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124-418: The Julii were of Alban origin, mentioned as one of the leading Alban houses, which Tullus Hostilius removed to Rome upon the destruction of Alba Longa . The Julii also existed at an early period at Bovillae , evidenced by a very ancient inscription on an altar in the theatre of that town, which speaks of their offering sacrifices according to the lege Albana , or Alban rites. Their connection with Bovillae

248-594: A private citizen , lacked legal authority to command the Republic's armies, making his command illegal. With popular opinion in Rome turning against him and his consular term nearing its end, Antony attempted to secure a favorable military assignment to secure an army to protect himself. The senate, as was custom, assigned Antony and Dolabella the provinces of Macedonia and Syria , respectively, to govern in 43 BC after their consular terms expired. Antony, however, objected to

372-591: A public enemy if he did not immediately disband his army. With all hopes of finding a peaceful solution gone, Caesar used Antony as a pretext for marching on Rome. As tribune, Antony's person was sacrosanct , so it was unlawful to harm him or to refuse to recognize his veto. Three days later, on 10 January, Caesar crossed the Rubicon , initiating the civil war . Caesar's rapid advance surprised Pompey, who withdrew from Italy to Greece. After entering Rome, instead of pursuing Pompey, Caesar marched to Spain to defeat

496-560: A belief which flattered the pride and exalted the origin of the imperial family. Though it would seem that the Julii first came to Rome in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, the name occurs in Roman legend as early as the time of Romulus . It was Proculus Julius who was said to have informed the sorrowing Roman people, after the strange departure of Romulus from the world, that their king had descended from heaven and appeared to him, bidding him tell

620-435: A compromise, which, due to the presence of Caesar's veterans in the city, was quickly reached. Caesar's assassins would be pardoned of their crimes and, in return, all of Caesar's actions would be ratified. In particular, the offices assigned to both Brutus and Cassius by Caesar were likewise ratified. Antony also agreed to accept the appointment of his rival Dolabella as his consular colleague to replace Caesar. This compromise

744-427: A cousin , rewarded his soldiers, and then set about prosecuting Caesar's murderers. Under the lex Pedia , all of the conspirators and Sextus Pompey were convicted "in absentia" and declared public enemies. Then, at the instigation of Lepidus, Octavian went to Cisalpine Gaul to meet Antony. In November 43 BC, Octavian, Lepidus, and Antony met near Bononia . After two days of discussions, the group agreed to establish

868-596: A fury by the bloody spectacle, the assembly turned into a riot . Several buildings in the Forum and some houses of the conspirators were burned to the ground. Panicked, many of the conspirators fled Italy. Under the pretext of not being able to guarantee their safety, Antony relieved Brutus and Cassius of their judicial duties in Rome and instead assigned them responsibility for procuring wheat for Rome from Sicily and Asia. Such an assignment, in addition to being unworthy of their rank, would have kept them far from Rome and shifted

992-533: A homosexual relationship with Gaius Scribonius Curio . This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. There is little reliable information on his political activity as a young man, although it is known that he was an associate of Publius Clodius Pulcher and his street gang . He may also have been involved in the Lupercal cult as he

1116-540: A means of eliminating Antony. The senate, and Cicero in particular, viewed Antony as the greater danger of the two. By summer 44 BC, Antony was in a difficult political position: he could either denounce the liberatores as murderers and alienate the senate or he could maintain his support for the compromise and risk betraying Caesar's legacy, strengthening Octavian's position. In either case, his situation as ruler of Rome would be weakened. Roman historian Cassius Dio later recorded that while Antony, as consul, maintained

1240-498: A new tyrant; Antony had also lost the support of many supporters of Caesar when he opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status. When Antony refused to relinquish Caesar's vast fortune to him, Octavian borrowed heavily to fulfill the bequests in Caesar's will to the Roman people and to his veterans, as well as to establish his own bodyguard of veterans. This earned him the support of Caesarian sympathizers who hoped to use him as

1364-478: A rampart and a ditch. Brutus put his camp on the north while Cassius occupied the south of the via Egnatia. Antony arrived shortly and positioned his army on the south of the via Egnatia, while Octavian put his legions north of the road. Antony offered battle several times, but the liberatores were not lured to leave their defensive stand. Thus, Antony tried to secretly outflank the Brutus and Cassius' position through

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1488-513: A single known child, Antonia . It is unclear if this was Antony's first marriage. Antony's association with Publius Clodius Pulcher allowed him to achieve greater prominence. Clodius, through the influence of his benefactor Marcus Licinius Crassus , had developed a positive political relationship with Julius Caesar . Clodius secured Antony a position on Caesar's military staff in 54 BC, joining his conquest of Gaul . Serving under Caesar, Antony demonstrated excellent military leadership. Despite

1612-491: A split between the remaining Triumvirs. Their ongoing hostility erupted into civil war in 31 BC when Octavian induced the republic to declare war on Cleopatra and proclaim Antony a traitor. Later that year, Antony was defeated by Octavian's forces at the Battle of Actium . Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt where, having again been defeated at the Battle of Alexandria , they committed suicide . With Antony dead, Octavian became

1736-520: A temporary alienation later in life, Antony and Caesar developed friendly relations which would continue until Caesar's assassination in 44 BC. Caesar's influence secured greater political advancement for Antony. After a year of service in Gaul, Caesar dispatched Antony to Rome to formally begin his political career , receiving election as quaestor for 52 BC. Assigned to assist Caesar, Antony returned to Gaul and commanded Caesar's cavalry during his victory at

1860-475: A three man dictatorship to govern the Republic for five years, known to modern historians as the Second Triumvirate . They shared military command of the republic's armies and provinces among themselves: Antony received Gaul, Lepidus Spain, and Octavian (as the junior partner) Africa. They jointly governed Italy. The triumvirate would have to conquer the rest of Rome's holdings; Brutus and Cassius held

