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94-446: Towards the end of his life he wrote a dialogue among different religions, including representatives of Judaism, Islam and natural theology in which all agreed to coexist in concord, but was not published. He was also an influential writer on demonology as his later years were spent during the peak of the early modern witch trials . Jean Bodin was successively a friar, academic, professional lawyer, and political adviser. An excursion as

188-575: A Buddha or a Bodhisattva . In his autobiography, The Blazing Splendor, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche , a prominent Tibetan Buddhist master of the 20th century describes encounters with such beings. Therefore, depending on the context, in Buddhism demons may refer to both disturbed mind states and actual beings. Vedic scriptures include a range of spirits (Vetalas, Rakshasas , Bhutas, and Pishachas) that might be classified as demons. These spirits are souls of beings that have committed certain specific sins. As

282-673: A Problemata Bodini , which was based on the Theatrum . Philosophers Works Jean Bodin's best-known work was " The Six Books of the Republic" ( Les Six livres de la République ), written in 1576. The discussion regarding the best form of government which took place in those years around the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) gave the inspiration. Bodin's, classical, definition of sovereignty is: " la puissance absolue et perpetuelle d'une République " (the absolute and perpetual power of

376-668: A Latin translation of Oppian of Apamea , under the continuing patronage of Gabriel Bouvery , Bishop of Angers . Bodin had a plan for a school on humanist principles in Toulouse, but failed to raise local support. He left in 1560. From 1561, Bodin was licensed as an attorney of the Parlement of Paris. His religious convictions on the outbreak of the Wars of Religion in 1562 cannot be determined, but he affirmed formally his Catholic faith, taking an oath that year along with other members of

470-530: A Latin work Colloquium heptaplomeres de rerum sublimium arcanis abditis (Colloquium of the Seven about Secrets of the Sublime). It is a conversation about the nature of truth between seven educated men, each with a distinct religious or philosophical orientation - a natural philosopher, a Calvinist, a Muslim, a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran, a Jew, and a skeptic. Because of this work, Bodin is often identified as one of

564-412: A Republic). His main ideas about sovereignty are found in chapter VIII and X of Book I, including his statement "The sovereign Prince is accountable only to God". The Six livres were an immediate success and were frequently reprinted. A revised and expanded Latin translation by the author appeared in 1586. With this work, Bodin became one of the founders of the pragmatic inter-confessional group known as

658-466: A body. A sharp distinction is often drawn between these two classes, notably by the Melanesians , several African groups, and others. The Islamic jinn , for example, are not reducible to modified human souls. At the same time these classes are frequently conceived as producing identical results, e.g. diseases. According to some religions, all the affairs of the universe are supposed to be under

752-577: A less honest Lieutenant of the Tower, Sir Gervase Helwys , as part of her scheme to murder the prisoner Thomas Overbury , who was opposed to her affair with Robert Carr . Wade had allowed Lady Arbella Stuart a key to her quarters in the Tower, and this was made the pretext for his replacement by Helwys. Wade was later praised by Lloyd, who claimed that "to his directions we owe Rider 's Dictionary , to his encouragement Hooker 's Polity , and to his charge Gruter 's Inscriptions . A wall tablet within

846-497: A little-known magister in philosophy. His education was not only influenced by an orthodox Scholastic approach but was also apparently in contact with Ramist philosophy (the thought of Petrus Ramus ). Later, in the 1550s, he studied Roman law at the University of Toulouse , under Arnaud du Ferrier , and taught there. His special subject at that time seems to have been comparative jurisprudence. Subsequently, he worked on

940-458: A maxim about the intellectual consequences of the non-existence of God (a precursor of Voltaire 's, but based on a traditional commonplace of French thinkers). Wilhelm Dilthey later wrote that the protagonists in the Colloquium anticipate those of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 's Nathan der Weise . The Colloquium was one of the major and most popular manuscripts in clandestine circulation in

1034-657: A new war against the Huguenots. He attempted to exert a moderating influence on the Catholic party, and also tried restrict the passage of supplemental taxation for the king. Bodin then retired from political life; he had married in February 1576. His wife, Françoise Trouillart, was the widow of Claude Bayard, and sister of Nicolas Trouillart who died in 1587; both were royal attorneys in the Provost of Laon and attorneys in

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1128-648: A number of Indian demons finding permanent niches even in Taoist ritual texts. In the Kṣitigarbha Sūtra it states that heaven and hell change as the world changes and that many new hells with different demons can be created to fit the different ways that the human realm changes. Chinese Buddhism also influenced Taoism with beliefs of hell and the Taoists eventually came up with their own demonology lore which in turn created folk beliefs about spirits in hell which

