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53-561: Old Bengali is an Indo-Aryan language that is one of the Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, and its closest relatives are Old Odia and Kamarupi Prakrit . Like other Old Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, it is distinct from Modern Bengali and is not fully incomprehensible to Modern Bengali speakers without study. Within Old Bengali grammar, the verb evolved and a letter is omitted from a ligature formed by consonants. Old Bengali

106-532: A lexicostatistical study of the New Indo-Aryan languages based on a 100-word Swadesh list , using techniques developed by the glottochronologist and comparative linguist Sergei Starostin . That grouping system is notable for Kogan's exclusion of Dardic from Indo-Aryan on the basis of his previous studies showing low lexical similarity to Indo-Aryan (43.5%) and negligible difference with similarity to Iranian (39.3%). He also calculated Sinhala–Dhivehi to be

159-819: A branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family . As of the early 21st century, they have more than 800 million speakers, primarily concentrated east of the Indus river in Bangladesh , North India , Eastern Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Maldives and Nepal . Moreover, apart from the Indian subcontinent , large immigrant and expatriate Indo-Aryan–speaking communities live in Northwestern Europe , Western Asia , North America ,

212-499: A standardised and Sanskritised register of Dehlavi , is the official language of the Government of India (along with English ). Together with Urdu , it is the third most-spoken language in the world. The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, also known as Magadhan languages, are spoken throughout the eastern subcontinent, including Odisha and Bihar , alongside other regions surrounding the northwestern Himalayan corridor. Bengali

265-613: A subfamily of Indo-Aryan. The Dardic group as a genetic grouping (rather than areal) has been scrutinised and questioned to a degree by recent scholarship: Southworth, for example, says "the viability of Dardic as a genuine subgroup of Indo-Aryan is doubtful" and "the similarities among [Dardic languages] may result from subsequent convergence". The Dardic languages are thought to be transitional with Punjabi and Pahari (e.g. Zoller describes Kashmiri as "an interlink between Dardic and West Pahāṛī"), as well as non-Indo-Aryan Nuristani; and are renowned for their relatively conservative features in

318-540: Is a collection of mystical poems, songs of realization in the Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism from the tantric tradition in Assam , Bengal , Bihar and Odisha . It was written between the 8th and 12th centuries in various Abahattas that were ancestral to the modern Assamese , Bengali , Bhojpuri , Odia , Magahi , Maithili , Kurmali and many other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages . A palm-leaf manuscript of

371-471: Is considered as the best sign created in Old Bengali. According to Tibetan sources, the original manuscript was called Charyagiti-koshavrtti and contained 100 verses. But till now 51 Padas or verses of the manuscript have been discovered. There are also some literary works, such as few Bengali songs compiled in Sekshuvodaya , some rhymes and poems of Bidagdha Mukhomandal . Bandyaghatiya Sarbananda wrote

424-591: Is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda ( priiamazda ) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as Citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra " (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza ( šattiṷaza ) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu "having good relatives" (a name in Palestine , Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta ( tṷišeratta, tušratta , etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastar "whose chariot

477-477: Is disagreement among historians about the period of composition. According to Suniti Kumar Chatterji and Prabodh Chandra Bagchi , the Charyapadas were composed between the 10th and 12th centuries; but Dr. Muhammad Shahidullah Hall and Rahul Sankrityayan put this period back by another 200 years and expressed the opinion that the period of Charya's composition was from eighth to twelfth century AD. Some of

530-656: Is in many cases somewhat arbitrary. The classification of the Indo-Aryan languages is controversial, with many transitional areas that are assigned to different branches depending on classification. There are concerns that a tree model is insufficient for explaining the development of New Indo-Aryan, with some scholars suggesting the wave model . The following table of proposals is expanded from Masica (1991) (from Hoernlé to Turner), and also includes subsequent classification proposals. The table lists only some modern Indo-Aryan languages. Anton I. Kogan , in 2016, conducted

583-509: Is prevalent in many dialects in modern Bangla (even certain situations in standard Bangla) as well as middle Bangla; Instrumental case ending – case ending -e ; Conjunctive indeclinable - ia ; Conjunctive conditional - ite ; Passive - ia- Substantive roots ach and thak . Future the -iva suffix: haiba; kariba. Ekaso (100), Padama (Padma:Lotus), Chausatthi (64), Pakhudi (petals) Tahin (there, in that), Charhi (climb/rise), nachai (dances), Dombi (a Bengali woman belonging to