1984-549: A three-man dictatorship known to historians as the Second Triumvirate . The Triumvirs defeated Caesar's killers, the Liberatores , at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, and divided the government of the Republic among themselves. Antony was assigned Rome's eastern provinces, including the client kingdom of Egypt , then ruled by Cleopatra VII Philopator , and was given the command in Rome's war against Parthia . Relations among

2108-606: A widow since Curio's death in the battle of the Bagradas in 49 BC. Though Antony and Fulvia were formally married in 47 BC, Cicero suggests the two had been in a relationship since at least 58 BC. The union produced two children: Marcus Antonius Antyllus (born 47) and Iullus Antonius (born 45). Whatever conflicts existed between himself and Caesar, Antony remained faithful to Caesar, ensuring their estrangement did not last long. Antony reunited with Caesar at Narbo in 45 BC with full reconciliation coming in 44 BC when Antony

2232-412: Is also implied by the sacrarium , or chapel, which the emperor Tiberius dedicated to the gens Julia in the town, and in which he placed the statue of Augustus. Some of the Julii may have settled at Bovillae after the fall of Alba Longa. As it became the fashion in the later times of the Republic to claim a divine origin for the most distinguished of the Roman gentes, it was contended that Iulus,

2356-529: Is uncertain if the Albans exerted any sort of dominance since most of the surviving sources are biased. The Prisci Latini are the colonists sent out by the Alban king , Latinus Silvius , who would be made to submit to Roman authority following the destruction of Alba Longa in the mid-7th century BC. Those colonists would be a part of 30 villages that would form the populi Albenses which may have been related to

2480-579: The De Origo Gentis Romanae of Aurelius Victor, in which Iulus and Ascanius are identical. Described as the son of Jupiter, he was originally known as Jobus , and then Julus . This calls to mind the use of Jove for Jupiter , and the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology suggests that Iulus might be a diminutive of Dius , which is also the root of Jupiter . Furthermore, Livy reports that after his death Aeneas

2604-567: The Gabiniani , in Alexandria to ensure Ptolemy's authority. In return for its support, Rome exercised considerable power over the kingdom's affairs, particularly control of the kingdom's revenues and crop yields. Antony claimed years later to have first met Cleopatra , the then 14-year-old daughter of Ptolemy XII, during this Egyptian campaign. While Antony was serving Gabinius in the East,

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2728-462: The Adriatic Sea along with it. Additionally, the two legions they commanded defected to Pompey. Without their fleet, Caesar lacked the necessary transport ships to cross into Greece with his seven legions. Instead, he sailed with only two and placed Antony in command of the remaining five at Brundisium with instructions to join him as soon as he was able. In early 48 BC, Lucius Scribonius Libo

2852-651: The Battle of Alesia against the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix . Following his year in office, Antony was made one of Caesar's legates and assigned command of two legions (approximately 7,500 total soldiers). Meanwhile, the alliance among Caesar, Pompey and Crassus had effectively ended. Caesar's glory in conquering Gaul had served to further strain his alliance with Pompey, who, having grown jealous of his former ally, had drifted away from Caesar and towards Cato and his allies. The domestic political situation in Rome

2976-409: The Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC, Caesar commanded the right wing opposite Pompey while Antony commanded the left. The resulting battle was a decisive victory for Caesar. Though the civil war did not end at Pharsalus, the battle marked the pinnacle of Caesar's power and effectively ended the Republic. The battle gave Caesar a much needed boost in legitimacy, as prior to the battle much of

3100-612: The Capitoline hill . Although they believed Caesar's death would restore the Republic, Caesar had been immensely popular with the Roman middle and lower classes , who became enraged upon learning a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, as the sole consul, soon took the initiative and seized the state treasury. Calpurnia , Caesar's widow, presented him with Caesar's personal papers and custody of his extensive property, clearly marking him as Caesar's heir and leader of

3224-575: The Eastern Mediterranean , and Sextus Pompey held the Mediterranean islands. On 27 November 43 BC, the triumvirate was formally established by a new law, the lex Titia . Octavian and Antony reinforced their alliance through Octavian's marriage to Antony's stepdaughter, Claudia . The primary objective of the triumvirate was to avenge Caesar's death and to make war upon his murderers. Before marching against Brutus and Cassius in

3348-720: The Lupercalia was held on 15 February 44 BC. The festival was held in honor of Lupa , the she-wolf who suckled the infant orphans Romulus and Remus , the founders of Rome. The political atmosphere of Rome at the time of the festival was deeply divided. Caesar had by this point centralised almost all political powers into his own hands. He was granted further honors, including a form of semi-official cult , with Antony as his high priest. Additionally, on 1 January 44 BC, Caesar had been named dictator perpetuo , removing any formal end to his autocratic powers. Caesar's political rivals feared this dictatorship with no end date would transform

3472-529: The cognomen Caesar : It is uncertain which member of the Julia gens first obtained the surname of Caesar , but the first who occurs in history is Sextus Julius Caesar, praetor in BC 208. The origin of the name is equally uncertain. Spartianus , in his life of Aelius Verus , mentions four different opinions respecting its origin: Of these opinions, the third, which is also given by Festus , seems to come nearest

3596-513: The 30 Latin villages of the same time in ancient Latium. However, Pliny and others generally agree that the communities of Latium gathered at Alba Longa for sacrificial rites. Every year in the spring, the tribes would congregate on Mons Albanus ( Monte Cavo ) to worship Iuppiter Latiaris. The festival was known as Feriae Latinae . The major custom in this ceremony was a great banquet, which required all attending cities to bring food, especially meat. These offerings were then divided among

3720-489: The 60's BC; Caesar was Rome's pontifex maximus and a former general in Spain . Caesar, with funding from Crassus, was elected consul for 59 BC to pursue legislation favourable to the allies' interests. Caesar, for his part, was made proconsular governor Illyricum , Cisalpine Gaul , and Transalpine Gaul for five years. Caesar used his governorship as a launching point for his conquest of free Gaul . Some years later, in

