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100-512: Jharkhand State Election Commission was formed in accordance with powers of Election Commission of India, which was constituted in year 1950 to supervise state level elections. State election commissioner is appointed by Governor. To ensure the autonomy of the position, the Jharkhand state election commissioner cannot be removed from office except on the grounds and manner specified for judge of High Court . Jharkhand States Election Commissioner

200-620: A barrister 's wig (a Bench Wig) would be worn in court. This tradition, however, is being phased out in Britain in non-criminal courts. In Oman , the judge wears a long stripe (red, green white), while the attorneys wear the black gown. In Portugal and in the former Portuguese Empire , the judges used to carry a staff that was red for ordinary judges and white for the judges from the outside . In Hong Kong , court proceedings are conducted in either English or Hong Kong Cantonese (a dialect of Yue Chinese ). Judges of Hong Kong retain many of

300-530: A case should be admitted for a regular hearing on merits. In recent years, the contributions of law clerks to research for judicial opinions have become increasingly evident on account of increasing references to foreign precedents and academic writings. In Ireland Judicial Assistants provide support to the judiciary comparable to that provided to judges of the Federal Courts of the United States,

400-762: A court is addressed as tisztelt bíró úr , which means "Honourable Mister Judge" and a female presiding judge is addressed as tisztelt bírónő , which means "Honourable Madam Judge". The court as a body can be addressed as tisztelt bíróság , which means "Honourable Court". Judges of the Supreme Court , Court of Appeal , or High Court are officially titled The Honourable Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss Justice Surname ( Irish : An Breitheamh Onórach Uasal [surname] ), and informally referred to for short as Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss Justice Surname . In court, they are addressed either by their respective titles or styles, as The Court ( An Chúirt ), or simply Judge ( A Bhreithimh ). In law reports ,

500-459: A distinguished academic record, academic recommendations, strong research and writing skills and interviews with judges. For both the Supreme Court of Canada and the Quebec Court of Appeal , being able to work in both English and French is strongly preferred. The Tax Court of Canada hires 12 clerks annually. Many law clerks have gone on to become leaders of the profession. For example,

600-527: A former Minister of Justice). Contrary to many Western legal systems, the profession of a judicial assistant in Poland is sometimes described as "poorly paid" and "unattractive". Basic salary in common courts is set by a regulation of the Minister of Justice and since June 2016 amounts from 3000 PLN to 4200 PLN per month (ca. €695 to €975 gross). In the case of administrative courts, the salary of assistants

700-464: A high salary, in the U.S. the median salary of judges is $ 101,690 per annum, and federal judges earn $ 208,000–$ 267,000 per annum. In many civil law countries in Europe the majority of judges are women: in 5 countries ( Slovenia , Latvia , Luxembourg , Greece and Hungary ) women make more that 70% of judges of the first instance. In contrast, in common law countries ( UK , Ireland , Malta and

800-474: A highly sought-after opportunity. Working as a judicial assistant is considered to be a unique and prestigious opportunity for junior solicitors or barristers, and is viewed as a stepping stone to a successful career in law. Upon completing the position, judicial assistants typically return to private practice, working as solicitors in Magic Circle firms or barristers in top chambers. While traditionally

900-591: A hike to Rs 32,000 for clerks who stay for longer than a year. For the 2012-13 session each law clerk at the Supreme Court was paid a stipend of Rs 25,000 per month, which may be increased further in the next year. Till 2009–2010 each law clerk at the Supreme Court of India was being paid Rs. 20,000 per month. In addition to this, students from law colleges all over the country are given the opportunity to act as 'legal trainees' under Supreme Court judges during their vacation periods. The institution of law clerks

1000-416: A judge are checked by higher courts such as appeals courts and supreme courts. The court usually has three main legally trained court officials: the judge, the prosecutor and the defence attorney. The role of a judge can vary between legal systems. In an adversarial system (common law), as in effect in the U.S. and England, the judge functions as an impartial referee, mainly ensuring correct procedure, while

1100-552: A law clerk entails assisting the judges with writing verdicts and decisions and conducting legal inquiries and research. The most prestigious clerkships available in France are before courts of appeals, which review decisions of lower courts. A similar system exists in the administrative courts, including the Conseil d'Etat. In Germany, there are two different kinds of law clerks. Students of law who, after law school, have passed

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1200-644: A law clerk in the early years of the program. Meanwhile, the Hon. Madam Justice Andromache Karakatsanis of the Supreme Court of Canada and the Hon. Madam Justice Kathryn N. Feldman of the Ontario Court of Appeal were formerly law clerks at the Ontario Court of Appeal. In England and Wales , law clerks are called judicial assistants. It is possible to be a judicial assistant at the Court of Appeal and at