1222-463: A politician having proved a failure, he lived out his life as a provincial magistrate . Bodin was born near Angers , possibly the son of a master tailor, into a modestly prosperous middle-class background. He received a decent education, apparently in the Carmelite monastery of Angers, where he became a novice friar. Some claims made about his early life remain obscure. There is some evidence of

1316-455: A populationist strategy typical of mercantilism . The book was influential in the debate over witchcraft; it was translated into German by Johann Fischart (1581), and in the same year into Latin by François Du Jon as De magorum dæmonomania libri IV . It was quoted by Jean de Léry , writing about the Tupinamba people of what is now Brazil . One surviving copy of the text, located in

1410-519: A prophecy supposed to be Bodin's, on the death of Elizabeth, at the time of the Babington Plot . Prince François became Duke of Brabant in 1582, however, and embarked on an adventurer's campaign to expand his territory. The disapproving Bodin accompanied him, and was trapped in the Prince's disastrous raid on Antwerp that ended the attempt, followed shortly by the Prince's death in 1584. In

1504-726: A purging punishment, they are condemned to roam without a physical form for a length of time, until a rebirth. Beings that died with unfulfilled desires or anger are also said to "linger" until those issues are resolved. Hindu text Atharvaveda gives an account of nature and habitats of such spirits including how to persuade / control them. There are occult traditions in Hinduism that seek to control such spirits to do their bidding. The Hindu text Garuda Purana details other kinds of punishments and judgments given out in Hell ; it also gives an account of how spirits travel to various nether worlds. In

1598-665: A report of a 1552 public exorcism in Paris, and of the case of Magdalena de la Cruz of Cordova , an abbess who had confessed to sexual relations with the Devil over three decades. Bodin cited Pierre Marner on werewolf accounts from Savoie . He denounced the works of Cornelius Agrippa , and the perceived traffic in "sorceries" carried out along the Spanish Road , running along eastern France for much of its length. He wrote in extreme terms about procedures in sorcery trials, opposing

1692-528: A request to secure better treatment for English Catholics, to the dismay of Robert Persons , given that Edmund Campion was in prison at the time. Bodin saw some of Campion's trial, he is said also to have witnessed Campion's execution in December 1581, making the hanging the occasion for a public letter against the use of force in matters of religion. Bodin became a correspondent of Francis Walsingham ; and Michel de Castelnau passed on to Mary, Queen of Scots

1786-473: A social prop, encouraging respect for law and governance. Bodin praised printing as outshining any achievement of the ancients. The idea that the Protestant Reformation was driven by economic and political forces is attributed to him. He is identified as the first person to realize the rapid rate of change of early modern Europe. In physics, he is credited as the first modern writer to use

1880-450: A student of Gray's Inn , and a few years later, doubtless with a view to entering the service of the government, he began travelling on the continent. In July 1576 Wade was living in Paris and frequently supplied political information to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley , whose "servant" he is described as being. He claimed "familiar acquaintance" with the celebrated French publicist Jean Bodin , from whom he seems to have derived some of

1974-771: A title which refers to what in English is called the Day Star or Morning Star (in Latin, lucifer , meaning "light-bearer", from the words lucem ferre ). There is more than one instance in Jewish medieval myth and lore where demons are said to have come to be, as seen by the Grigori angels, of Lilith leaving Adam, of demons such as vampires , unrest spirits in Jewish folklore such as the dybbuk . Traditionally, Buddhism affirms

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2068-462: A visit to Geneva in 1547–48 in which he became involved in a heresy trial. The records of this episode, however, are murky and may refer to another person. Bodin obtained release from his vows in 1549 and went to Paris. He studied at the university , but also at the humanist -oriented Collège des Quatre Langues (now the Collège de France ); he was for two years a student under Guillaume Prévost,

2162-414: Is always zoology as well. One prominent classification is given by al-Jahiz , who classifies jinn as: Zakariya al-Qazwini's Aja'ib al-Makhluqat mentions seven types of animals. The jinn are classified as an animal composed of fire and can appear in many forms. Among them, the angels are created from the light of fire, the jinn from a blaze of fire, and the devils from the smoke of fire. Satan