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636-560: Is small but still significant, with only a few surviving manuscripts. Many of the written works of the Buddhist Tantric Sahajiyas mingle in Old Bengali, which is one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early language groups derived from Magadhi Prakrit . The most important surviving work of Old Bengali literature is the Charyapada , a collection of devotional song; which

689-577: Is suggested that "proto-Munda" languages may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain , and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Marathi-Konkani languages are ultimately descended from Maharashtri Prakrit , whereas Insular Indo-Aryan languages are descended from Elu Prakrit and possess several characteristics that markedly distinguish them from most of their mainland Indo-Aryan counterparts. Insular Indo-Aryan languages (of Sri Lanka and Maldives ) started developing independently and diverging from

742-439: Is the earliest stage of the Indo-Aryan branch, from which all known languages of the later stages Middle and New Indo-Aryan are derived, some documented Middle Indo-Aryan variants cannot fully be derived from the documented form of Old Indo-Aryan (on which Vedic and Classical Sanskrit are based), but betray features that must go back to other undocumented dialects of Old Indo-Aryan. Charyapada The Charyapada (চর্যাপদ)

795-620: Is the official language of Gujarat , and is spoken by over 50 million people. In Europe, various Romani languages are spoken by the Romani people , an itinerant community who historically migrated from India. The Western Indo-Aryan languages are thought to have diverged from their northwestern counterparts, although they have a common antecedent in Shauraseni Prakrit . Within India, Central Indo-Aryan languages are spoken primarily in

848-567: Is the seventh most-spoken language in the world, and has a strong literary tradition; the national anthems of India and Bangladesh are written in Bengali. Assamese and Odia are the official languages of Assam and Odisha , respectively. The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages descend from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa and ultimately from Magadhi Prakrit . Eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages , while western Indo-Aryan languages do not. It

901-661: Is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736). The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit , that is used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent , the foundational canon of the Hindu synthesis known as the Vedas . The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age to the language of the Rigveda , but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords. While Old Indo-Aryan

954-557: The -iva suffix: haiba (5); kariba (7). Nominative case ending – case ending in -e : kumbhire khaa , core nila (2). Dative-Accusative case ending – case ending in -aka : ṭhākuraka pariṇibittā (12), nāsaka thāti (21). Instrumental case ending – case ending -e and -era : uju bate gela (15); kuthare chijaa (45). Genitive case ending – case ending in -ara : sasara siṁge (41). Locative case ending – case ending in -ata , e : māṅgata caṛhile (8), bāṭata milila (8), bājai bīranāde (11). The vocabulary of

1007-745: The Caribbean , Southeast Africa , Polynesia and Australia , along with several million speakers of Romani languages primarily concentrated in Southeastern Europe . There are over 200 known Indo-Aryan languages. Modern Indo-Aryan languages descend from Old Indo-Aryan languages such as early Vedic Sanskrit , through Middle Indo-Aryan languages (or Prakrits ). The largest such languages in terms of first-speakers are Hindi–Urdu ( c.  330 million ), Bengali (242 million), Punjabi (about 150 million), Marathi (112 million), and Gujarati (60 million). A 2005 estimate placed

1060-606: The Charyapada with Assamese , Odia , Bengali , and Maithili . Luipa was from Kamarupa and wrote two charyas . Sarahapa, another poet, is said to have been from Rani, a place close to present-day Guwahati . Some of the affinities with Assamese are: Negatives – the negative particle in Assamese comes ahead of the verb: na jãi (No. 2, 15, 20, 29); na jivami (No. 4); na chadaa , na jani , na disaa (No. 6). Charya 15 has 9 such forms. Present participles –

1113-660: The Charyāpada was rediscovered in the early 20th century by Haraprasad Shastri at the Nepal Royal Court Library. The Charyapada was also preserved in the Tibetan Buddhist canon. The rediscovery of the Charyapada is credited to Haraprasad Shastri , a 19th-century Sanskrit scholar and historian of Bengali literature who, during his third visit to Nepal in 1907, chanced upon 50 verses at