1300-445: A man or Meretíssima Juíza when a woman (meaning "Most Worthy Judge") or as Vossa Excelência ("Your Excellency") when not specifying gender. In Romania , judges during trial are addressed as Onorata Instanta (Your Honor). In Russia, Vasha Chest ( Russian : Ваша Честь , lit.   'Your Honour') is used for criminal cases only with the one judge presiding. For civil, commercial and criminal cases presided over by

1400-622: A panel of judges the right address is Honorable Court . In Spain, magistrates of the Supreme Court, magistrates and judges are addressed to as "Your Lordship" ( Su Señoría ); however, in formal occasions, magistrates of the Supreme Court are addressed to as "Your Most Excellent Lordship" ( Vuestra Señoría Excelentísima or Excelentísimo Señor / Excelentísima Señora ); in those solemn occasions, magistrates of lower Courts are addressed as "Your Most Illustrious Lordship" ( Vuestra Señoría Ilustrísima or Ilustrísimo Señor / Ilustrísima Señora ); simple judges are always called "Your Lordship". In Sweden,

1500-458: A panel. In some civil law systems, this panel may include lay judges . Unlike professional judges, lay judges are not legally trained, but unlike jurors, lay judges are usually volunteers and may be politically appointed. Judges are often assisted by law clerks , referendaries and notaries in legal cases and by bailiffs or similar with security. There are both volunteer and professional judges. A volunteer judge, such as an English magistrate ,

1600-577: A political election. Impartiality is often considered important for rule of law . Thus, in many jurisdictions judges may be appointed for life, so that they cannot be removed by the executive. However, in non-democratic systems, the appointment of judges may be highly politicized and they often receive instructions on how to judge, and may be removed if their conduct does not please the political leadership. Judges must be able to research and process extensive lengths of documents, witness testimonies, and other case material, understand complex cases and possess

1700-501: A thorough understanding of the law and legal procedure, which requires excellent skills in logical reasoning, analysis and decision-making. Excellent writing skills are also a necessity, given the finality and authority of the documents written. Judges work with people all the time; by the nature of the job, good dispute resolution and interpersonal skills are a necessity. Judges are required to have good moral character , i.e. there must be no history of crime. Professional judges often enjoy

1800-611: A time. Though most of the law clerks usually begin their one-year service period in July each year, soon after the completion of the LL.B. degree, though there have been instances of law clerks serving after having accumulated some work experience. The work profile of the law clerks varies as per the judges who they work under. Generally, it involves preparing summary opinions and briefs for the Special Leave Petitions listed for

1900-483: A year the law clerk is entrusted with judging simpler criminal and civil law cases by himself (in General Courts), such as petty theft or a civil case involving low sums of money. In the United States, judicial law clerks are usually recent law school graduates who performed at or near the top of their class and/or attended highly ranked law schools. Serving as a law clerk, especially to a U.S. federal judge ,

2000-404: Is laamanni ( lawspeaker ). They are assisted by notaries ( notaari ), assessors ( asessori ) and referendaries ( viskaali ) who may sometimes even chair sessions. In appeals courts ( hovioikeus ) an ordinary judge has the title hovioikeudenneuvos , the chairman of a section is hovioikeudenlaamanni and the court is led by a presidentti . In the Supreme Court, judges are titled oikeusneuvos and

2100-665: Is a person, often a lawyer, who provides direct counsel and assistance to a lawyer or judge by researching issues and drafting legal opinions for cases before the court. Judicial clerks often play significant roles in the formation of case law through their influence upon judges' decisions. Judicial clerks should not be confused with legal clerks (also called "law clerks" in Canada), court clerks , or courtroom deputies who only provide secretarial and administrative support to attorneys and/or judges. Judicial law clerks are usually recent law school graduates who performed at or near

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2200-461: Is based in Ottawa but hears cases across the country, selects 15 law clerks each year, or one per judge. The Federal Court also hires only one clerk per judge, or about 30 per year in total. The Court of Appeal for Ontario selects 17 law clerks, who serve either one or two of the 24 Justices. The Quebec Court of Appeal usually hires a similar number of law clerks for both Montreal and Quebec City but

2300-631: Is considered to be one of the most prestigious positions in legal circles, and tends to open up wide-ranging opportunities in academia , law firm practice, and influential government work. Among the most prestigious clerkships are those with the United States Supreme Court , the United States courts of appeals , United States district courts , specialized courts such as the United States Tax Court and

2400-498: Is earlier. Jharkhand State Election Commission was formed after amendment of Constitution with 73rd and 74th declaration. State Election Commissions were formed as per Article 243K of the Constitution, similar to setting up of Election commission of India as per Article 324. Judge A judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges . In an adversarial system ,

2500-449: Is highly competitive, with most federal judges receiving hundreds of applications for only one or two open positions in any given year. Federal appellate judges tend to recruit primarily from the most prestigious and highly-ranked law schools in the United States. Justice Clarence Thomas is the major exception to the rule; he takes pride in selecting clerks from non-top-tier schools, and publicly noted that his clerks have been attacked on

