In biology , a common name of a taxon or organism (also known as a vernacular name , English name, colloquial name, country name, popular name, or farmer's name) is a name that is based on the normal language of everyday life; and is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism, which is often based in Latin . A common name is sometimes frequently used, but that is not always the case.
109-396: All other members of: Oyster is the common name for a number of different families of salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in marine or brackish habitats. In some species, the valves are highly calcified , and many are somewhat irregular in shape. Many, but not all oysters, are in the superfamily Ostreoidea . Some species of oyster are commonly consumed and are regarded as
218-731: A blood bank . There are many different blood types in humans, the ABO blood group system , and the Rhesus blood group system being the most important. Transfusion of blood of an incompatible blood group may cause severe, often fatal, complications, so crossmatching is done to ensure that a compatible blood product is transfused. Other blood products administered intravenously are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate, and specific coagulation factor concentrates. Many forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy ) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by
327-517: A delicacy in some localities. Some types of pearl oysters are harvested for the pearl produced within the mantle . Others, such as the translucent Windowpane oysters , are harvested for their shells. The word oyster comes from Old French oistre , and first appeared in English during the 14th century. The French derived from the Latin ostrea , the feminine form of ostreum , which
436-465: A bed and reaching sexual maturity within a year. Oysters are filter feeders , drawing water in over their gills through the beating of cilia . Suspended plankton and non-food particles are trapped in the mucus of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested, and expelled as feces or pseudofeces that fall to the bottom and remain out of the water column. Oysters feed most actively at temperatures ranging from
545-574: A blood transfusion, because the metabolism of transfused red blood cells does not restart immediately after a transfusion. In modern evidence-based medicine , bloodletting is used in management of a few rare diseases, including hemochromatosis and polycythemia . However, bloodletting and leeching were common unvalidated interventions used until the 19th century, as many diseases were incorrectly thought to be due to an excess of blood, according to Hippocratic medicine. English blood ( Old English blod ) derives from Germanic and has cognates with
654-400: A cream roux . In the case of Oysters Rockefeller , preparation can be very elaborate. They are sometimes served on edible seaweed, such as brown algae . Common name In chemistry , IUPAC defines a common name as one that, although it unambiguously defines a chemical, does not follow the current systematic naming convention, such as acetone , systematically 2-propanone , while
763-426: A pH below 7.35 is too acidic , whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too basic. A pH below 6.9 or above 7.8 is usually lethal. Blood pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO 2 ) , partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO 2 ) , and bicarbonate (HCO 3 ) are carefully regulated by a number of homeostatic mechanisms , which exert their influence principally through the respiratory system and the urinary system to control
872-485: A particularly common name is used varies; some common names have a very local application, while others are virtually universal within a particular language. Some such names even apply across ranges of languages; the word for cat , for instance, is easily recognizable in most Germanic and many Romance languages . Many vernacular names, however, are restricted to a single country and colloquial names to local districts. Some languages also have more than one common name for
981-444: A pearl. The many different types, colours and shapes of pearls depend on the natural pigment of the nacre, and the shape of the original irritant. Pearl farmers can culture a pearl by placing a nucleus, usually a piece of polished mussel shell, inside the oyster. In three to seven years, the oyster can produce a perfect pearl. Since the beginning of the 20th century, when several researchers discovered how to produce artificial pearls,
1090-539: A popular treat celebrated in oyster festivals in many cities and towns. It was once assumed that oysters were only safe to eat in months with the letter 'r' in their English and French names. This myth is based in truth, in that in the Northern Hemisphere, oysters are much more likely to spoil in the warmer months of May, June, July, and August. In recent years, pathogens such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus have caused outbreaks in several harvesting areas of
1199-482: A resting state, even when they are permanently submersed. Their behaviour follows very strict circatidal and circadian rhythms according to the relative moon and sun positions. During neap tides, they exhibit much longer closing periods than during the spring tide. Some tropical oysters, such as the mangrove oyster in the family Ostreidae , grow best on mangrove roots. Low tide can expose them, making them easy to collect. The largest oyster-producing body of water in
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#17327729536441308-447: A result of global change are also negatively impacting oysters around the world, with many impacts affecting molecular, physiological, and behavioral processes in species including Magallana gigas. Recycled oyster shells can help restore oyster reefs to provide marine life habitat that reduces flooding, and protects shorelines from storms. Shell-recycling non-profits retrieve shells from restaurants, wash and dry them, and set them in