3844-526: The Albans and the city of Alba Longa exerted great power and influence over Latium . In particular, literary sources such as Pliny the Elder ’s Historia Naturalis state that Alba Longa headed a league of city-states in Latium, possibly called Prisci Latini . Most of these sources tend to vary regarding the political structure of the alliance as well as Alba Longa's hegemonic role. Many historians say it

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3968-665: The Caesarians against the liberatores . Remaining in Cisalpine Gaul, Octavian dispatched emissaries to Rome in July 43 BC demanding he be appointed consul to succeed Hirtius and Pansa and that the senate rescind the decree declaring Antony a public enemy. When the senate refused, Octavian marched on Rome with his eight legions and assumed control of the city in August 43 BC. Octavian had himself irregularly elected consul with

4092-479: The Caesarians. Caesar's master of horse Marcus Aemilius Lepidus marched over 6,000 troops into Rome on 16 March to restore order and intimidate the liberatores . Lepidus wanted to storm the Capitol, but Antony preferred a peaceful solution as a majority of both the liberatores and Caesar's own supporters preferred a settlement over renewed civil war. On 17 March, at Antony's arrangement, the senate met to discuss

4216-587: The East while he installed one of his lieutenants as the ruler of Gaul. During his absence, several of his supporters held key positions in Rome to protect his interests there. The East was in need of reorganization. In addition, Rome contended with the Parthian Empire for dominance of the Near East . The Parthian threat to the triumvirate's rule was urgent due to the fact that the Parthians supported

4340-421: The East, the triumvirs issued proscriptions against their enemies in Rome. The dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla had taken similar action to purge Rome of his opponents in 82 BC. The proscribed were named on public lists, stripped of citizenship, and outlawed. Their wealth and property were confiscated by the state, and rewards were offered to anyone who secured their arrest or death. With such encouragements,

4464-461: The Greek campaign, Plutarch records that Antony was Caesar's top general, and second only to him in reputation. Antony joined Caesar at the western Balkan peninsula and besieged Pompey's larger army at Dyrrhachium . With food sources running low, Caesar, in July, ordered a nocturnal assault on Pompey's camp, but Pompey's larger forces pushed back the assault. Though an indecisive result, the victory

4588-546: The Italian coast and blockaded the triumvirs. Octavian's friend and admiral Quintus Salvidienus Rufus thwarted an attack by Sextus against the southern Italian mainland at Rhegium , but Salvidienus was then defeated in the resulting naval battle because of the inexperience of his crews. Only when Antony arrived with his fleet was the blockade broken. Though the blockade was defeated, control of Sicily remained in Sextus' hand, but

4712-483: The Julii with this name before his time. An inquiry into the etymology of this name is of some interest, as no other name has ever obtained such celebrity — "clarum et duraturum cum aeternitate mundi nomen." It was assumed by Augustus as the adopted son of the dictator, and was by Augustus handed down to his adopted son Tiberius . It continued to be used by Caligula , Claudius , and Nero , as members either by adoption or female descent of Caesar's family; but though

4836-468: The Pompeian loyalists there. Meanwhile, Antony, with the rank of propraetor , was installed as governor of Italy and commander of the army, stationed there while Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , one of Caesar's staff officers, ran the provisional administration of Rome itself. Though Antony was well liked by his soldiers, most other citizens despised him for his lack of interest in the hardships they faced from

4960-463: The Republic into a monarchy, abolishing the centuries of rule by the senate and people . During the festival's activities, Antony publicly offered Caesar a diadem , which Caesar threw off. When Antony placed the diadem in his lap, Caesar ordered the diadem to be placed in the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus . When Antony offered Caesar the crown, there had been minor applause but mostly silence from

5084-479: The Republic used the praenomina Lucius , Gaius , and Sextus . There are also instances of Vopiscus and Spurius in the early generations of the family. The earliest of the Julii appearing in legend bore the praenomen Proculus , and it is possible that this name was used by some of the early Julii, although no later examples are known. In the later Republic and imperial times, Vopiscus and Proculus were generally used as personal cognomina. The gens

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5208-403: The Roman world outside Italy supported Pompey and the senators around him as the legitimate Roman government. After Pompey's defeat, most of the senate defected to Caesar, including many of the soldiers who had fought under Pompey. Pompey himself fled to Ptolemaic Egypt , but Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator feared retribution from Caesar and had Pompey assassinated upon his arrival. After

5332-532: The Triumvirs' camp but was unable to capture the sick Octavian. The battle was a tactical draw, but due to poor communications Cassius believed the battle was a complete defeat and committed suicide to prevent being captured. Brutus assumed sole command of the army and preferred a war of attrition over open conflict. His officers, however, were dissatisfied with these defensive tactics and his Caesarian veterans threatened to defect, forcing Brutus to give battle at

5456-695: The advantage in the relationship, the general affection of the Roman people was shifting to Octavian due to his status as Caesar's son. Supporting the senatorial faction against Antony, Octavian, in September 44 BC, encouraged the eminent senator Marcus Tullius Cicero to attack Antony in a series of speeches portraying him as a threat to the republic. Risk of civil war between Antony and Octavian grew. Octavian continued to recruit Caesar's veterans to his side, away from Antony, with two of Antony's legions defecting in November 44 BC. At that time, Octavian, only

5580-575: The ancient city of Alba Longa , southeast of Rome . Some of Rome's prominent patrician families such as the Julii , Servilii , Quinctii , Geganii , Curiatii and Cloelii were of Alban descent. According to Roman mythology, Ascanius , son of Trojan War hero Aeneas , founded the Alban tribe when he settled in Alba Longa around 1152 BC. Literary sources suggest the city's name is derived from

5704-478: The assignment, preferring to govern Cisalpine Gaul which was already controlled by Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus , one of Caesar's assassins. When Decimus refused to surrender his province, Antony marched north in December 44 BC with his remaining soldiers to take the province by force, besieging Decimus at Mutina . The senate, led by a fiery Cicero, denounced Antony's actions and declared him an enemy of