2600-789: Is no express provision on age. Many of the assistants with professional experience are eligible for admission to practice law. They are not to be confused with court clerks ( Polish: "urzędnicy sądowi"), due to the fact that the latter do not have legal qualifications and exercise only administrative tasks, whereas assistants draft legal decisions or opinions, and conduct legal research. Judicial assistants also differ from "judicial clerks" or "court referendaries" ( Polish: "referendarze sądowi") in that they possess no judicial powers, and cannot make binding legal decisions on their own. Law clerks in Poland have their own organisation called National Society of Judicial Assistants (Ogólnopolskie Stowarzyszenie Asystentów Sędziów). There are varying opinions on

2700-407: Is no special form of address; ordinary politeness is sufficient and the procedure lacks arcane rituals. Accordingly, the chairman of the panel is addressed as herra/rouva puheenjohtaja ("Mr./Ms. Chairman"). Finnish judges use gavels, but there are no robes or cloaks used in any Finnish courts. In a district court ( käräjäoikeus ), ordinary judges work with the title käräjätuomari and the chairman

2800-441: Is not required to have legal training and is unpaid. Whereas, a professional judge is required to be legally educated ; in the U.S., this generally requires a degree of Juris Doctor . Furthermore, significant professional experience is often required; for example, in the U.S., judges are often appointed from experienced attorneys . Judges are often appointed by the head of state . However in some jurisdictions, judges are elected in

2900-788: Is regulated by the President of the Republic of Poland , and ranges from 1600 PLN even up to 5200 PLN, depending on whether we are dealing with a senior assistant or not. The remuneration rules at the Supreme Court of Poland and the Constitutional Tribunal are provided by respective internal regulations. Since 1991, law graduates from the National University of Singapore , Singapore Management University , and reputable foreign universities, only those obtaining first class honours or equivalent, are invited to join

3000-618: Is responsible for the following: Jharkhand State Election Commission is headed by Chief Election Commissioner and as many members as specified in State Act. State Election Commissioners are independent persons not holding position or office in any Central or State Government organisations Sri Dr. Devendra Kumar Tiwari, is the Chief Election Commissioner of Jharkhand State Election Commission. His period of service will be 5 years or attaining an age of 65 years whichever

3100-464: Is still a recent development in the context of the Indian judiciary. Anecdotal references indicate that some justices are hesitant to rely on 'law clerks' on account of concerns with confidentiality, especially in politically sensitive disputes. However, their services are heavily relied on to go through the written submissions in order to prepare for the preliminary hearings that are held to decide whether

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3200-515: Is the judge, who will do the presiding, judging and sentencing on his own. As such, the judge is expected to apply the law directly, as in the French expression Le juge est la bouche de la loi ("The judge is the mouth of the law"). Furthermore, in some systems even investigations may be conducted by the judge, functioning as an examining magistrate. Judges may work alone in smaller cases, but in criminal, family and other significant cases, they work in

3300-507: Is unusual among Canadian courts in having a formal clerkship program for law students in addition to law graduates. The Court of Appeal for Saskatchewan hires 3 clerks, each of whom is assigned to 2 to 3 judges. The New Brunswick Court of Appeal hires two law graduates, who serve as law clerks working under the direct supervision of the Chief Justice of New Brunswick. Successful candidates for all clerkships are usually selected based on

3400-841: The Chief Justice of Ireland has the postnominal CJ , the Presidents of the other Courts have the postnominal P , and all other judges J , e.g. Smith J . Judges of the Circuit Court are titled His/Her Honour Judge Surname and are addressed in Court as Judge . Before 2006, they were addressed as My Lord ( A thiarna ) . Judges of the District Court are titled Judge Surname and addressed in Court as Judge . Before 1991 these judges were known as District Justices and addressed as Your Worship ( d'Onóra ). In Italy,

3500-640: The European Court of Justice (ECJ) provides one detailed point of comparison (2000). There are some major differences between ECJ clerks and their American counterparts, largely because of the way the ECJ is structured. One key difference is that ECJ clerks, while hired by individual judges, serve long tenures as opposed to the one-year-clerkship norm at the U.S. Supreme Court. This gives ECJ clerks considerable expertise and power. Because ECJ judges serve six-year renewable terms and do not issue individual opinions,

3600-574: The Federal Constitutional Court (who have the right to select their wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter personally) prefer clerks from outside the courts or the civil service, especially those who are or were professors of law and who often hire people from academia (sometimes even young law professors). The clerks of the Federal Constitutional Court are deemed very influential and are therefore dubbed

3700-543: The Maryland Supreme Court wear distinct dress. In Italy and Portugal , both judges and lawyers wear particular black robes. In some countries, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations , judges wear wigs . The long wig often associated with judges is now reserved for ceremonial occasions, although it was part of the standard attire in previous centuries. A short wig resembling but not identical to