1417-549: A similar range of meanings in all other Germanic languages (e.g. German Blut , Swedish blod , Gothic blōþ ). There is no accepted Indo-European etymology. Robin Fåhræus (a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate ) suggested that the Ancient Greek system of humorism , wherein the body was thought to contain four distinct bodily fluids (associated with different temperaments), were based upon
1526-582: A site where pollution was affecting beach tourism. Currently, for the installation cost of $ 3000, roughly 4.8 million liters of water are being filtered daily. In New Jersey, however, the Department of Environmental Protection refused to allow oysters as a filtering system in Sandy Hook Bay and the Raritan Bay, citing worries that commercial shellfish growers would be at risk and that members of
1635-535: A vernacular name describes one used in a lab, trade or industry that does not unambiguously describe a single chemical, such as copper sulfate , which may refer to either copper(I) sulfate or copper(II) sulfate. Sometimes common names are created by authorities on one particular subject, in an attempt to make it possible for members of the general public (including such interested parties as fishermen, farmers, etc.) to be able to refer to one particular species of organism without needing to be able to memorise or pronounce
1744-423: Is blood plasma , a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which by itself is straw-yellow in color. The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7–3.0 liters (2.8–3.2 quarts) in an average human. It is essentially an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins , and trace amounts of other materials. Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as glucose , amino acids , and fatty acids (dissolved in
1853-409: Is a favorite seafood source in the southern part of the country. Because of its good flavor, it commands high prices. Oysters breathe primarily via gills . In addition to their gills, oysters can exchange gases across their mantles , which are lined with many small, thin-walled blood vessels . A small, three-chambered heart , lying under the adductor muscle , pumps colorless blood to all parts of
1962-490: Is a global system that attempts to denote particular organisms or taxa uniquely and definitively , on the assumption that such organisms or taxa are well-defined and generally also have well-defined interrelationships; accordingly the ICZN has formal rules for biological nomenclature and convenes periodic international meetings to further that purpose. The form of scientific names for organisms, called binomial nomenclature ,
2071-461: Is arterial or venous blood). Most of it (about 70%) is converted to bicarbonate ions HCO − 3 by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells by the reaction CO 2 + H 2 O → H 2 CO 3 → H + HCO − 3 ; about 7% is dissolved in the plasma; and about 23% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds. Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However,
2180-418: Is associated with a large number of beliefs. One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships through birth/parentage; to be "related by blood" is to be related by ancestry or descendence, rather than marriage. This bears closely to bloodlines , and sayings such as " blood is thicker than water " and " bad blood ", as well as " Blood brother ". Blood is given particular emphasis in
2289-501: Is believed to be the last-built Connecticut oyster sloop, completed in 1948. Oysters can also be collected by divers . In any case, when the oysters are collected, they are sorted to eliminate dead animals, bycatch (unwanted catch), and debris. Then they are taken to market, where they are either canned or sold live. Oysters have been cultured since at least the days of the Roman Empire . The Pacific oyster ( Magallana gigas )
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#17327729536442398-440: Is bright red, because carbon monoxide causes the formation of carboxyhemoglobin . In cyanide poisoning, the body cannot use oxygen, so the venous blood remains oxygenated, increasing the redness. There are some conditions affecting the heme groups present in hemoglobin that can make the skin appear blue – a symptom called cyanosis . If the heme is oxidized, methemoglobin , which is more brownish and cannot transport oxygen,
2507-407: Is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart . In humans, blood is pumped from the strong left ventricle of the heart through arteries to peripheral tissues and returns to the right atrium of the heart through veins . It then enters the right ventricle and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through
2616-480: Is dangerous to health, and severe hypoxia (saturations less than 30%) may be rapidly fatal. A fetus , receiving oxygen via the placenta , is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen ( hemoglobin F ) to function under these conditions. CO 2 is carried in blood in three different ways. (The exact percentages vary depending whether it
2725-436: Is dominated by the larger Pacific oyster and Rock oyster species which are farmed year-round. Oysters are harvested by simply gathering them from their beds. In very shallow waters, they can be gathered by hand or with small rakes . In somewhat deeper water, long-handled rakes or oyster tongs are used to reach the beds. Patent tongs can be lowered on a line to reach beds that are too deep to reach directly. In all cases,