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1166-650: The Mahasiddhas (750 and 1150 CE), or Siddhacharyas, whose names are mentioned at the beginning of each pada (except the first pada). Some parts of the manuscripts are lost; however, in the Tibetan Buddhist Canon, a translation of 50 padas is found, which includes padas 24, 25, and 48, and the complete pada 23. Pada 25 was written by the Siddhacharya poet Tantripāda, whose work was previously missing. In his commentary on pada 10, Munidatta mentions

1219-584: The 'Sea Old' period of modern Romance and Teutonic languages. Old Bengali is dated to 650 AD, and it originated from proto-Bengali, a form of the Bengali language of the period before 600 AD. A Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary compiled by the Chinese poet Li Ye in 782 AD shows the presence of Bengali. A four-volume research document "Classical Bangla" published in 2024 by the Kolkata-based institute "Institute of Language Studies and Research" (ILSR), mentions

1272-558: The Charyapada dates back to an even earlier time. He maintained that it was likely to have been composed between 7th and 11th century. Rahul Sankrityayan thought that the Charyapada was probably written between 8th and 11th century. Haraprasad Shastri , in his introduction to the Charyacharya-vinishchaya, referred to the enigmatic language of its verses as " twilight language " (Sanskrit: Sandhya-bhasha ), or Alo-andhari (half-expressed and half-concealed) based on

1325-402: The Charyapada, conjectured that it was written during the 10th century. However, according to Suniti Kumar Chatterji , it was composed between 10th and 12th century. Prabodh Chandra Bagchi upholds this view. Sukumar Sen , while supporting this view, also states that the Charyapada could have been written between the 11th and 14th centuries. However, Muhammad Shahidullah was of the opinion that

1378-523: The Charyapadas includes non- tatsama words which are typically Assamese, such as dala (1), thira kari (3, 38), tai (4), uju (15), caka (14) etc. A large number of the Siddhacharyas who wrote the verses of Charyapada were from Bengal . The affinities with Bengali language are: Genitive -era , -ara ; Locative -te , -e/A ; Nominative -Ta ; Present participles –

1431-750: The Mittani are either in Hurrian (which appears to have been the predominant language of their kingdom) or Akkadian (the main diplomatic language of the Late Bronze Age Near East), these apparently Indo-Aryan names suggest that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrians in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion . If these traces are Indo-Aryan, they would be the earliest known direct evidence of Indo-Aryan, and would increase

1484-550: The Old Bengali songs compiled in Mānasollāsa —also known as Abhilashitartha Chintamani —were composed in the third decade of the twelfth century. Chalukya king Someshvara III was the patron of the book. The songs were composed in the Bengal and circulated as far as Maharashtra . Some of the major sound changes that took place in the history of Old Bengali were as follows: Signs of Sanskrit, Prakrit and Avahatta can be found in

1537-681: The Royal library of the Nepalese kings. At that time, Shastri was a librarian of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, and was engaged in a self-assigned mission to trace and track ancient Bengali manuscripts. His first and second trips to Nepal in 1897 and 1898 met with some success, as he was able to collect a number of folkloric tales written in Pali and Sanskrit . However, after he rediscovered

1590-468: The Sanskrit commentary of Munidatta. Vidhushekhara Shastri, on the basis of evidence from a number of Buddhist texts, later referred to this language as 'Intentional Language' (Sanskrit: Sandha-bhasha ). The padas were written by poets from different regions, and it is natural that they would display linguistic affinities from these regions. Different scholars have noted the affinities of the language of

1643-612: The context of Proto-Indo-Aryan . The Northern Indo-Aryan languages , also known as the Pahari ('hill') languages, are spoken throughout the Himalayan regions of the subcontinent. Northwestern Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in the northwestern region of India and eastern region of Pakistan. Punjabi is spoken predominantly in the Punjab region and is the official language of the northern Indian state of Punjab , in addition to being

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1696-471: The continental Indo-Aryan languages from around 5th century BCE. The following languages are otherwise unclassified within Indo-Aryan: Dates indicate only a rough time frame. Proto-Indo-Aryan (or sometimes Proto-Indic ) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the pre-Vedic Indo-Aryans . Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be