2256-536: Is called an aristocratic constitution, not a mixed one, with a concentric structure, and its apparent stability was not attributable to the form of government. The ideas in the Six livres on the importance of climate in the shaping of a people's character were also influential, finding a prominent place in the work of Giovanni Botero (1544–1617) and later in Baron de Montesquieu 's (1689–1755) climatic determinism . Based on

2350-489: Is counted among these animals. They inhabited the earth before mankind. The German orientalist Almut Wieland-Karimi classified the Jinn in the ten most common categories mentioned in folklore literature: Judaism does not have a demonology or any set of doctrines about demons. Use of the name "Lucifer" stems from Isaiah 14:3–20 , a passage which does speak of the defeat of a particular Babylonian King, to whom it gives

2444-539: Is the study of demons from a Christian point of view. It is primarily based on the Bible ( Old Testament and New Testament ), the exegesis of scriptures, the writings of early Christian philosophers and hermits , tradition , and legends incorporated from other beliefs. Some scholars suggest that the origins of early Greek Old Testament demonology can be traced to two distinctive and often competing mythologies of evil— Adamic and Enochic. The first tradition —

2538-432: Is thoughtful; Bodin introduced republic (French république , Latin respublica ) as a term for matters of public law (the contemporary English rendering was commonweal(th) ). Bodin, although he referred to Tacitus , was not writing here in the tradition of classical republicanism . The Ottoman Empire is analysed as a "seigneurial monarchy". The Republic of Venice is not accepted in the terms of Gasparo Contarini : it

2632-536: The politiques , who ultimately succeeded in ending the Wars of Religion under King Henry IV , with the Edict of Nantes (1598). Against the monarchomachs who were assailing kingship in his time, such as Theodore Beza and François Hotman , Bodin succeeded in writing a fundamental and influential treatise of social and political theory. In its reasoning against all types of mixed constitution and resistance theory , it

2726-528: The Bailiwick of Vermandois , and Bodin took over the charges. Jean Bodin was in touch with William Wade in Paris, Lord Burghley 's contact, at the time (1576) of publication of the Six livres . He later accompanied Prince François, by then Duke of Anjou, to England in 1581, in his second attempt to woo Elizabeth I of England . On this visit, Bodin saw the English Parliament. He brushed off

2820-588: The Kabbalistic tradition. While many people believe today Lucifer and Satan are different names for the same being, not all scholars subscribe to this view. A number of authors throughout Christian history have written about demons for a variety of purposes. Theologians like Thomas Aquinas wrote concerning the behaviors of which Christians should be aware, while witch hunters like Heinrich Kramer wrote about how to find and what to do with people they believed were involved with demons . Some texts such as

2914-604: The King of Poland . Alençon was a leader of the politiques faction of political pragmatists. After the failure of Prince François' hopes to ascend the throne, Bodin transferred his allegiance to the new king Henry III . In practical politics, however, he lost the king's favor in 1576–7, as delegate of the Third Estate at the Estates-General at Blois , and leader in his Estate of the February 1577 moves to prevent

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3008-704: The Lesser Key of Solomon or The Grimoire of Pope Honorius (although these, the earliest manuscripts, were from well after these individuals had died) are written with instructions on how to summon demons in the name of God and often were claimed to have been written by individuals respected within the Church. These latter texts were usually more detailed, giving names, ranks, and descriptions of demons individually and categorically. Most Christians commonly reject these texts as either diabolical or fictitious. Catholics accused Lutherans of believing in diabolatry or that

3102-625: The States-General of the Netherlands . A year later he took a prominent part in arranging the seizure of Mary Stuart's papers, which implicated her in the Babington Plot . He himself went down to Chartley in August 1586, and, while Mary was decoyed away on a hunting expedition, arrested her secretaries Nau and Curle, and having ransacked her cabinet, carried back a valuable collection of papers to London. For this important service he

3196-471: The Zoroastrian tradition, Ahura Mazda , as the force of good Spenta Mainyu , will eventually be victorious in a cosmic battle with an evil force known as Angra Mainyu or Ahriman. William Wade (English politician) Sir William Wade (or Waad , or Wadd ; 1546 – 21 October 1623) was an English statesman and diplomat, and Lieutenant of the Tower of London . William Wade

3290-501: The galla dragging the god Dumuzid into the underworld. Like other demons, however, galla could also be benevolent and, in a hymn from King Gudea of Lagash ( c. 2144 – 2124 BC), a minor god named Ig-alima is described as "the great galla of Girsu ". Demons had no cult in Mesopotamian religious practice since demons "know no food, know no drink, eat no flour offering and drink no libation ." Christian demonology