3800-529: The Supreme Court as Justices' Law Clerks. The Supreme Court comprises the High Court and the Court of Appeal, which is the final court of appeal in Singapore. Upon accepting appointment, Justices' Law Clerks are appointed for a term of one and a half years, with a possible 6-month extension. During their term, the law clerks are given the opportunity to work with both the judges of the High Court as well as

3900-508: The Supreme Court of Poland , and the Constitutional Tribunal , where special regulations may apply. They are recruited in a competitive process with three phases: the application itself, a test of legal knowledge, and an interview. Only law graduates who are Polish citizens of good character and are above 24 years old can apply for a post in common courts. Similar requirements pertain to the administrative courts, except there

4000-735: The UK Supreme Court (formerly the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords ). Only Supreme Court judicial assistants are appointed for a full-time, one-year fixed-term appointment. Since 2006 they have taken part in a week-long exchange in Washington DC at the U.S. Supreme Court established by the late Justice Antonin Scalia and Lord Rodger of Earlsferry . Sally Kenney's article on clerks, or référendaires , on

4100-656: The United States Bankruptcy Courts , the New York State Commercial Division, Delaware Court of Chancery , and state supreme courts . Some U.S. district courts provide particularly useful experience for law clerks pursuing specific fields. The Southern District of New York deals with a heightened volume of high-profile commercial litigation, the Eastern District of Texas handles the most patent cases in

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4200-881: The Urdu equivalent Janab or Judge Sahab . In Sri Lanka , judges of most courts are addressed as Your Honour ; however, the Chief Justice is addressed as Your Lordship . Judges of the Supreme Court and the Appeal Court receives the title The Honourable . Judges in Vietnam are addressed as Quý tòa (literally the "Honorable Court"). In Bulgaria before 1989 during the communist regime, judges were addressed as drugarju ( Bulgarian : другарю , lit.   'comrade'). After 1989, gospodín sŭdiya (Bulgarian: господин съдия , lit.   'mister judge') or gospožo sŭdiya (Bulgarian: госпожо съдия , lit.   'madam judge'). There

4300-474: The articling requirement for provincial law societies, which qualifies a person to become a practising lawyer in a Canadian jurisdiction. The most prestigious clerkship available is with the country's highest court, the Supreme Court of Canada , followed by the Federal and provincial Courts of Appeal. Each Justice of the Supreme Court hires four clerks for a one-year period. The Federal Court of Appeal, which

4400-400: The (unofficial) Dritter Senat ("Third Senate") as opposed to the two official " senates " of 8 justices each which form the court. In Hong Kong , law clerks are known as judicial assistants. Since 2009, the Court of Final Appeal has been offering full-time, one-year fixed-term appointments to junior lawyers who graduated from highly ranked law schools. This program was initiated under

4500-583: The Bar in Canada or abroad (typically in the United States or the United Kingdom ). Most provincial superior and appellate courts hire at least one clerk for each judge. Typically students in their last two years of law school are eligible to apply for these positions, but increasingly, experienced practicing lawyers are also considered for these positions. The term typically lasts a year and generally fulfills

4600-413: The Court of Final Appeal. Their main role is to help judges research points of law, analyze appeals and leave applications, and draft memoranda on legal points. They also undertake a range of other tasks, such as preparing press summaries and fact summaries of appeals, as well as notes for judges’ external speaking engagements and participation in legal conferences. Additionally, judicial assistants assist in

4700-689: The Courts of Australia, the European Courts in Luxembourg and Strasbourg and the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. They are typically recent law graduates and were introduced on a gradual basis to phase out the traditional Usher/Crier or "tipstaff" position (a process that is almost complete), while simultaneously providing research assistance to the judge to whom they are assigned. Judges of all jurisdictions have Judicial Assistants, with

4800-490: The Delaware Court of Chancery hears a substantial volume of corporate and shareholder derivative actions. Most law clerks are recent law school graduates who performed at or near the top of their class. Federal judges, especially those at the appellate level, often require that applicants for law clerk positions have experience with law review or moot court in law school. As such, the law clerk application process

4900-631: The District of Columbia had mandatory retirement ages for State court judges, which ranged from 70 to 75 for most (but is as high as 90 in Vermont ). A 2020 study by the National Bureau of Economic Research found significant positive effects on the performance of state Supreme Courts with mandatory retirement age for judges. The authors advocated the adoption of mandatory retirement ages for all federal and state judges, although they felt, that

5000-777: The English tradition. In writing, the post-nominal letters PJ is used to refer to a permanent judge of the Court of Final Appeal and NPJ to a non-permanent judge. In the High Court, the abbreviation JA is used to denote a justice of appeal, and the letter J refers to a judge of the Court of First Instance. Masters of the High Court are addressed as Master . When trials are conducted in Chinese, judges were addressed, in Cantonese, as Fat Goon Dai Yan ( Hong Kong Cantonese : 法官大人 , romanized:  faat3 gun1 daai6 jan4 , lit.   'Judge, your lordship') before