2834-742: Is estimated that one acre (0.40 ha) can produce nearly 750,000 oysters, which could filter between 57,000 to 150,000 m (2.0–5.3 million cu ft) of water daily. Also see nutrient pollution for an extended explanation of nutrient remediation . As an ecosystem engineer , oysters provide supporting ecosystem services , along with provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Oysters influence nutrient cycling , water filtration , habitat structure, biodiversity , and food web dynamics. Oyster reef habitats have been recognized as green infrastructure for shoreline protection. Assimilation of nitrogen and phosphorus into shellfish tissues provides an opportunity to remove these nutrients from
2943-426: Is formed. In the rare condition sulfhemoglobinemia , arterial hemoglobin is partially oxygenated, and appears dark red with a bluish hue. Veins close to the surface of the skin appear blue for a variety of reasons. However, the factors that contribute to this alteration of color perception are related to the light-scattering properties of the skin and the processing of visual input by the visual cortex , rather than
3052-436: Is free to bind oxygen, and fewer oxygen molecules can be transported throughout the blood. This can cause suffocation insidiously. A fire burning in an enclosed room with poor ventilation presents a very dangerous hazard, since it can create a build-up of carbon monoxide in the air. Some carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin when smoking tobacco. Blood for transfusion is obtained from human donors by blood donation and stored in
3161-543: Is held in September. In fact, in Victorian England, it was quite common for people to go to the pub and enjoy their favorite beer with some oysters. They quickly realized that the "rich, sweet, malty stouts" were great with the "briny, creamy oyster". Then brewers found that oyster shells naturally clarify a beer and they started putting crushed oyster shells into their brews. The first known brewery to start this
3270-461: Is in equilibrium with lymph , which is continuously formed in tissues from blood by capillary ultrafiltration. Lymph is collected by a system of small lymphatic vessels and directed to the thoracic duct , which drains into the left subclavian vein , where lymph rejoins the systemic blood circulation. Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation . Increasing blood flow to
3379-461: Is in these remarks from a book on marine fish: In scientific binomial nomenclature, names commonly are derived from classical or modern Latin or Greek or Latinised forms of vernacular words or coinages; such names generally are difficult for laymen to learn, remember, and pronounce and so, in such books as field guides, biologists commonly publish lists of coined common names. Many examples of such common names simply are attempts to translate
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3488-570: Is known as the Haldane effect , and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. A rise in the partial pressure of CO 2 or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect . Some oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin binds most of the hydrogen ions as it has a much greater affinity for more hydrogen than does oxyhemoglobin. In mammals, blood
3597-515: Is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated . Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- , hemato- , haemo- or haemato- from the Greek word αἷμα ( haima ) for "blood". In terms of anatomy and histology , blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue , given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen . Blood performs many important functions within
3706-517: Is presently the most widely grown bivalve around the world. Two methods are commonly used, release and bagging. In both cases, oysters are cultivated onshore to the size of spat, when they can attach themselves to a substrate. They may be allowed to mature further to form "seed oysters". In either case, they are then placed in the water to mature. The release technique involves distributing the spat throughout existing oyster beds, allowing them to mature naturally to be collected like wild oysters. Bagging has
3815-493: Is produced predominantly by the liver , while hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and the watery fraction is regulated by the hypothalamus and maintained by the kidney . Healthy erythrocytes have a plasma life of about 120 days before they are degraded by the spleen , and the Kupffer cells in the liver. The liver also clears some proteins, lipids, and amino acids. The kidney actively secretes waste products into
3924-459: Is superficially similar to the noun-adjective form of vernacular names or common names which were used by non-modern cultures. A collective name such as owl was made more precise by the addition of an adjective such as screech . Linnaeus himself published a flora of his homeland Sweden, Flora Svecica (1745), and in this, he recorded the Swedish common names, region by region, as well as
4033-409: Is technically possible for an oyster to fertilize its own eggs. The gonads surround the digestive organs, and are made up of sex cells, branching tubules, and connective tissue. Once her millions of eggs are fertilized, the female discharges them into the water. The larvae develop in about six hours and exist suspended in the water column as veliger larvae for two to three weeks before settling on
4142-535: Is the latinisation of the Ancient Greek ὄστρεον ( ostreon ) 'oyster'. Compare ὀστέον ( osteon ) 'bone'. True oysters are members of the family Ostreidae . This family includes the edible oysters, which mainly belong to the genera Ostrea , Crassostrea , Magallana , and Saccostrea . Examples include the European flat oyster , eastern oyster , Olympia oyster , Pacific oyster , and
4251-604: Is the Cape dikkop (or "gewone dikkop", not to mention the presumably much older Zulu name "umBangaqhwa"); Burhinus vermiculatus is the "water dikkop". The thick joints in question are not even, in fact, the birds' knees, but the intertarsal joints —in lay terms the ankles. Furthermore, not all species in the genus have "thick knees", so the thickness of the "knees" of some species is not of clearly descriptive significance. The family Burhinidae has members that have various common names even in English, including " stone curlews ", so