3384-558: The king with the insignia of the Garter , and to negotiate an agreement on mercantile affairs. In January 1583–4 he was sent to Madrid to explain the expulsion from England of the Spanish ambassador, Mendoza . He arrived in March, but Phillip II refused all his requests for an interview and ordered him out of Spain, with an intimation that he was fortunate to escape to liberty. He

3478-665: The witchcraft persecutions was " Of the Demon-mania of the Sorcerers " ( De la démonomanie des sorciers ), first issued in 1580, with ten editions published by 1604. In it he elaborates the influential concept of "pact witchcraft" based on a deal with the Devil and the belief that the evil spirit would use a strategy to impose doubt on judges to look upon magicians as madmen and hypochondriacs deserving of compassion rather than chastisement. The book relates histories of sorcerers, but does not mention Faust and his pact. It gave

3572-619: The Śūraṅgama Sūtra , a major Mahayana Buddhist text, describes fifty demonic states: the so-called fifty skandha maras, which are "negative" mirror-like reflections of or deviations from correct samādhi (meditative absorption) states. In this context demons are considered by Buddhists to be beings possessing some supernatural powers, who, in the past, might have practiced Dharma , the Buddha's teaching, but due to practicing it incorrectly failed to develop true wisdom and true compassion , which are inseparable attributes of an enlightened being such as

3666-594: The Adamic tradition — ties demons to the fall of man caused by the serpent who beguiled Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden . Thus, the Adamic story traces the source of evil to Satan's transgression and the fall of man, a trend reflected in the Books of Adam and Eve which explains the reason for Satan's demotion by his refusal to worship and submit to God. The other tradition — the early Enochic tradition — ties demons to

3760-541: The Chinese worldview, and were called mo . The idea of the imminent decline and collapse of the Buddhist religion amid a "great cacophony of demonic influences" was already a significant component of Buddhism when it reached China in the first century A.D., according to Michel Strickmann. Demonic forces had attained enormous power in the world. For some writers of the time, this state of affairs had been ordained to serve

3854-677: The Parlement. He continued to pursue his interests in legal and political theory in Paris, publishing significant works on historiography and economics. Bodin became a member of the discussion circles around the Prince François d'Alençon (or d'Anjou from 1576). He was the intelligent and ambitious youngest son of Henry II , and was in line for the throne in 1574, with the death of his brother Charles IX . He withdrew his claim, however, in favor of his older brother Henry III , who had recently returned from his abortive effort to reign as

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3948-625: The University of Southern California's Special Collections Library, is a rare presentation copy signed by Bodin himself, and is one of only two known surviving texts that feature such an inscription by the author. The USC Démonomanie dedication is to a C.L. Varroni, thought to be a legal colleague of Bodin's. Jean Bodin became well known for his analysis of sovereignty, which he took to be indivisible, and to involve full legislative powers (though with qualifications and caveats). With François Hotman (1524–1590) and François Baudouin (1520–1573), on

4042-477: The annihilation of the wicked 'post exacta supplicia'. 19th-century author Eliphas Levi esteemed Bodin as a student of Jewish esoterism: "The Kabalist Bodin who has been considered erroneously of a feeble and superstitious mind, had no other motive in writing his Demonomania than that of warning people against dangerous incredulity. Initiated by the study of the Kabalah into the true secrets of Magic, he trembled at

4136-466: The assumption that a country's climate shapes the character of its population, and hence to a large extent the most suitable form of government, Bodin postulated that a hereditary monarchy would be the ideal regime for a temperate nation such as France. This power should be "sovereign", i.e., not be subject to any other branch, though to some extent limited by institutions like the high courts ( Parlement ) and representative assemblies ( États ). Above all,

4230-467: The certainty of the astronomical theory of stellar parallax , and the terrestrial origin of the "comet of 1573" (i.e., the supernova SN 1572 ). This work shows major Ramist influences. Consideration of the orderly majesty of God leads to encyclopedism about the universe and an analogue of a memory system . Problems of Bodin became attached to some Renaissance editions of Aristotelian problemata in natural philosophy. Further, Damian Siffert compiled

4324-552: The coast. Wade, however, convinced that he could not secure Morgan, contented himself with obtaining a promise that Morgan should be detained in prison in France, but Aumale nevertheless attacked the envoy near Amiens and inflicted on him a severe beating as an answer to his demand for the extradition of a Roman Catholic from France. In August, Wade accompanied William Davison to the Low Countries to negotiate an alliance with