5100-602: The English traditions such as wearing wigs and robes in trials. In the lower courts, magistrates are addressed as Your worship , and district court judges as Your Honour . In the superior courts of record, namely the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal and the High Court of Hong Kong (which consists of the Court of Appeal and the Court of First Instance ), judges are addressed as My Lord or My Lady and referred to as Your Lordship or Your Ladyship , following

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5200-405: The High Court, clerks are assigned to two or three judges (including Associate Judges). In the Court of Appeal of New Zealand and the Supreme Court of New Zealand , each judge has their own clerk. The Chief Justice is the exception and has two clerks. Judges clerkships are highly sought after and competition is extremely competitive; judges' clerks often have class ranks that put them at, or near,

5300-633: The High Courts were addressed as Your Lordship or My Lord and Your Ladyship or My Lady , a tradition directly attributable to England. The Bar Council of India had adopted a resolution in April 2006 and added a new Rule 49(1)(j) in the Advocates Act . As per the rule, lawyers can address the court as Your Honour and refer to it as Honourable Court . If it is a subordinate court, lawyers can use terms such as sir or any equivalent phrase in

5400-593: The Hon. Mr. Justice Jean Cote of the Alberta Court of Appeal was one of the first Supreme Court law clerks, serving as a clerk in the program's inaugural year (1967). Similarly, the Hon. Madam Justice Louise Arbour , formerly of the Supreme Court of Canada, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and former UN High Commissioner for Human Rights , also served as

5500-899: The Judges of the Appeal and the Chief Justice. After their term, the law clerks have the option of joining the permanent establishment of the Singapore Legal Service . If they take up this option, they will be posted to other branches of the Singapore Legal Service, for example as Deputy Public Prosecutors at the Attorney's General Chambers or as Assistant Registrars in the Supreme Court Registry. Many Justices' Law Clerks choose to join private firms after their stint (and several have recently achieved

5600-561: The Justice's trust. Each justice has his or her own method for interviewing and appointing court attorneys. Polish law clerks are called "asystenci sędziów", which can be directly translated as "judges' assistants" or "judicial assistants". Generally their status is regulated by the Law on the System of Common Courts of July 27, 2001, but there are also assistants in the administrative courts,

5700-587: The Miscellaneous Days (i.e., Monday and Friday). On the Non-Miscellaneous Days, involve attending Court proceedings and preparing notes for the arguments advanced by the counsels on matters listed. They also assist the judges in drafting the judgments and orders by supplementing it with research and case analysis. In 2014, the Supreme Court increased the monthly stipend of law clerks/research assistants from Rs 25,000 to Rs 30,000, with

5800-663: The Research Centre of the Lahore High Court and assist all the judges in the various registry benches of the Lahore High Court. In the Supreme Court of the Philippines and the Philippine Court of Appeals , recent law graduates and young lawyers can apply for a position as a "Court Attorney" to a Justice. This position basically corresponds to what is called a "law clerk" at the Supreme Court of

5900-412: The Supreme Court for six years. In lower courts, the duties of a law clerk are generally carried out by the "griffier". It is customary for the griffier to attend the deliberations of the judges, as well as to draft the verdict. They therefore do have some influence on final decisions. In addition, the griffier is also responsible for many of the duties of a court clerk, such as keeping records and making

6000-676: The U.S. Supreme Court, ECJ clerks act as agents for their principals—judges—and are not the puppeteers that critics claim. The ECJ also admits a limited number of selected law graduates as Stagiaires . Their duties are more similar to those of the law clerks of the U.S. Supreme Court. In France, law clerks are called juristes assistants. They typically go through a competitive nomination and interview process to get accepted as law clerks. Most French courts accept applications for judicial clerkships from graduating law students. Students in their last year of law school are eligible to apply, although most law clerks are PhD candidates in Law or candidates for

6100-763: The United States) the situation is reverse: over 70% of judges of the first instance are men. On the other hand, women are underrepresented in the Supreme Courts in the USA and all EU countries, except for Romania (in Romanian High Court of Cassation and Justice over 80% of judges are women). In the United States, federal judges are appointed "for good behavior", which means in practice, that federal judges work until they die, voluntarily retire or are impeached. The death of Ruth Bader Ginsburg in

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6200-466: The United States. Each of the 15 Supreme Court justices has 5 to 10 court attorneys at any given time. Court attorneys at the Supreme Court of the Philippines are co-terminus with their justices. Some stay for one year or less, others stay for as long as their respective justice serves the Court. Previous court attorneys have become notable Justices themselves e.g. Justice Vicente V. Mendoza, Justice Antonio Abad etc. or have gone to hold important positions in