5828-564: The attendants and owning some of the food signified membership within the league. Pliny lists 30 tribes participating in the Feriae Latinae . This festival continued as an annual event through the imperial age of Rome . There is also evidence that leaders from the surrounding tribes of Latium met at a spring in Alba Longa known as Aqua Ferentia . This supports the theory that the Albans were central figures in Latium . Alba Longa

5952-406: The balance towards Antony. Refusing such secondary duties, the two traveled to Greece instead. Additionally, Cleopatra left Rome to return to Egypt. Despite the provisions of Caesar's will, Antony proceeded to act as leader of the Caesarians, including appropriating for himself a portion of Caesar's fortune rightfully belonging to Octavian. Antony enacted the lex Antonia , which formally abolished

6076-487: The battle, Caesar was made dictator in absentia, and appointed Antony as master of horse (his lieutenant). Caesar without returning to Rome sailed for Egypt, where he took part in the Alexandrian war , deposing Ptolemy XIII in favour of Cleopatra, who became Caesar's mistress and bore him a son, Caesarion . Caesar's actions further strengthened Roman control over the already Roman-dominated kingdom. While Caesar

6200-437: The cause of tyrannicide , Brutus, with his family's history of deposing Rome's kings, became their leader. Cicero , though not personally involved in the conspiracy, later claimed Antony's actions sealed Caesar's fate as such an obvious display of Caesar's preeminence motivated them to act. Originally, the conspirators had planned to eliminate not only Caesar but also many of his supporters, including Antony, but Brutus rejected

6324-467: The civil war in favor of the triumvirs. With the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, only Sextus Pompey and his fleet remained to challenge the triumvirate's control of the Roman world. The victory at Philippi left the members of the triumvirate as masters of the republic, save Sextus Pompey in Sicily. Upon returning to Rome, the triumvirate repartitioned rule of Rome's provinces among themselves, with Antony as

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6448-422: The civil war. By the end of the year 49 BC, Caesar, already the ruler of Gaul, had captured Italy, Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia from his enemies. In early 48 BC, he prepared to sail with seven legions to Greece to face Pompey. Caesar had entrusted the defense of Illyricum to Gaius Antonius , Antony's younger brother, and Publius Cornelius Dolabella . Pompey's forces, however, defeated them and assumed control of

6572-700: The clear senior partner. He received the largest distribution, governing all of the Eastern provinces while retaining Gaul in the West. Octavian's position improved, as he received Spain, which was taken from Lepidus. Lepidus was then reduced to holding only Africa, and he assumed a clearly tertiary role in the triumvirate. Rule over Italy remained undivided, but Octavian was assigned the difficult and unpopular task of demobilizing their veterans and providing them with land distributions in Italy. Antony assumed direct control of

6696-476: The command that had long been held by the Albans. Many from Alba Longa immigrated to Rome following the war and some of Rome ’s most elite patrician families (including the Julii ) trace their heritage back to Alba Longa , which illustrates its importance in the history of Rome. Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (14 January 83 BC – 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark Antony ,

6820-495: The concession satisfactory, Cato and Lentulus refused to back down. Antony fled Rome, claiming to fear for his life, and returned to Caesar's camp in Cisalpine Gaul. Within days of Antony's withdrawal, 7 January 49 BC, the senate reconvened. Under the leadership of Cato and with the tacit support of Pompey, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum , a decree stripping Caesar of his command and ordering him to return to Rome and stand trial. The senate further declared Caesar

6944-408: The crowd. When Caesar refused it, however, the crowd was enthusiastic. The event presented a powerful message: a diadem was a symbol of a king. By refusing it, Caesar demonstrated he had no intention of making himself king. Antony's motive for such actions is not clear and it is unknown if he acted with Caesar's prior approval or on his own. While commonly described as an event that was "scripted", who

7068-455: The declining Seleucid Empire . Pompey had deposed Aristobulus and installed Hyrcanus as Rome's client ruler over Judea. Antony achieved his first military distinctions after securing important victories at Alexandrium and Machaerus . With the rebellion defeated by 56 BC, Gabinius restored Hyrcanus to his position as High Priest in Judea. The following year, in 55 BC, Gabinius intervened in

7192-504: The defeat of the liberatores was the triumvirate's first priority. In the summer of 42 BC, Octavian and Antony sailed for Macedonia to face the liberatores with nineteen legions, the vast majority of their army (approximately 100,000 regular infantry plus supporting cavalry and irregular auxiliary units), leaving Rome under the administration of Lepidus. Likewise, the army of the liberatores also commanded an army of nineteen legions; their legions, however, were not at full strength while

7316-424: The destruction of the senate house, the curia Hostilia . Elevating Pompey to restore order and hold elections, the senate induced his election as sole consul. Fully secure in his political position, Pompey distanced himself from Caesar over the following years. Antony remained on Caesar's military staff until 50 BC, helping mopping-up actions across Gaul to secure Caesar's conquest. With the war largely over, Antony

7440-416: The diadem. Another theory, one especially popular at the time, was that Caesar himself had orchestrated the event to test public support on him becoming king. A group of senators resolved to kill Caesar to prevent him from establishing a monarchy. Chief among them were Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus . Although Cassius was "the moving spirit" in the plot, winning over the chief assassins to

7564-455: The dictatorship, in an attempt to consolidate his support among those who opposed Caesar's dictatorial rule. He also enacted a number of laws he purported to have found in Caesar's papers to ensure his popularity with Caesar's veterans, particularly by providing land grants to them. Lepidus, with Antony's support, was elected pontifex maximus , succeeding Caesar. To solidify the alliance between Antony and Lepidus, Antony's daughter Antonia Prima