1749-827: The grammar of Old Bengali in various— part of speech , declension for case , genders, numbers etc. In Old Bengali, adjectives had gender, which has declined in Modern Bengali. In the case of adverbs, the suffix /ɛ/ ( এ ) or /ɛm̐/ ( এঁ ) was added. Besides, adverbs are made by adding /i/ ( ই ) or /jə/ ( ইয়া ) to infinitive verbs. There were two types of pronouns—personal and demonstrative. Personal pronouns were of two types, and demonstrative pronouns were of five types—general demonstrative, near demonstratives, far demonstrative, relative demonstrative and indefinite demonstrative or indefinite demonstrative. There were no gender differences in pronouns. I used to refer to any gender, male or female. The collection of Old Bengali literature

1802-405: The horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian in general or early Iranian (which has aiva ). Another text has babru ( babhru , "brown"), parita ( palita , "grey"), and pinkara ( pingala , "red"). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice ( vishuva ) which

1855-502: The most divergent Indo-Aryan branch. Nevertheless, the modern consensus of Indo-Aryan linguists tends towards the inclusion of Dardic based on morphological and grammatical features. The Inner–Outer hypothesis argues for a core and periphery of Indo-Aryan languages, with Outer Indo-Aryan (generally including Eastern and Southern Indo-Aryan, and sometimes Northwestern Indo-Aryan, Dardic and Pahari ) representing an older stratum of Old Indo-Aryan that has been mixed to varying degrees with

1908-582: The most widely-spoken language in Pakistan. Sindhi and its variants are spoken natively in the Pakistani province of Sindh and neighbouring regions. Northwestern languages are ultimately thought to be descended from Shauraseni Prakrit , with influence from Persian and Arabic . Western Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in central and western India, in states such as Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan , in addition to contiguous regions in Pakistan. Gujarati

1961-481: The name of Charyacharyavinishchayah . This manuscript is presently preserved at the National Archives of Nepal. Prabodhchandra Bagchi later published a manuscript of a Tibetan translation containing 50 verses. The Tibetan translation provided additional information, including that the Sanskrit commentary in the manuscript, known as Charyagiti-koshavrtti, was written by Munidatta. It also mentions that

2014-419: The name of another Siddhacharya poet, Ladidombipāda, but no pada written by him has been discovered so far. The names of the Siddhacharyas in Sanskrit (or its Tibetan language equivalent), and the raga in which the verse was to be sung, are given prior to each pada. The Sanskrit names of the Siddhacharya poets were likely assigned to each pada by the commentator Munidatta. Haraprasad Shastri, who rediscovered

2067-542: The newer stratum that is Inner Indo-Aryan. It is a contentious proposal with a long history, with varying degrees of claimed phonological and morphological evidence. Since its proposal by Rudolf Hoernlé in 1880 and refinement by George Grierson it has undergone numerous revisions and a great deal of debate, with the most recent iteration by Franklin Southworth and Claus Peter Zoller based on robust linguistic evidence (particularly an Outer past tense in -l- ). Some of

2120-1018: The note on the Sanskrit lexicon Amarkosh by Amar Singh, which contains about 400 Bengali words which are considered to be traces of Old Bengali. Some of the songs written in Old Bengali were compiled in Mānasōllōsa or Abhilaṣitārthacintāmaṇi . These Bengali songs were placed in the gitbinod section of the Sanskrit text. The theme of the songs was the story of Krishna's lila with the gopis and Vishnu in various incarnations . Indo-Aryan languages Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Indo-Aryan languages (or sometimes simply Indic languages ) are

2173-515: The original text was translated by Shilachari and its commentary by Munidatta was translated by Chandrakirti or Kirtichandra. The poets and their works as mentioned in the text are as follows: The manuscript of the Charyapada discovered by Haraprasad Shastri from Nepal consists of 47 padas (verses). The title-page, the colophon , and pages 36, 37, 38, 39, and 66 (containing padas 24, 25, and 48 and their commentary) were missing in this manuscript. The 47 verses of this manuscript were composed by 22 of

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2226-651: The precision in dating the split between the Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages (as the texts in which the apparent Indicisms occur can be dated with some accuracy). In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra , Varuna , Indra , and the Ashvins ( Nasatya ) are invoked. Kikkuli 's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (cf. Sanskrit eka , "one"), tera ( tri , "three"), panza ( panca , "five"), satta ( sapta , seven), na ( nava , "nine"), vartana ( vartana , "turn", round in