6300-530: The auspices of former Chief Justice Geoffrey Ma . The selection process for the position of judicial assistant is highly competitive. Applicants are typically required to have strong academic backgrounds, possessing first-class LLB or LLM degrees from reputable universities, as well as prior experience in international law firms or reputable chambers. They are expected to be in the top 5% of their graduating class or hold degrees from Oxbridge . Hundreds of applicants vie for just six or fewer open positions, making it

6400-438: The bar exam or a French civil service competitive entrance exam such as French National School for the Judiciary, French National School of Public Finances, or French National School of Court Clerks. Law clerks ( juristes assistants ) are hired for three years renewable once. Depending on credentials and curriculum they can be assigned to the bench (magistrat du siège) or the prosecution (parquet or parquet général). The work of

6500-439: The bench). American judges frequently wear black robes. American judges have ceremonial gavels , although American judges have court deputies or bailiffs and contempt of court power as their main devices to maintain decorum in the courtroom. However, in some of the Western United States , like California, judges did not always wear robes and instead wore everyday clothing. Today, some members of state supreme courts , such as

6600-452: The clerk switch judge after a time, usually three months. The rationale being that working for different judges broadens the scope of learning. The term as law clerk is two years, after which the law clerk may opt to apply to the Court of Appeals in the Administrative system or the General system ("kammarrätt" or "hovrätt") and continue on the path that traditionally leads to Judge, or leave the Court system for another career. Having completed

6700-553: The court is led by a presidentti . In France, the presiding judge of a court is addressed as Monsieur le président or Madame le président , whilst associated judges are addressed as Monsieur l'Assesseur or Madame l'Assesseur . Out of the courtroom, judges are referred to as Monsieur le juge or Madame le juge . In Germany, judges are addressed as Herr Vorsitzender or Frau Vorsitzende , which translate as "Mister Chairman" and "Madam Chairwoman", or as Hohes Gericht , which translates as "High Court". The male presiding judge of

6800-412: The court orders and preparing briefs etc. Law clerks serve as paid staff of the court for an extendable one-year term. The Supreme Court has 17 law clerks for the year 2017-2018. In the Lahore High Court , many civil judges with master's degrees (mostly LLM) and post-graduate research experience are appointed as research associates equivalent to law clerks to the judges of the court. They function through

6900-420: The court such as Court Administrators or Deputy Court Administrators. Many of them have gone on to successful legal practice, in business, or in the academe. The position is an extremely difficult one to get accepted to because aside from the competence requirement, there is also the character requirement that differs from one Justice to another. The position is basically a confidential one and the lawyer must enjoy

7000-463: The discretion of individual judges. The Registry of the Supreme Court of India invites applications in January each year for 'law clerk-cum research assistant' positions from the Colleges and Universities empanelled with the Registry. The Universities nominate/recommend their students to the Registry which screens the applications and shortlists candidates. The shortlisted candidates are interviewed by an esteemed panel of sitting Supreme Court Justices in

7100-575: The exception of ordinary judges of the District Court. Judicial Assistants are typically recruited on a three-year contract and take up the role for this or a shorter period of time, generally before entering/returning to practice or academia. In Mexico , duties conferred to law clerks in some common law countries are charged in a person called "Secretario de Acuerdos" or "Secretario Proyectista", for lower courts and, "Secretario de Estudio y Cuenta" for higher court: "Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación". Secretario de Acuerdo's main activities are: conducting

7200-567: The first of two required examinations join the Referendariat , a time of two years consisting of a series of clerkships: for a civil law judge, a criminal law judge or a prosecutor, a government office and finally at a law firm. The purpose of this clerkship is solely the legal education of the clerk (Referendar) and not giving assistance to his instructor. In the Federal Supreme Courts (see Judiciary of Germany ) and

7300-532: The first week of June. The final merit list is prepared and the selected candidates are offered positions to work under the sitting judges of the Supreme Court starting from the month of July. The eligible candidates receive offers throughout the year as and when the vacancies are created in the Chambers of Justice. Usually, two law clerks are assigned to each judge for one year, though some justices are known to sometimes engage either one or more than two law clerks at

7400-417: The individual authorities should decide on the specific age for themselves. A variety of traditions have become associated with the rank or occupation. Gavels (a ceremonial hammer) are used by judges in many countries, to the point that the gavel has become a symbol of a judge. In many parts of the world, judges wear long robes (often in black or red) and sit on an elevated platform during trials (known as

7500-530: The influence of assistants on the Polish judiciary. Some scholars criticize the profession, because - in their view - judges themselves should write their own opinions, as it would positively affect the quality and length of these documents. However, prominent judges state that "a good assistant is a treasure to have" (Judge Krystian Markiewicz), while others complain that they do not need assistants who "make no unaided decisions whatsoever" (Judge Barbara Piwnik, also

7600-532: The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the barristers or solicitors of the case, assesses the credibility and arguments of the parties, and then issues a ruling in the case based on their interpretation of the law and their own personal judgment. A judge is expected to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open court . The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions . In some jurisdictions,