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7688-565: The domestic political situation had changed in Rome. In 60 BC, a secret agreement (known as the "First Triumvirate") was entered into between three men to control the Republic: Marcus Licinius Crassus , Gnaeus Pompey Magnus , and Gaius Julius Caesar . Crassus, Rome's wealthiest man, had defeated the slave rebellion of Spartacus in 70 BC; Pompey conquered much of the Eastern Mediterranean in

7812-469: The example by freely mingling the praenomina of the Julii with those of the gens Claudia , using titles and cognomina as praenomina, and regularly changing their praenomina to reflect the political winds of the empire. The family-names of the Julii in the time of the Republic are Caesar , Iulus , Mento , and Libo , of which the first three are undoubtedly patrician; but the only families which were particularly celebrated were those of Iulus and Caesar ,

7936-419: The family became extinct with Nero, succeeding emperors still retained it as part of their titles, and it was the practice to prefix it to their own name, as for instance, Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus . When Hadrian adopted Aelius Verus, he allowed the latter to take the title of Caesar ; and from this time, though the title of Augustus continued to be confined to the reigning prince, that of Caesar

8060-477: The first, which was the one adopted, says Spartianus, by the most learned men, it is impossible to disprove it absolutely, as we know next to nothing of the ancient Moorish language; but it has no inherent probability in it; and the statement of Servius is undoubtedly false, that the grandfather of the dictator obtained the surname on account of killing an elephant with his own hand in Africa, as there were several of

8184-573: The former at the beginning and the latter in the last century of the Republic. On coins the only names found are Caesar and Bursio , the latter of which does not occur in ancient writers. Due to the activity of Julius Caesar in Gaul over many years, a number of natives of the Gallic provinces adopted Julius as their gentilicum, and have no other connection to the Republican Julii. Examples of their descendants include Julius Florus , and Gaius Julius Civilis . Other Julii are descended from

8308-439: The governorship of Transalpine Gaul and Nearer Spain . Antony sent Lepidus to Rome to broker a conciliation. Though he was an ardent Caesarian, Lepidus had maintained friendly relations with the senate and with Sextus Pompey. His legions, however, quickly joined Antony, giving him control over seventeen legions, the largest army in the West. By mid-May, Octavian began secret negotiations to form an alliance with Antony to unify

8432-416: The law for political and personal reasons: he believed Caesar would not support such massive relief and suspected Dolabella had seduced his wife Antonia Hybrida. When Dolabella sought to enact the law by force and seized the Forum , Antony responded by unleashing his soldiers upon the assembled masses, killing hundreds. The resulting instability, especially among Caesar's veterans who would have benefited from

8556-440: The law, forced Caesar to return to Italy by October 47 BC. Antony's handling of the affair with Dolabella led to a cooling of his relationship with Caesar. Antony's violent reaction had caused Rome to fall into a state of anarchy . Caesar sought to mend relations with Dolabella; he was elected to a third term as consul for 46 BC, but proposed the senate should transfer the consulship to Dolabella. When Antony protested, Caesar

8680-475: The legions of Antony and Octavian were. While the triumvirs commanded a larger number of infantry, the Liberators commanded a larger cavalry contingent. The liberatores , who controlled Macedonia, did not wish to engage in a decisive battle, but rather to attain a good defensive position and then use their naval superiority to block the Triumvirs' communications with their supply base in Italy. They had spent

8804-523: The libation pourer at religious ceremonies. It is not certain whether the name was personal, or whether the consul inherited it from his father and grandfather, of whom all we know is that they were named Lucius. Some scholars have supposed that Libo was descended from the Julii Iuli, and that Lucius, the father of Sextus Julius Caesar, was his son; but the evidence is very slight. The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology says this of

8928-500: The marshes in the south. This provoked a pitched battle on 3 October 42 BC. Antony commanded the triumvirate's army due to Octavian's sickness on the day, with Antony directly controlling the right flank opposite Cassius. Because of his health, Octavian remained in camp while his lieutenants assumed a position on the left flank opposite Brutus. In the resulting first battle of Philippi, Antony defeated Cassius and captured his camp while Brutus overran Octavian's troops and penetrated into

9052-470: The mere name occurring in this legend. In the later Empire, the distinction between praenomen, nomen, and cognomen was gradually lost, and Julius was treated much like a personal name, which it ultimately became. The Latin form is common in many languages, but other familiar forms exist, including Giulio (Italian), Julio (Spanish), Jules (French), Júlio (Portuguese), Iuliu (Romanian) and Юлий ( Yuliy , Bulgarian and Russian). The Julii of

9176-476: The midst of a breakdown in the alliance, the allies again pursued their interests together: in 55 BC, Crassus and Pompey were elected consuls in disputed elections and Caesar's command was extended for another five years. During his early military service, Antony married his cousin Antonia Hybrida Minor , the daughter of Gaius Antonius Hybrida . Sometime between 54 and 47 BC, the union produced

9300-493: The mythical ancestor of the race, was the same as Ascanius , the son of Aeneas , and founder of Alba Longa . Aeneas was, in turn, the son of Venus and Anchises . In order to prove the identity of Ascanius and Iulus, recourse was had to etymology, some specimens of which the reader curious in such matters will find in Servius . Other traditions held that Iulus was the son of Aeneas by his Trojan wife, Creusa , while Ascanius

9424-433: The neighbouring peoples or a remnant of the ancient inhabitants of the place was mixed with the Greek. But all these people, having lost their tribal designations, came to be called by one common name, Latins , after Latinus , who had been king of this country. Based on limited archaeological evidence, experts say the Alban tribe inhabited the long ridge between the modern-day Lake Albano and Monte Cavo . At its height,

9548-450: The numerous freedmen , and it may have been assumed by some out of vanity and ostentation. Iullus , also written as Iulus and Jullus , was the surname of the eldest branch of the Julii to appear in Roman history. The gens claimed descent from Iulus, who was in some manner connected with Aeneas, although the traditions differed with respect to the details. In some accounts, Iulus was the son of Aeneas and Creüsa, who came to Latium from