2279-581: The predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan (1500–300 BCE), which is directly attested as Vedic and Mitanni-Aryan . Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, however, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a small number of conservative features lost in Vedic . Some theonyms, proper names, and other terminology of the Late Bronze Age Mitanni civilization of Upper Mesopotamia exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate. While what few written records left by

2332-507: The presence of 51 Bengali words in the dictionary. The inclusion or rather Compulsion to include of the Bengali (Bengali word) as a third language in the Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary indicates the fact that—Bengali was already standardized and was the dominant language considered as the language of the geographical region ( Bengal ). Vajrayani and Sahajani Acharyas composed charyas between the tenth and twelfth centuries AD. There

2385-494: The scheduled caste, Domi/Domni), Bapuri (a Bengali word for 'poor fellow'; 'বাপুর, বাপুড়া' ) Several scholars have noted the affinities of the Charyapadas with Bihari languages like Maithili , Magahi and Bhojpuri . Rahul Sankrityayan in his Puratatv Nibandhawali noted that most of the Siddhas who composed the poems were from Bihar and the language used was an early form of Magahi. The historian, K. P. Jayaswal deemed

2438-456: The suffix -ante is used as in Assamese of the Vaishnava period: jvante (while living, No. 22); sunante (while listening, No. 30) etc. Incomplete verb forms – suffixes -i and -iya used in modern and Early Assamese respectively: kari (3, 38); cumbi (4); maria (11); laia (28) etc. Present indefinite verb forms – -ai : bhanai (1); tarai (5); pivai (6). Future –

2491-553: The suffix -ante and -anta is used in Middle Bengali; Present indefinite verb -ai that transformed into -e in modern Bangla; Second Person Suffix -asi/si that transformed into -is in modern Bangla; Incomplete verb forms of participles – suffixes -i and -iya used in modern poetry and Early and Middle Bangla both Post-positional words like majha , antara , sanga ; Past and future bases - il- , -ib- ; Nominative case ending – case ending in e

2544-545: The theory's skeptics include Suniti Kumar Chatterji and Colin P. Masica . The below classification follows Masica (1991) , and Kausen (2006) . Percentage of Indo-Aryan speakers by native language: The Dardic languages (also Dardu or Pisaca) are a group of Indo-Aryan languages largely spoken in the northwestern extremities of the Indian subcontinent. Dardic was first formulated by George Abraham Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India but he did not consider it to be

2597-402: The total number of native speakers of the Indo-Aryan languages at nearly 900 million people. Other estimates are higher suggesting a figure of 1.5 billion speakers of Indo-Aryan languages. The Indo-Aryan family as a whole is thought to represent a dialect continuum , where languages are often transitional towards neighboring varieties. Because of this, the division into languages vs. dialects

2650-418: The treasure manuscripts in 1907, he published this collections in a single volume in 1916. The original palm-leaf manuscript of the Charyapada, or Caryācaryāviniścaya , spanning 47 padas (verses) along with a Sanskrit commentary, was edited by Shastri and published from Bangiya Sahitya Parishad as a part of his Hajar Bacharer Purano Bangala Bhasay Bauddhagan O Doha (Buddhist Songs and Couplets) in 1916 under

2703-554: The western Gangetic plains , including Delhi and parts of the Central Highlands , where they are often transitional with neighbouring lects. Many of these languages, including Braj and Awadhi , have rich literary and poetic traditions. Urdu , a Persianised derivative of Dehlavi descended from Shauraseni Prakrit , is the official language of Pakistan and also has strong historical connections to India , where it also has been designated with official status. Hindi ,

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2756-587: Was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya , the term for "warrior" in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha , ≈ Sanskrit mīḍha ) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen , Heidelberg, 1986–2000; Vol. II:358). Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara ( artaššumara ) as Ṛtasmara "who thinks of Ṛta " (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva ( biridašṷa, biriiašṷ a) as Prītāśva "whose horse

2809-735: Was spoken in the Bengal region which became the Pala Empire and the Sena kingdom . These included present-day Bangladesh , the Indian state West Bengal and its western border areas of Bihar , Jharkhand and Odisha , the Barak Valley of Assam. According to Suniti Kumar , it overlapped the last Apabhraṃśa phase. Proto-Bengali was the last stage of an already decayed order, so it inflection less than later languages with its new postpositional affixes and other devices. Chatterji compares it to

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