7700-744: The judge's powers may be shared with a jury . In inquisitorial systems of criminal investigation , a judge might also be an examining magistrate . The presiding judge ensures that all court proceedings are lawful and orderly. The ultimate task of a judge is to settle a legal dispute in a final and publicly lawful manner in agreement with substantial partialities. Judges exercise significant governmental power. They can order police, military or judicial officials to execute searches, arrests, imprisonments, garnishments, detainment, seizures, deportations and similar actions. However, judges also supervise that trial procedures are followed, in order to ensure consistency and impartiality and avoid arbitrariness. The powers of

7800-548: The judges of Madras HC , Justice K Chandru had banned lawyers from addressing his court as My Lord and Your Lordship . In Israel, the judges ( Hebrew : שופט‬ , romanized :  shofét , lit.   'judge') of all courts are addressed as Sir , Madam (Hebrew: אדוני‬/גבירתי‬ , romanized:  adoni/geverti ) or Your Honor (Hebrew: כבודו‬/כבודה‬ , romanized:  kevodo/kevoda ). Typically after every naming you will hear haShofét , meaning "the judge" after

7900-585: The law reports, the Justices of the Supreme Court are usually referred to as "Lord/Lady N", although the Weekly Law Reports appends the post-nominal letters "JSC" (e.g. "Lady Smith JSC"). The President and Deputy President of the Court are afforded the post-nominal letters PSC and DPSC respectively. Only experienced barristers or solicitors are usually appointed as judges. Law clerk A law clerk , judicial clerk , or judicial assistant

8000-484: The minutes of court sessions. Although the role of griffier is often held by a permanent member of legal staff of the court, it is not uncommon for the role to be held by an advanced year law student, in which case they may be referred to as a "buitengriffier" (external clerk). Law clerks are referred to as judge's clerks in all four levels of the New Zealand court system. It is a fixed term position of 2 years. In

8100-694: The most important role of ECJ clerks is to facilitate uniformity and continuity across chambers, member-states, and over time. Furthermore, this role is heightened because the European Union is composed of nations with disparate legal systems. Kenney found that ECJ clerks provide legal and linguistic expertise (all opinions are issued in French), ease the workload of their members, participate in oral and written interactions between chambers, and provide continuity as members rapidly change. While Kenney concludes that they have more power than their counterparts on

8200-878: The nation, the Northern District of California leads the country in antitrust suits, and the District of Columbia hears many high-profile disputes involving the federal government . Similarly, the United States Tax Court specializes in adjudicating disputes over federal income tax , the United States Bankruptcy Courts specialize in issues arising under the United States Bankruptcy Code , the New York State Commercial Division adjudicates high-profile commercial matters in an expedited fashion, and

8300-482: The office in 2020 and suspension of Pauline Newman in 2023 reinvigorated the discussion about mandatory retirement age for federal judges, but such change would require a constitutional amendment and is unlikely to be implemented soon. States have more flexibility in establishing a mandatory retirement age for judges, as was confirmed by the SCOTUS in its 1991 decision Gregory v. Ashcroft . As of 2015, 33 States and

8400-478: The office of the Federal Prosecutor General , the duties of law clerks are performed by wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter ( German for "scientific assistant"). With few exceptions, they are lower court judges or civil servants, assigned for a period of three years to the respective Federal Court, and their clerkships serve as a qualification for a higher judgeship. However, some justices of

8500-484: The one with the highest score applying to any given spot is accepted. One applies to the Swedish Court Agency (Domstolsverket) about six times a year, which calculates the scores and apportions the applicants. The Courts in the bigger cities naturally tends to be most popular, thereby needing the highest scores even if they also have most law clerk positions. The ratio is about one law clerk per judge, and

8600-467: The position of judicial assistant in Hong Kong was regarded solely as a gateway to a career at the bar, recently there has been a growing trend of law firms hiring individuals who have completed their tenure as judicial assistants, due to their high calibre and valuable experiences in court proceedings. The primary responsibilities of judicial assistants are to provide support and assistance to judges in

8700-459: The preparation of specimen directions, case bulletins, and publications related to judicial education. In India law graduates go through a competitive nomination and interview process to get accepted as law clerks. The Supreme Court of India and several High Courts of India offer paid law clerkships that are considered very prestigious. These clerkships usually last for one year (session commencing from July to Mid of May) and may be extended at

8800-802: The presiding judge of a court is addressed as Signor presidente della corte . In the Netherlands , presiding judges of either sex are, in writing only, addressed edelachtbare ("Your Honour") for judges in the Court of First Instance, edelgrootachtbare ("Your Great Honour") for justices in the Court of Appeal and edelhoogachtbare ("Your High Honour") for justices in the High Council of the Netherlands (Supreme Court). In Poland, presiding judges of either sex during trial are addressed Wysoki Sądzie ("High Court"). In Portugal , presiding judges during trial are addressed as Meretíssimo Juiz when