9672-510: The original and better attested spelling, although the trisyllabic form Iulus became common after Vergil introduced it in his Aeneid . During the century and a half between the last records of the Julii Iuli and the first appearance of the Julii Caesares, we encounter a Lucius Julius Libo , consul in BC 267. Chase translates his surname as "sprinkler", deriving it from libare , and suggests that it might originally have signified

9796-450: The people to honor him in future as a god, under the name of Quirinus . Some modern critics have inferred from this, that a few of the Julii might have settled in Rome in the reign of the first king; but considering the entirely fabulous nature of the tale, and the circumstance that the celebrity of the Julia gens in later times would easily lead to its connection with the earliest times of Roman story, no historical argument can be drawn from

9920-400: The political affairs of Ptolemaic Egypt . Pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes had been deposed in a rebellion led by his daughter Berenice IV in 58 BC, forcing him to seek asylum in Rome. During Pompey's conquests years earlier, Ptolemy had received the support of Pompey, who named him an ally of Rome. Gabinius' invasion sought to restore Ptolemy to his throne. This was done against the orders of

10044-537: The previous months plundering Greek cities to swell their war-chest and had gathered in Thrace with the Roman legions from the Eastern provinces and levies from Rome's client kingdoms. Brutus and Cassius held a position on the high ground along both sides of the via Egnatia west of the city of Philippi . The south position was anchored to a supposedly impassable marsh, while the north was bordered by impervious hills. They had plenty of time to fortify their position with

10168-505: The previous year, Gabinius had consented to the exile of Cicero by Antony's mentor, Publius Clodius Pulcher . Hyrcanus II , the Roman-supported Hasmonean High Priest of Judea , fled Jerusalem to Gabinius to seek protection against his rival and son-in-law Alexander . Years earlier in 63 BC, the Roman general Pompey had captured him and his father, King Aristobulus II , during his war against

10292-433: The proposal of the younger Curio that Caesar and Pompey lay down their commands and return to the status of private citizens . His proposal was well received by most of the senators but the consuls and Cato vehemently opposed it. Antony then made a new proposal: Caesar would retain only two of his eight legions and the governorship of Illyrium if he was allowed to stand for the consulship in absentia . Though Pompey found

10416-537: The proposal, limiting the conspiracy to Caesar alone. With Caesar preparing to depart for Parthia in late March, the conspirators prepared to act when Caesar appeared for the senate meeting on the Ides of March (15 March). Antony also went with Caesar, but was waylaid at the door of the Theatre of Pompey by Trebonius and was distracted from aiding Caesar. According to the Greek historian Plutarch , as Caesar arrived at

10540-443: The proscription produced deadly results; two thousand equites were executed, and one third of the senate. Antony forced Octavian to give up Cicero , a personal enemy of Antony and friend of Octavian, who was then killed on 7 December. The confiscations helped replenish the state treasury , which had been depleted by Caesar's civil war the decade before; when this seemed insufficient to fund the imminent war against Brutus and Cassius,

10664-407: The purges of Gaius Marius in the winter of 87–86 BC. His mother was Julia , a third cousin of Julius Caesar . Antony was an infant at the time of Lucius Cornelius Sulla 's march on Rome in 82 BC . According to the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero , Antony's father was incompetent and corrupt, and was only given power because he was incapable of using or abusing it effectively. In 74 BC he

10788-402: The ruins of Troy , together with his father and others seeking a land in which to settle. In others, Ascanius was the son of Creüsa, while Iulus was the son of Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, the king of Latium with whom Aeneas made peace after landing in Italy. In still different accounts, Iulus was the son not of Aeneas, but of Ascanius. Perhaps an indigenous origin of the name is suggested by

10912-514: The second battle of Philippi on 23 October. While the battle was initially evenly matched, Antony's leadership routed Brutus' forces. Brutus committed suicide the day after the defeat and the remainder of his army swore allegiance to the Triumvirate. Over fifty thousand Romans died in the two battles. While Antony treated the losers mildly, Octavian dealt cruelly with his prisoners and even beheaded Brutus' corpse. The battles of Philippi ended

11036-645: The senate assigned command of the legions in northern Italy to Decimus. Sextus Pompey , son of Caesar's old rival Pompey Magnus , was given command of the Republic's fleet from his base in Sicily while Brutus and Cassius were granted the governorships of Macedonia and Syria respectively. These appointments attempted to renew the "republican" cause. However, the eight legions serving under Octavian, composed largely of Caesar's veterans, refused to follow one of Caesar's murderers, allowing Octavian to retain his command. Meanwhile, Antony recovered his position by joining forces with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who had been assigned

11160-566: The senate but with the approval of Pompey, then Rome's leading politician, and only after the deposed king provided a 10,000 talent bribe. The Greek historian Plutarch records it was Antony who convinced Gabinius to finally act. After defeating the frontier forces of the Egyptian kingdom, Gabinius' army proceeded to attack the palace guards but they surrendered before a battle commenced. With Ptolemy XII restored as Rome's client king, Gabinius garrisoned two thousand Roman soldiers, later known as

11284-516: The senate officially deified Caesar as " The Divine Julius ", and confirmed Antony's position as his high priest. Due to the infighting within the triumvirate during 43 BC, Brutus and Cassius had assumed control of much of Rome's eastern territories, and amassed a large army. Before the triumvirate could cross the Adriatic into Greece, the triumvirate had to address the threat posed by Sextus Pompey and his fleet. From his base in Sicily, Sextus raided

11408-418: The senate, Lucius Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother. The other conspirators crowded round to offer their support. Within moments, the group of five conspirators stabbed Caesar one by one. Caesar attempted to get away, but, being drenched by blood, he tripped and fell. According to Roman historian Eutropius , around 60 or more men participated in the assassination. Caesar

