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28-568: Two periods are distinguished within Old Georgian: Early Old Georgian (5th to 8th centuries) and Classical Old Georgian (9th to 11th centuries). Two different dialects are represented in Early Old Georgian, known as Khanmet’i (ხანმეტი, 5th to 7th c.) and Haemet’i (ჰაემეტი, 7th and 8th c.). They are so named after the presence of a second-person subject prefix and a third-person object prefix kh- or h- in

56-403: A case suffix is realized as y- after a vowel, and this allophonic y has its own letter in the alphabet, for example: ႣႤႣႠჂ ⟨deday deda-y mother- NOM ႨႤႱႭჃჂႱႠ iesoüysa⟩ iesu-ysa Jesus- GEN ႣႤႣႠჂ ႨႤႱႭჃჂႱႠ ⟨deday iesoüysa⟩ deda-y iesu-ysa mother-NOM Jesus-GEN "the mother of Jesus" The Asomtavruli alphabet contains three letters which are not needed for

84-404: A few based directly on their Greek counterparts (cf. Greek Φ Θ Χ [pʰ tʰ kʰ], Asomtavruli Ⴔ Ⴇ Ⴕ ). Old Georgian orthography is quite consistent, in the sense that the same word is usually written in the same way in all instances. Spelling is nearly phonemic, with almost all phonemes exclusively represented by a single letter. The exceptions are described below. The most conspicuous exception to

112-699: A mixed spelling). Romanization of Georgian Romanization of Georgian is the process of transliterating the Georgian language from the Georgian script into the Latin script . This system, adopted in February 2002 by the State Department of Geodesy and Cartography of Georgia and the Institute of Linguistics, Georgian National Academy of Sciences , establishes a transliteration system of

140-705: A single letter ⴓ ⟨u⟩ (modern Mkhedruli script უ ). A matching Asomtavruli single-letter counterpart Ⴓ was then devised; this letter was not part of the original alphabet, and was not used in the Old Georgian period. The semivowel w is written in two ways, depending on its position within the word. When it occurs directly after a consonant, it is written with the digraph ႭჃ ⟨oü⟩ , for example ႹႭჃႤႬ ⟨choüen⟩ chwen "we", ႢႭჃႰႨႲႨ ⟨goürit’i⟩ gwrit’i "turtledove". The digraph ႭჃ ⟨oü⟩ thus represents both w and u , without differentiation in

168-436: A text from one script to another that involves swapping letters (thus trans- + liter- ) in predictable ways, such as Greek ⟨ α ⟩ → ⟨ a ⟩ , Cyrillic ⟨ д ⟩ → ⟨ d ⟩ , Greek ⟨ χ ⟩ → the digraph ⟨ ch ⟩ , Armenian ⟨ ն ⟩ → ⟨ n ⟩ or Latin ⟨ æ ⟩ → ⟨ ae ⟩ . For instance, for

196-406: Is common, as for Burmese , for instance. In Modern Greek , the letters ⟨η, ι, υ⟩ and the letter combinations ⟨ει, oι, υι⟩ are pronounced [i] (except when pronounced as semivowels ), and a modern transcription renders them as ⟨i⟩. However, a transliteration distinguishes them; for example, by transliterating them as ⟨ē, i, y⟩ and ⟨ei, oi, yi⟩. (As the ancient pronunciation of ⟨η⟩ was [ɛː] , it

224-757: Is not long . Transcription , conversely, seeks to capture sound, but phonetically approximate it into the new script; ⟨ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ⟩ corresponds to [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia] in the International Phonetic Alphabet . While differentiation is lost in the case of [i] , note the allophonic realization of /k/ as a palatalized [c] when preceding front vowels /e/ and /i/ . Angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ may be used to set off transliteration, as opposed to slashes / / for phonemic transcription and square brackets for phonetic transcription. Angle brackets may also be used to set off characters in

252-565: Is often transliterated as ⟨ē⟩.) On the other hand, ⟨αυ, ευ, ηυ⟩ are pronounced /af, ef, if/ , and are voiced to [av, ev, iv] when followed by a voiced consonant – a shift from Ancient Greek /au̯, eu̯, iu̯/ . A transliteration would render them all as ⟨au, eu, iu⟩ no matter the environment these sounds are in, reflecting the traditional orthography of Ancient Greek, yet a transcription would distinguish them, based on their phonemic and allophonic pronunciations in Modern Greek. Furthermore,