4418-459: The commonwealth, and its holders had a personal responsibility for their actions. Politics is autonomous, and the sovereign is subject to divine and natural law, but not to any church; the obligation is to secure justice and religious worship in the state. Bodin studied the balance of liberty and authority. He had no doctrine of separation of powers and argued in a traditional way about royal prerogative and its proper, limited sphere. His doctrine

4512-407: The concept of physical laws to define change, but his idea of nature included the action of spirits. In politics, he adhered to the ideas of his time in considering a political revolution in the nature of an astronomical cycle: a changement (French) or simply a change (as translated 1606) in English; from Polybius Bodin took the idea of anacyclosis , or cyclic change of constitution. Bodin's theory

4606-497: The control of spirits, each ruling a certain " element " or even object, and themselves in subjection to a greater spirit. For example, the Inuit are said to believe in spirits of the sea, earth and sky, the winds, the clouds, and everything in nature. Every cove of the seashore, every point, every island and prominent rock has its guardian spirit. Some are potentially of the malignant type, to be propitiated by an appeal to knowledge of

4700-747: The corn; similarly, there is no reason why the less significant pantheon should be regarded as malevolent, and historical evidence has shown that the Petara of the Dyaks are viewed as invisible guardians of mankind rather than hostile malefactors. Demons are generally classified as spirits which are believed to enter into relations with the human race. As such the term includes: Excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another world. Yet just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also be regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes described as human heads with appended entrails, which issue from

4794-458: The danger to which society was exposed by the abandonment of this power to the wickedness of men." Demonology Demonology is the study of demons within religious belief and myth . Depending on context, it can refer to studies within theology , religious doctrine , or occultism . In many faiths, it concerns the study of a hierarchy of demons . Demons may be nonhuman separable souls , or discarnate spirits which have never inhabited

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4888-415: The devil had unlimited powers. In modern times, some demonological texts have been written by Christians, usually in a similar vein of Thomas Aquinas, explaining their effects in the world and how faith may lessen or eliminate damage by them. A few Christian authors, such as Jack Chick and John Todd , write with intentions similar to Kramer, proclaiming that demons and their human agents are active in

4982-625: The distinctive etiologies of corruption, in later Jewish and Christian demonological lore both antagonists are able to enter each other's respective stories in new conceptual capacities. In these later traditions Satanael is often depicted as the leader of the fallen angels while his conceptual rival Azazel is portrayed as a seducer of Adam and Eve. While historical Judaism never recognized any set of doctrines about demons, scholars believe its post-exilic concepts of eschatology , angelology, and demonology were influenced by Zoroastrianism . Some, however, believe these concepts were received as part of

5076-556: The earliest scholarly analyses of the phenomenon of inflation , unknown prior to the 16th century. The background to discussion in the 1560s was that by 1550 an increase in the money supply in Western Europe had brought general benefits. But there had also been appreciable inflation. Silver arriving via Spain from the South American mine of Potosí , together with other sources of silver and gold, from other new sources,

5170-480: The early modern period, with more than 100 copies catalogued. it had an extensive covert circulation, after coming into intellectual fashion. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica states "It is curious that Leibniz , who originally regarded the Colloquium as the work of a professed enemy of Christianity, subsequently described it as a most valuable production". Its dissemination increased after 1700, even if its content

5264-488: The existence of hells populated by demons who torment sinners and tempt mortals to sin, or who seek to thwart their enlightenment , with a demon named Mara as chief tempter, "prince of darkness", or "Evil One" in Sanskrit sources. The followers of Mara were also called mara , the devils, and are frequently cited as a cause of disease or representations of mental obstructions. The mara became fully assimilated into

5358-441: The fall of angels in the antediluvian period. This tradition bases its understanding of the origin of demons on the story of the fallen Watchers led by Azazel . Scholars believe these two enigmatic figures—Azazel and Satan —exercised formative influence on early Jewish demonology. While in the beginning of their conceptual journeys Azazel and Satan are posited as representatives of two distinctive and often rival trends tied to

5452-639: The first proponents of religious tolerance in the western world. Truth, in Bodin's view, commanded universal agreement; and the Abrahamic religions agreed on the Old Testament (Tanakh). Vera religio (true religion) would command loyalty to the point of death; his conception of it was influenced by Philo and Maimonides . His views on free will are also bound up with his studies in Jewish philosophy. Some modern scholars have contested his authorship of