11532-500: The state . Ratifying Octavian's extraordinary command on 1 January 43 BC, the senate dispatched him along with consuls Hirtius and Pansa to defeat Antony and his exhausted five legions. Antony's forces were defeated at the Battle of Mutina in April 43 BC, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul . Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies, some eight legions. With Antony defeated,

11656-414: The triumvir, who had a son named Iulus . Classical Latin did not distinguish between the letters "I" and "J", which were both written with "I", and for this reason the name is sometimes written Julus , just as Julius is also written Iulius . The many Julii of imperial times, who were not descended from the gens Julia, did not limit themselves to the praenomina of that family. The imperial family set

11780-424: The triumvirs imposed new taxes, especially on the wealthy. By January 42 BC the proscription had ended; it had lasted two months, and though less bloody than Sulla's, it traumatized Roman society. A number of those named and outlawed had fled to either Sextus Pompey in Sicily or to the liberatores in the East. Senators who swore loyalty to the triumvirate were allowed to keep their positions; on 1 January 42 BC,

11904-459: The triumvirs were strained as the various members sought greater political power. Civil war between Antony and Octavian was averted in 40 BC, when Antony married Octavian's sister, Octavia . Despite this marriage, Antony carried on a love affair with Cleopatra, who bore him three children, further straining Antony's relations with Octavian. Lepidus was expelled from the association in 36 BC, and in 33 BC, disagreements between Antony and Octavian caused

12028-455: The truth. Caesar and caesaries are both probably connected with the Sanskrit kêsa , "hair", and it is quite in accordance with the Roman custom for a surname to be given to an individual from some peculiarity in his personal appearance. The second opinion, which seems to have been the most popular one with the ancient writers, arose without doubt from a false etymology . With respect to

12152-443: The undisputed master of the Roman world. In 27 BC, Octavian was granted the title of Augustus , marking the final stage in the transformation of the Republic into a monarchy, with himself as the first Roman emperor . A member of the plebeian gens Antonia , Antony was born in Rome on 14 January 83 BC. His father and namesake was Marcus Antonius Creticus , son of the noted orator Marcus Antonius who had been murdered during

12276-521: The white ( alba ) sow Aeneas saw when arriving in Latium . Dionysus of Halicarnassus reports that: The Albans were a mixed nation composed of Pelasgians , of Arcadians , of the Epeans who came from Elis , and, last of all, of the Trojans who came into Italy with Aeneas , the son of Anchises and Aphrodite , after the taking of Troy. It is probable that a barbarian element also from among

12400-430: The year, Gaius Claudius Marcellus and Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus , opposed Caesar. Pompey, though remaining in Rome, was then serving as the governor of Spain and commanded several legions. Throughout 50 BC an uneasy set of negotiations had been ongoing between Caesar and the senate, with Caesar demanding the right to stand for the consulship while in command of his forces in absentia . Antony again brought up

12524-434: The youth became a member of Caesar's gens Julia with the name "Gaius Julius Caesar"; for clarity, it is historical convention to call him Octavian. Though not the chief beneficiary, Antony did receive some bequests. Shortly after the compromise was reached, as a sign of good faith, Brutus, against the advice of Cassius and Cicero, agreed Caesar would be given a public funeral and his will would be validated. Caesar's funeral

12648-744: Was a Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic from a constitutional republic into the autocratic Roman Empire . Antony was a relative and supporter of Julius Caesar , and he served as one of his generals during the conquest of Gaul and Caesar's civil war . Antony was appointed administrator of Italy while Caesar eliminated political opponents in Greece, North Africa, and Spain. After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, Antony joined forces with Lepidus , another of Caesar's generals, and Octavian , Caesar's great-nephew and adopted son, forming

12772-456: Was a great success for Antony, who managed to simultaneously appease Caesar's veterans, reconcile the senate majority, and appear to the liberatores as their partner. On 19 March, Caesar's will was opened and read. In it, Caesar posthumously adopted his great-nephew Gaius Octavius and named him his principal heir. Then only nineteen years old and stationed with Caesar's army in Macedonia,

12896-459: Was a tactical win for Pompey. Pompey, however, did not order a counterassault on Caesar's camp, allowing Caesar to retreat unhindered. Caesar would later remark the civil war would have ended that day if only Pompey had attacked him. Caesar managed to retreat to Thessaly , with Pompey in pursuit. Assuming a defensive position at the plain of Pharsalus , Caesar's army prepared for pitched battle with Pompey's, which outnumbered his own two to one. At

13020-426: Was also granted to the second person in the state and the heir presumptive to the throne. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Smith, William , ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology . {{ cite encyclopedia }} : Missing or empty |title= ( help ) Alban people The Albans were Latins from

13144-436: Was also known for its wine and good stone quarries. The prosperity of the Alban people declined in the seventh century BC. Tullus Hostilius waged war against Alba Longa and ultimately devastated the city, sparing only the temples. Historians attribute our lack of archaeological evidence to Tullus Hostilius ’ campaign. Indeed, portions of the city wall's foundation are all that remain. After this victory, Rome assumed

13268-410: Was always said to have descended from and been named after a mythical personage named Iulus or Iullus , even before he was asserted to be the son of Aeneas; and it is entirely possible that Iulus was an ancient praenomen, which had fallen out of use by the early Republic, and was preserved as a cognomen by the eldest branch of the Julii. The name was later revived as a praenomen by Marcus Antonius ,

13392-447: Was appointed dictator for ten years and brought Cleopatra and their son to Rome. Antony again remained in Rome while Caesar, in 45 BC, sailed to Spain to defeat the final opposition to his rule; successful, the civil war ended. Following the scandal with Dolabella, Antony had divorced his second wife and quickly married Fulvia . Fulvia had previously been married to both Publius Clodius Pulcher and Gaius Scribonius Curio , having been