280-571: Is opposed to letter transcription , which is a letter by letter conversion of one language into another writing system. Still, most systems of transliteration map the letters of the source script to letters pronounced similarly in the target script, for some specific pair of source and target language. Transliteration may be very close to letter-by-letter transcription if the relations between letters and sounds are similar in both languages. For many script pairs, there are one or more standard transliteration systems. However, unsystematic transliteration

308-404: Is the process of representing or intending to represent a word, phrase, or text in a different script or writing system. Transliterations are designed to convey the pronunciation of the original word in a different script, allowing readers or speakers of that script to approximate the sounds and pronunciation of the original word. Transliterations do not change the pronunciation of the word. Thus, in

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336-591: Is very nearly phonemic, showing an excellent "fit" between phonemes and graphemes. It is clearly modelled on the Greek alphabet, showing basically the same alphabetic order, and with letters representing non-Greek phonemes gathered at the end. Apart from letters for nearly all Georgian phonemes, the alphabet also contains three letters representing Greek phonemes not found in Georgian ( ē , ü and ō ). Most individual letters seem to be entirely independent designs, with only

364-414: Is written ႤႢჃႮႲႤ ⟨egüp’t’e⟩ egwip’t’e "Egypt" (cf. modern Georgian ეგვიპტე egvip’t’e ). In native words, the letter Ⴥ ⟨ō⟩ was mainly used to write the vocative particle, for example: Ⴥ ⟨ō o ႣႤႣႨႩႠႺႭ dedik’atso⟩ dedik’atso Ⴥ ႣႤႣႨႩႠႺႭ ⟨ō dedik’atso⟩ o dedik’atso "o woman!" The letters Ⴡ ⟨ē⟩ and Ⴣ ⟨ü⟩ on

392-508: The Georgian letters into Latin letters . The system was already in use, since 1998, on driving licenses. It is also used by BGN and PCGN since 2009, as well as in Google translate . Despite its popularity this system sometimes leads to ambiguity. The system is mostly used in social networks , forums , chat rooms, etc. The system is greatly influenced by the common QWERTY-derived Georgian keyboard layout that ties each key to each letter in

420-591: The Greek term ⟨ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ⟩ , which is usually translated as ' Hellenic Republic ', the usual transliteration into the Latin script is ⟨Hellēnikḗ Dēmokratía⟩ ; and the Russian term ⟨ Российская Республика ⟩ , which is usually translated as ' Russian Republic ', can be transliterated either as ⟨Rossiyskaya Respublika⟩ or alternatively as ⟨Rossijskaja Respublika⟩ . Transliteration

448-659: The soft palate but on the uvula , but the pronunciation varies between different dialects of Arabic . The letter is sometimes transliterated into "g", sometimes into "q" or " ' " (for in Egypt it is silent) and rarely even into "k" in English. Another example is the Russian letter "Х" (kha) . It is pronounced as the voiceless velar fricative /x/ , like the Scottish pronunciation of ⟨ch⟩ in "lo ch ". This sound

476-402: The Greek above example, ⟨λλ⟩ is transliterated ⟨ll⟩ though it is pronounced exactly the same way as [l] , or the Greek letters, ⟨λλ⟩ . ⟨Δ⟩ is transliterated ⟨D⟩ though pronounced as [ð] , and ⟨η⟩ is transliterated ⟨ī⟩ , though it is pronounced [i] (exactly like ⟨ι⟩ ) and

504-399: The alphabet (seven of them: T, W, R, S, J, Z, C with the help of the shift key to make another letter). ISO 9984:1996, "Transliteration of Georgian characters into Latin characters", was last reviewed and confirmed in 2010. The guiding principles in the standard are: Archaic letters are shown on a red background. Transliterating Transliteration is a type of conversion of

532-409: The antipenultimate (third-to-last) syllable of a word, exceptionally, stress fell on the penultimate (second-to-last) syllable of a word if the word contained the question particle -Ⴀ (-a), e.g ႫႭႥႨႣႠ (móvida, "s/he/it came") but ႫႭႥႨႣႠႠ (movidáa? "Did s/he/it come?"). Old Georgian was written in its own alphabetic script, known as Asomtavruli "capital letters" or Mrglovani "rounded". The alphabet

