance and is one of the most prolific and diverse literary traditions in Asia. The Bengali language movement from 1948 to 1956 demanding that Bengali be an official language of Pakistan fostered Bengali nationalism in East Bengal leading to the emergence of Bangladesh in 1971. In 1999, UNESCO recognised 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of
18602-623: Was fluent in Urdu, Pashto, English, and his regional Hindko dialect. Ayub Khan was admitted to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in 1926. He was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant on 2 February 1928 in the 19th Punjabis of the 14th Punjab Regiment (better known as 1/14th Punjab Regiment) of the British Indian Army – before this he was attached to the Royal Fusiliers . Amongst those who passed out with him
18744-441: Was hanged to death on 11 May 2016. Earlier, two former Cabinet Ministers of the immediate past BNP-led alliance government, Abdul Mannan Bhuiyan and Shamsul Islam were sent to Dhaka Central Jail , after they surrendered before the court. As a result, in the parliamentary elections of December 2008, Jamaat-e-Islami garnered fewer than 5 seats out of the total 300 that constitute the national parliament. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party
18886-560: Was indicted on 7 June 2012 on 7 counts of crimes against humanity. On 9 May 2013, he was convicted and given the death penalty on five counts of mass killings, rape, torture and kidnapping. Ghulam Azam, ameer of Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh until 2000 was found guilty by the ICT on five counts. Incitement, conspiracy, planning, abatement and failure to prevent murder. He was sentenced on 15 July 2013 to 90 years imprisonment. Ali Ahsan Mohammad Mojaheed , Secretary General of Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami
19028-514: Was no chance of a fair trial. The summary of verdict in the conviction of Abdul Quader Mollah recognised the role played by Jamaat-e-Islami and its student wing ('Islami Chatra Sangha') as collaborators with the Pakistan Army in 1971. The party was found guilty of forming paramilitary forces, such as Razakar and Al-Badr . It was said to have taken part in the systematic genocide of the Bangladeshi people and other violent activities. As
19170-461: Was one of the most senior serving officers in the British Indian Army who opted for Pakistan in 1947. At the time of his joining, he was the tenth ranking officer in terms of seniority with service number PA-010. In the early part of 1948, he was given the command of the 14th Infantry Division in the rank of acting major-general stationed in Dacca , East Pakistan . In 1949, he was decorated with
19312-520: Was promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1942 and was posted in Burma to participate in the first phase of the Burma Campaign in 1942–43. He was promoted to the permanent rank of major on 2 February 1945. Later that year, he was promoted to temporary colonel and assumed the command of his own regiment in which he was commissioned to direct operations in the second phase of
19454-459: Was reversed on 28 August 2024. The Jamaat agenda is the creation of an " Islamic state " with the Sharia legal system, and outlawing "un-Islamic" practices and laws. For this reason, it interpretes their central political concept Iqamat-e-Deen as establishing Islamic state by possession of state power. However in 2012, after an amendment to the party's constitution, the party omitted references to
19596-573: Was sentenced to death by hanging on 22 November 2015. Chowdhury Mueen-Uddin , who fled to the UK after the liberation of Bangladesh and a leader of the London-based Jamaat organisation Dawatul Islam, was indicted for crimes against humanity and genocide and being a leader of the Al-Badr militia. He is also accused of the murder of Bangladesh's top intellectuals during the war, although he has denied all charges. Bangladesh Islami Chhatrashibir , an independent student organisation, works as
19738-638: Was the least ambitious of the generals in the line of promotion and the most loyal to civil government at that time. In 1953, Ayub visited Turkey, his first foreign visit as an army commander in chief, and was said to have been impressed with Turkish military tradition; he met only with the Turkish Defence minister during his visit. Thereafter, he went to the United States and visited the US State Department and Pentagon to lobby for forging military relations . He termed this visit as
19880-608: Was the senior, having been commissioned in 1920. As the tenure of General Gracey was nearing its end at the close of 1949, he approached Akbar Khan to succeed him. However, Akbar declined, citing that the position was beyond his competence. The next candidate in line was Akbar's younger brother, General Iftikhar Khan . However, Iftikhar died in an air crash before he could take office, resulting in Gracey's extension, with General Ayub Khan succeeding him following his retirement. Defence Secretary Iskandar Mirza at that time played
20022-468: Was tried in absentia after having fled the country; police believe he is in Pakistan. In January 2013, Azad was the first suspect to be convicted in the trials; he was found guilty of seven of eight charges and sentenced to death by hanging. Azad's defence lawyer, a prominent Supreme Court lawyer appointed by the state, did not have any witnesses in the case; he said Azad's family failed to cooperate in helping locate witnesses and refused to testify as there
20164-428: Was willing to dissolve even Pakistan's One Unit for his advantage. On 7 October 1958, President Mirza abrogated the Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 after sending a letter to Prime Minister Feroz announcing a coup d'état and appointed General Ayub Khan as Chief Martial Law Administrator . Two weeks later, Ayub would carry out his own coup d'état against Mirza. Most of the country's politicians only became aware of
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