5546-481: The form of state (constitution) from the form of government (administration). Bodin had a low opinion of democracy. Families were the basic unit and model for the state; on the other hand John Milton found in Bodin an ally on the topic of divorce . Respect for individual liberty and possessions were the hallmark of the orderly state, a view Bodin shared with Hotman and George Buchanan . He argued against slavery . In matters of law and politics, Bodin saw religion as

5640-488: The group of learned Christian Hebraists with John Selden , Carlo Giuseppe Imbonati , and Gerhard Vossius . By reputation, at least, Bodin was cited as an unbeliever, deist or atheist by Christian writers who associated him with perceived free-thinking and sceptical tradition of Machiavelli and Pietro Pomponazzi , Lucilio Vanini , Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza : Pierre-Daniel Huet , Nathaniel Falck , Claude-François Houtteville . Pierre Bayle attributed to Bodin

5734-488: The higher purpose of effecting a "preliminary cleansing" that would purge and purify humanity in preparation for an ultimate, messianic renewal. Medieval Chinese Buddhist demonology was heavily influenced by Indian Buddhism. Indian demonology is also fully and systematically described in written sources, though during Buddhism's centuries of direct influence in China, "Chinese demonology was whipped into respectable shape," with

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5828-458: The immediacy of its concerns for the social side of human life. Jean Bodin rejected the biblical Four Monarchies model, taking an unpopular position at the time, as well as the classical theory of a Golden Age for its naiveté. He also dropped much of the rhetorical apparatus of the humanists. The Réponse de J. Bodin aux paradoxes de M. de Malestroit (1568) was a tract, provoked by theories of Jean de Malestroit , in which Bodin offered one of

5922-417: The knowledge of historical legal systems could be useful for contemporary legislation. The Methodus was a successful and influential manual on the writing of technical history. It answered by means of detailed historiographical advice the skeptical line on the possibility of historical knowledge advanced by Francesco Patrizzi . It also expanded the view of historical "data" found in earlier humanists , with

6016-400: The manuscript. Henry Oldenburg wanted to copy it, for transmission to John Milton and possibly John Dury , or for some other connection in 1659. In 1662 Conring was seeking a copy for a princely library. It was not to be published in full until 1857, by Ludwig Noack, from manuscripts collected by Heinrich Christian von Seckenberg . Bodin was influenced by philosophic Judaism to believe in

6110-425: The monarch is "responsible only to God", that is, must stand above confessional factions. The work soon became widely known. Gaspar de Anastro made a Spanish translation in 1590. Richard Knolles put together an English translation (1606); this was based on the 1586 Latin version, but in places follows other versions. It appeared under the title The Six Bookes of a Common-weale . Bodin's major work on sorcery and

6204-633: The news he forwarded to Burghley. In the autumn of 1576 Amias Paulet took Wade to Blois . During the winter of 1578–79 he was in Italy, from where he forwarded to Burghley reports on its political condition. From Venice in April 1579 he sent Burghley fifty of the rarest kinds of seeds in Italy. In May he was in Florence , and in February 1579/80 he was living in Strasbourg . In the following April he

6298-441: The normal safeguards of justice. This advocacy of relaxation was aimed directly at the existing standards laid down by the Parlement of Paris (physical or written evidence, confessions not obtained by torture , unimpeachable witnesses). He asserted that not even one witch could be erroneously condemned if the correct procedures were followed, because rumours concerning sorcerers were almost always true. Bodin's attitude has been called

6392-507: The other hand, Bodin also supported the force of customary law , seeing Roman law alone as inadequate. He hedged the absolutist nature of his theory of sovereignty, which was an analytical concept; if later his ideas were used in a different, normative fashion, that was not overtly the reason in Bodin. Sovereignty could be looked at as a "bundle of attributes"; in that light the legislative role took centre stage, and other "marks of sovereignty" could be discussed further, as separate issues. He

6486-480: The supernatural. Traditional Korean belief posits that countless demons inhabit the natural world; they fill household objects and are present in all locations. By the thousands, they accompany travellers, seeking them out from their places in the elements. Greek philosophers such as Porphyry of Tyre (who claimed influence from Platonism ), as well as the fathers of the Christian Church , held that

6580-466: The text. The "Colloquium of the Seven regarding the hidden secrets of the sublime things" offers a peaceful discussion with seven representatives of various religions and worldviews, who in the end agree on the fundamental underlying similarity of their beliefs. Bodin's theory, as based in considerations of harmony, resembles that of Sebastian Castellio . He has been seen as a scriptural relativist, and deist , with Montaigne and Pierre Charron ; also in