8900-507: The presiding judge of a court is traditionally addressed as Herr Ordförande or Fru Ordförande , which translate as "Mister Chairman" and "Madam Chairwoman". In the Courts of England and Wales , Supreme Court judges are called Justices of the Supreme Court. Justices of the Supreme Court who do not hold life peerages are now given the courtesy style "Lord" or "Lady". Justices of the Supreme Court are addressed as "My Lord/Lady" in court. In

9000-436: The proceedings, as they generally are in the superior courts, are in English. In Pakistan, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts are addressed as Your Lordship or My Lord or Lordship and Your Ladyship or My Lady , a tradition directly attributable to England. There is some resistance to this on religious grounds but more or less continues till this day. In lower courts, judges are addressed as sir , madam or

9100-401: The prosecution and the defense present their case to a jury , often selected from common citizens. The main factfinder is the jury, and the judge will then finalize sentencing. Nevertheless, in smaller cases judges can issue summary judgments without proceeding to a jury trial. In an inquisitorial system (civil law), as in effect in continental Europe, there is no jury and the main factfinder

9200-408: The public hearings, writing verdicts, ordering to execute sentences, and providing general assistance to Judges, while Secretario Proyectista's activities are to draft sentences. Law clerks of the Supreme Court of the Netherlands are independent researchers. Applicants are recruited from the top law firms and universities. For most, it is a highly prestigious second job. Law clerks typically work at

9300-528: The regional language concerned. Explaining the rationale behind the move, the Bar Council had held that the words such as My Lord and Your Lordship were "relics of the colonial past". The resolution has since been circulated to all state councils and the Supreme Court for adoption but over five years now, the resolution largely remained on paper. However, in an unprecedented move in October 2009, one of

9400-598: The respective address. For example, Your Honor the Judge would be כבוד השופט‬ ( kevod haShofét ). Biy - elected judges using adat Zheti Zhargy . The Council of biys  [ kk ; ru ] was the highest council, a kind of senate . In Malaysia, judges of the subordinate courts are addressed as Tuan or Puan ("Sir", "Madam"), or Your Honour . Judges of the superior courts are addressed as Yang Arif ( lit.   ' Learned One ' ) or My Lord , My Lady , etc.; and Your Lordship or My Ladyship if

9500-408: The scrutiny committee, consisting of senior judges and law clerks of the Court, before final appointment. In recent years, all law clerks appointed have been licensed advocates placed at the top of their class with excellent research credentials. Law clerks sit in court during hearings. In chambers, law clerks assist the judge in making determinations of law, conducting research, critically proof-reading

9600-717: The title of Senior Counsel ), while others have chosen a path in academia. After successfully obtaining the Swedish law degree called Candidate of Law one can apply for a position as a law clerk ("notarie" in Swedish) either in the Administrative Courts ( förvaltningsrätt ) [1] or in the General Courts ( tingsrätt ). [2] Applicants are rated according to their accumulated points, which are calculated mainly by grades. Higher grades giving higher scores and

9700-953: The top of their class and/or attended highly ranked law schools. Serving as a law clerk is considered to be one of the most prestigious positions in legal circles, and tends to open up wide-ranging opportunities in academia , law firm practice, and influential government work. In some countries, judicial clerks are known as judicial associates or judicial assistants. In many nations, clerk duties are performed by permanent staff attorneys or junior apprentice-like judges, such as those that sit on France's Conseil d'État . In English and Hong Kong courts, they are known as judicial assistants. The European Court of Justice uses permanent staff attorneys ( référendaires ) and stagiaires (young law graduates). Australia, Canada, Sweden, and Brazil have notable clerk systems. Most Canadian courts accept applications for judicial clerkships from graduating law students or experienced lawyers who have already been called to

9800-542: The top of their graduating class. The Supreme Court of Pakistan has an extensive and competitive program for the appointment of the Law Clerks/Research Associates. Applications are invited from all over Pakistan calling on fresh law graduates, Advocates and Barristers to submit their CVs, transcripts/degrees, three letters of recommendation and a legal writing sample. Applicants thereafter are shortlisted purely on merit and interviewed eventually by

9900-403: The transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China, and as Fat Goon Gok Ha (Hong Kong Cantonese: 法官閣下 , romanized:  faat3 gun1 gok3 haa6 , lit.   'Judge, your honour') since 1997. Fat Goon (Hong Kong Cantonese: 法官 , romanized:  faat gun1 , lit.   'Judge') means the word "judge". In India , judges of the Supreme Court and

10000-428: The two years is considered qualifying and may open up career opportunities otherwise closed. The work as a law clerk mainly entails assisting the judges with writing verdicts and decisions, keeping the records during trials and conducting legal inquiries. After about six months the law clerk is trusted with deciding simpler non-disputed issues by himself (such as registering prenuptials or granting adoptions). After about

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