13516-462: Was away in Egypt, Antony remained in Rome to govern Italy and restore order. Without Caesar to guide him, however, Antony quickly faced political difficulties and proved himself unpopular. The chief cause of his political challenges concerned debt forgiveness . One of the tribunes for 47 BC, Publius Cornelius Dolabella , proposed a law which would have canceled all outstanding debts. Antony opposed

13640-431: Was central to planning it is unclear. One argument is that Antony moved forward with the gesture on his own accord, possibly to embarrass or flatter Caesar. A later claim was that he was actually trying to convince Caesar not to go through with a kingship. By other accounts, it was Caesar's enemies who planned the incident as a way to frame him, with it being claimed two enemies of Caesar approached him to argue he should take

13764-516: Was constantly in debt due to his extravagance. He was a major figure in the Catilinarian conspiracy and was summarily executed on the orders of the consul Cicero in 63 BC for his involvement. According to the historian Plutarch , Antony spent his teenage years wandering through Rome with his brothers and friends gambling, drinking, and becoming involved in scandalous love affairs. Antony's contemporary and enemy, Cicero, charged that he had

13888-434: Was elected consul alongside Caesar. Caesar planned a new invasion of Parthia and desired to leave Antony in Italy to govern Rome in his name. The reconciliation came soon after Antony is said to have rejected an offer from Gaius Trebonius , one of Caesar's generals, to join a conspiracy to assassinate Caesar. If such an offer was made, Antony made no mention of the matter to Caesar. Soon after they assumed office together,

14012-548: Was engaged to Lepidus' homonymous son . Surrounding himself with a bodyguard of over six thousand of Caesar's veterans, Antony presented himself as Caesar's true successor, largely ignoring Octavian. Octavian arrived in Rome in May to claim his inheritance. Although Antony had amassed political support, Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the Caesarian faction. The senate increasingly viewed Antony as

14136-457: Was forced to withdraw the motion. Later, Caesar sought to exercise his prerogatives as dictator and directly proclaim Dolabella as consul instead. Antony again protested and, in his capacity as an augur, declared the omens were unfavorable and Caesar again backed down. Seeing the expediency of removing Dolabella from Rome , Caesar ultimately pardoned him for his role in the riots and took him as one of his generals in his campaign. Antony, however,

14260-410: Was given command of Pompey's fleet, comprising some fifty galleys. Moving off to Brundisium, he blockaded Antony. Antony, however, managed to trick Libo into pursuing some decoy ships, causing Libo's squadron to be trapped and attacked. Most of Libo's fleet managed to escape, but several of his ships were trapped and captured. With Libo gone, Antony joined Caesar in Greece by March 48 BC. During

14384-555: Was given the military command to defeat the pirates of the Mediterranean , but he died in Crete in 71 BC without making any significant progress. The elder Antony's death left Antony and his brothers, Lucius and Gaius , in the care of their mother, Julia, who later married Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura , an eminent member of the old patrician nobility. Lentulus, despite exploiting his political success for financial gain,

14508-406: Was held on 20 March. Antony, as Caesar's faithful lieutenant and incumbent consul, was chosen to preside over the ceremony and to recite a eulogy . In a demagogic speech, he enumerated the deeds of Caesar and, publicly reading his will, detailed the donations Caesar had left to the Roman people. Antony then seized the blood-stained toga from Caesar's body and presented it to the crowd. Worked into

14632-486: Was referred to as a priest of this order later in life. By age twenty, Antony had amassed an enormous debt. Hoping to escape his creditors, Antony fled to Greece in 58 BC, where he studied philosophy and rhetoric at Athens . In 57 BC, Antony joined the military staff of Aulus Gabinius , the Proconsul of Syria , as commander of the cavalry. This appointment marks the beginning of his military career. As consul

14756-688: Was sent back to Rome to act as Caesar's protector. With the support of Caesar, Antony was appointed to the College of Augurs , an important priestly office responsible for interpreting the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds. All public actions required favorable auspices, granting the college considerable influence. Antony was then elected as one of the ten plebeian tribunes for 49 BC. In this position, Antony could protect Caesar from his political enemies, by vetoing actions unfavorable to his patron. The feud between Caesar and Pompey erupted into open confrontation by early 49 BC. The consuls for

14880-410: Was stabbed 23 times and died from the blood loss attributable to multiple stab wounds. In the turmoil surrounding the assassination, Antony escaped Rome dressed as a slave, fearing Caesar's death would be the start of a bloodbath among his supporters. When this did not occur, he soon returned to Rome. The conspirators, who styled themselves the liberatores ("liberators"), had barricaded themselves on

15004-492: Was stripped of all official positions and received no appointments for the year 46 BC or 45 BC. Instead of Antony, Caesar appointed Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to be his consular colleague for 46 BC; Lepidus also replaced Antony as master of horse for Caesar's various dictatorships. While Caesar campaigned in North Africa , Antony remained in Rome as a mere private citizen . After returning victorious from North Africa, Caesar

15128-437: Was tense, with multiple politicians leading large street gangs. Two important ones, were led by Clodius and his rival Titus Annius Milo . In 52 BC with elections unable to be held by the gangs' open violence and obstruction from radical tribunes, Milo encountered Clodius on a road outside Rome (both with entourages), which ended with Clodius' death. The violent ad hoc funeral held for Clodius resulted in widespread rioting and

15252-403: Was the son of Aeneas and Lavinia , daughter of Latinus . The dictator Caesar frequently alluded to the divine origin of his race, as, for instance, in the funeral oration which he pronounced when quaestor over his aunt Julia , and in giving Venus Genetrix as the word to his soldiers at the battles of Pharsalus and Munda ; and subsequent writers and poets were ready enough to fall in with

15376-515: Was worshiped as Jupiter Indiges , "the local Jove". This suggests the early fusion of the Aeneas story with a local cult hero, said to have been the son of Jupiter. Irrespective of the historicity of the Iulus of Roman myth, there is little reason to doubt that Iullus was an ancient personal name, perhaps even a praenomen, and that Julius is a patronymic surname built upon it. Iullus seems to be

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