6674-427: The throwing down of a tree on a passer-by, is believed by the natives to be perpetuated by the class of spirits known as Ombuiri . Many spirits, especially those regarding natural processes, are often considered neutral or benevolent; ancient European peasant fears of the corn-spirit would crop up during irritation, as a result of the farmer infringing on the domain of said spirit, and taking his property by cutting

6768-435: The time laid the foundation for the " quantity theory of money ". Bodin mentioned other factors: population increase, trade, the possibility of economic migration , and consumption that he saw as profligate. The Theatrum Universae Naturae is Bodin's statement of natural philosophy. It contains many particular and even idiosyncratic personal views, for instance that eclipses are related to political events. It argued against

6862-587: The time of the Gunpowder Plot and questioned Guy Fawkes . For some time Wade was a member of the Parliament of England , elected as MP for Aldborough (1584), Thetford (1589), Preston (1601) and West Looe (1604). Wade sent observations about the behaviour of the lion cubs in the Tower to the Earl of Salisbury . In September 1607, a breeding pair, Henry and Anne, had a cub, or "lion whelp". There

6956-540: The tomb to attack the living during the night watches. The incubi and succubi of the Middle Ages are sometimes regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give proof of their bodily existence, such as offspring (though often deformed). Belief in demons goes back many millennia. The Zoroastrian faith teaches that there are 3,333 Demons, some with specific dark responsibilities such as war, starvation, sickness, etc. The ancient Mesopotamians believed that

7050-507: The underworld (Kur) was home to many demons , which are sometimes referred to as "offspring of arali ". These demons could sometimes leave the underworld and terrorize mortals on earth. One class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld were known as galla ; their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur. They are frequently referenced in magical texts, and some texts describe them as being seven in number. Several extant poems describe

7144-696: The wars that followed the death of Henry III (1589), the Catholic League attempted to prevent the succession of the Protestant Henry of Navarre by placing another king on the throne. Bodin initially gave support to the powerful League; he felt it inevitable that they would score a quick victory. Jean Bodin died, in Laon, during one of the many plague epidemics of the time. Bodin generally wrote in French, with later Latin translations. Several of

7238-466: The works have been seen as influenced by Ramism , at least in terms of structure. Bodin wrote in turn books on history, economics, politics, demonology, and natural philosophy; and also left a (later notorious) work in manuscript on religion (see under "Religious tolerance"). A modern edition of Bodin's works was begun in 1951 as Oeuvres philosophiques de Jean Bodin by Pierre Mesnard  [ fr ] , but only one volume appeared. In France, Bodin

7332-558: The world was pervaded with spirits, the latter of whom advanced the belief that demons received the worship directed at pagan gods. Not all spirits across all cultures are considered malevolent. In Central Africa , the Mpongwe believe in local spirits, just as the Inuit do; but they are regarded as inoffensive in the main. Passers-by must make some nominal offering as they near the spirits' residence. The occasional mischievous act, such as

7426-620: The world. These claims can stray from mainstream ideology, and may include such beliefs as that Christian rock is a means through which demons influence people. Not all Christians believe that demons exist in the literal sense. Some believe that the New Testament's exorcism language was originally part of curing ceremonies for what we now recognize as epilepsy, mental illness, etc. Many demonic or demon-like entities are not purely spiritual, but physical in nature and related to animals. Julius Wellhausen states, that Islamic demonology

7520-448: Was a politique in theory, which was the moderate position of the period in French politics; but drew the conclusion that only passive resistance to authority was justified. Bodin's work on political theory saw the introduction of the modern concept of "state" but was in the fact on the cusp of usage (with that of Corasius ), with the older meaning of a monarch "maintaining his state" not having dropped away. Public office belonged to

7614-460: Was a combination of beliefs from the two religions. However, the demons in hell are viewed differently than Abrahamic faiths who instead of being pure evil are more of guards of hell although they are still viewed as malicious beings. They are ruled over by Yama which came from Buddhism's Hindu influences but certain scriptures and beliefs also state that there are 18 different Yamas in hell which have an army of demons and undead at their side. Also,

7708-689: Was a very unusual position for his time, if shared by Michel de l'Hôpital and William the Silent . It was attacked by Pedro de Rivadeneira and Juan de Mariana , from the conventional opposing position of a state obligation to root out religious dissent. He argued in the Six livres that the Trial of the Knights Templar was an example of unjustified persecution, similar to that of the Jews and medieval fraternities. In 1588, Bodin completed in manuscript