560-461: The initial letter ⟨h⟩ reflecting the historical rough breathing ⟨ ̔⟩ in words such as ⟨Hellēnikḗ⟩ would intuitively be omitted in transcription for Modern Greek, as Modern Greek no longer has the /h/ sound. A simple example of difficulties in transliteration is the Arabic letter qāf . It is pronounced, in literary Arabic, approximately like English [k], except that the tongue makes contact not on

588-408: The one described for modern Georgian, between [w] in postconsonantal position and [ʋ] or [β] in other positions. In modern Georgian spelling (as standardized in 1879), both [w] and [ʋ/β] are consistently written with ვ ⟨v⟩ , and spellings with Ⴅ ⟨v⟩ instead of the expected ႭჃ ⟨oü⟩ are already found in Old Georgian. The initial vowel i- of

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616-400: The original script. Conventions and author preferences vary. Systematic transliteration is a mapping from one system of writing into another, typically grapheme to grapheme. Most transliteration systems are one-to-one , so a reader who knows the system can reconstruct the original spelling. Transliteration, which adapts written form without altering the pronunciation when spoken out,

644-671: The other hand were frequently used in the spelling of native words, as a short-hand way of representing the sequences ey and wi , for example ႫႤႴჁ ⟨mepē⟩ mepey "king", ႶჃႬႭჂ ⟨ghünoy⟩ ghwinoy "wine". Spelling can thus vary within a paradigm, for example ႱႨႲႷႭჃႠჂ ⟨sit’q’oüay⟩ sit’q’wa-y "word" (nominative case) vs. ႱႨႲႷჃႱႠ ⟨sit’q’üsa⟩ sit’q’w-isa (genitive). The sequences ey and wi could also be written out in full however, for example ႫႤႴႤჂ ⟨mepey⟩ mepey , ႶႭჃႨႬႭჂ ⟨ghoüinoy⟩ ghwinoy "wine" (also ႶჃႨႬႭჂ ⟨ghüinoy⟩ ,

672-400: The rule that each phoneme is written with its own letter is the vowel u , which is consistently written with the digraph ႭჃ ⟨oü⟩ , for example ႮႭჃႰႨ ⟨p’oüri⟩ p’uri "bread". This usage was evidently adopted from Greek spelling, which writes /u/ as ⟨ου⟩ . In the later Nuskhuri script, the original digraph ⴍⴣ ⟨oü⟩ merged into

700-489: The semivowel y , which is an allophone of the vowel i in postvocalic position. The table shows the consonants in the National Transliteration System (2002). This system leaves aspiration unmarked, and marks glottalization with an apostrophe. International Phonetic Alphabet equivalents are included in square brackets when different. According to Schanidse, word stress in Old Georgian fell on

728-450: The spelling, for example ႵႭჃႧႨ ⟨khoüti⟩ khuti "five" vs. ႤႵႭჃႱႨ ⟨ekoüsi⟩ ekwsi "six". In all other positions, w is written with the letter Ⴅ ⟨v⟩ , for example ႧႭႥႪႨ ⟨tovli⟩ towli "snow", ႥႤႪႨ ⟨veli⟩ weli "field", ႩႠႰႠႥႨ ⟨k’aravi⟩ k’arawi "tent". The two spellings of w clearly represent an allophonic variation like

756-512: The verbal morphology where Classical Old Georgian has h- , s- or zero. The corpus of Early Old Georgian texts is limited in size, consisting of a dozen inscriptions and eight manuscripts containing religious texts. The literature in Classical Old Georgian has a wider scope, including philosophical and historiographical works. Old Georgian had 29 phonemic consonants and 5 phonemic vowels. The native spelling also distinguishes

784-565: The writing of native words: Ⴡ ⟨ē⟩ , Ⴣ ⟨ü⟩ and Ⴥ ⟨ō⟩ . These were added to the alphabet in order to make possible a letter-for-letter transliteration of Greek names and loanwords. They were indeed occasionally used to write the Greek vowels ē (ēta), ü (ypsilon) and ō (ōmega). As these vowels are alien to Georgian, they were replaced in actual pronunciation by ey , wi and ow respectively, as can be deduced from old variant spellings, and from corresponding modern forms. For example, Greek Αἴγυπτος

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