7802-603: Was an effective counter-attack against the monarchomach position invoking "popular sovereignty". The structure of the earlier books has been described as Ramist in structure. Book VI contains astrological and numerological reasoning. Bodin invoked Pythagoras in discussing justice and in Book IV used ideas related to the Utopia of Thomas More . The use of language derived from or replacing Niccolò Machiavelli 's città (Latin civitas ) as political unit (French cité or ville )

7896-554: Was appointed to accompany Claude Nau to the court of King James VI of Scotland , but his appointment was cancelled at the last minute. In March 1585 Wade was despatched to Paris to demand the surrender of the conspirator Thomas Morgan . Henry III was willing to consider the request, but the Catholic League and the Guises were violently opposed to it and even instructed the Duc d'Aumale to waylay Wade and rescue Morgan on their way to

7990-470: Was back in England on 12 April, and with his return diplomatic relations between England and Spain ceased. In the same month Wade was sent to Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots , to induce her to come to terms with Elizabeth. Wade witnessed a discussion with a French envoy about her dowry income, and Mary took the opportunity to complain about her treatment in England and her declining health. In February 1585, he

8084-477: Was by then dated. It was interpreted in the 18th century as containing arguments for natural religion , as if the views expressed by Toralba (the proponent of natural religion) were Bodin's; wrongly, according to Rose, whose reconstruction of Bodin's religious views is a long way from belief in a detached deity. Grotius had a manuscript. Gottfried Leibniz , who criticized the Colloquium to Jacob Thomasius and Hermann Conring , some years later did editorial work on

8178-434: Was causing monetary change. Bodin was after Martín de Azpilicueta , who had alluded to the issue in 1556 (something noticed also by Gómara in his unpublished Annals ), an early observer that the rise in prices was due in large part to the influx of precious metals. Analysing the phenomenon, amongst other factors he pointed to the relationship between the amount of goods and the amount of money in circulation. The debates of

8272-759: Was employed on a delicate mission in Paris by Sir Henry Cobham . Among appointments in London, Wade undertook a number of ambassadorial missions, in 1580 to Portugal; then in 1581 he became secretary to Sir Francis Walsingham and in 1583 he was appointed as one of the clerks of the Privy Council . In April of that year he was sent to Vienna to discuss the differences between the Hanseatic League and English merchants abroad, and in July he accompanied Lord Willoughby on his embassy to Denmark to invest

8366-466: Was noted as a historian for his Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem (1566) ( Method for the easy knowledge of history ). He wrote, "Of history, that is, the true narration of things, there are three kinds: human, natural and divine". This book was one of the most significant contributions to the ars historica of the period, and distinctively put an emphasis on the role of political knowledge in interpreting historical writings. He pointed out that

8460-444: Was one of balance as harmony, with numerous qualifications; as such it could be used in different manners, and was. The key was that the central point of power should be above faction. Rose sees Bodin's politics as ultimately theocratic , and misunderstood by the absolutists who followed him. Where Aristotle argued for six types of state, Bodin allowed only monarchy , aristocracy and democracy . He advocated, however, distinguishing

8554-528: Was paid thirty pounds. In 1587 Wade was again in France. During the remainder of the reign of Elizabeth I of England , he was much occupied in searching for Jesuits and in discovering plots against the life of the queen. James I , who knighted him in 1603. employed him in similar ways, and he was occupied that year in unravelling the Bye Plot and Main Plot . Wade was Lieutenant of the Tower of London at

8648-519: Was plague in London in September 1608 and Wade noted that life at the Tower was made inconvenient by tenements and housing built at the gate and barbican. As these houses were infected, he was reluctant to go in and out on the land side, and could only use the Thames . William Wade retired from public life in 1613, at the instigation of Frances Howard, Countess of Essex . She wanted Wade replaced with

8742-409: Was that governments had begun as monarchical, had then been democratic, before becoming aristocratic. In 1576, Bodin was engaged in French politics, and then argued against the use of compulsion in matters of religion, if unsuccessfully. Wars, he considered, should be subject to statecraft, and matters of religion did not touch the state. Bodin argued that a state might contain several religions; this

8836-404: Was the eldest son of Armagil Wade , the traveller, who sailed with a party of adventurers for North America in 1536, later, one of the clerks of the privy council in London and a member of parliament, and his first wife, Lady Alice Patten. Both his parents died in 1568, and Wade succeeded to the family property, his father's sons by his first wife having predeceased him. In 1571 he was admitted

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