4360-463: Is the case with say, ginkgo , okapi , and ratel . Folk taxonomy , which is a classification of objects using common names, has no formal rules and need not be consistent or logical in its assignment of names, so that say, not all flies are called flies (for example Braulidae , the so-called "bee lice") and not every animal called a fly is indeed a fly (such as dragonflies and mayflies ). In contrast, scientific or biological nomenclature
4469-653: The Sydney rock oyster . Ostreidae evolved in the Early Triassic epoch : The genus Liostrea grew on the shells of living ammonoids . Almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, yet most are not very valuable. Pearls can form in both saltwater and freshwater environments. Pearl oysters are not closely related to true oysters, being members of a distinct family, the feathered oysters ( Pteriidae ). Both cultured pearls and natural pearls can be extracted from pearl oysters, though other molluscs, such as
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4578-696: The United States is the Chesapeake Bay , although these beds have decreased in number due to overfishing and pollution. Other large oyster farming areas in the US include the bays and estuaries along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico from Apalachicola, Florida , in the east to Galveston, Texas , in the west. Large beds of edible oysters are also found in Japan and Australia. In 2005, China accounted for 80% of
4687-529: The acid–base balance and respiration, which is called compensation. An arterial blood gas test measures these. Plasma also circulates hormones transmitting their messages to various tissues. The list of normal reference ranges for various blood electrolytes is extensive. Human blood is typical of that of mammals, although the precise details concerning cell numbers, size, protein structure , and so on, vary somewhat between species. In non-mammalian vertebrates, however, there are some key differences: Blood
4796-780: The cells , and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Blood is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma . Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains proteins , glucose , mineral ions , and hormones . The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and (in mammals) platelets (thrombocytes). The most abundant cells are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin , which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to it, increasing its solubility. Jawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system , based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites. Platelets are important in
4905-405: The clotting of blood. Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart . In animals with lungs , arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled. Blood is bright red when its hemoglobin
5014-586: The eastern oyster ( Crassostrea virginica ) was introduced to California waters in 1875, while the Pacific oyster was introduced there in 1929. Proposals for further such introductions remain controversial. The Pacific oyster prospered in Pendrell Sound , where the surface water is typically warm enough for spawning in the summer. Over the following years, spat spread out sporadically and populated adjacent areas. Eventually, possibly following adaptation to
5123-428: The erectile tissue in the penis and clitoris . Another example of a hydraulic function is the jumping spider , in which blood forced into the legs under pressure causes them to straighten for a powerful jump, without the need for bulky muscular legs. Hemoglobin is the principal determinant of the color of blood ( hemochrome ). Each molecule has four heme groups, and their interaction with various molecules alters
5232-482: The pulmonary veins . Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again. Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism by cells , to the lungs to be exhaled. However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood. Additional return flow may be generated by
5341-525: The tides . He was so famous for this, the Romans used to say he could breed oysters on the roof of his house. In the early 19th century, oysters were cheap and mainly eaten by the working class . Throughout the 19th century, oyster beds in New York Harbor became the largest source of oysters worldwide. On any day in the late 19th century, six million oysters could be found on barges tied up along
5450-479: The urine . About 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human breathing air at sea-level pressure is chemically combined with the hemoglobin . About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species. Hemoglobin has an oxygen binding capacity between 1.36 and 1.40 ml O 2 per gram hemoglobin, which increases
5559-516: The CO 2 bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO 2 decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. The decreased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to increased oxygen levels
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#17327729536445668-576: The Hebrew Language publish from time to time short dictionaries of common name in Hebrew for species that occur in Israel or surrounding countries e.g. for Reptilia in 1938, Osteichthyes in 2012, and Odonata in 2015. Blood Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to
5777-710: The SSAR switched to an online version with a searchable database. Standardized names for the amphibians and reptiles of Mexico in Spanish and English were first published in 1994, with a revised and updated list published in 2008. A set of guidelines for the creation of English names for birds was published in The Auk in 1978. It gave rise to Birds of the World: Recommended English Names and its Spanish and French companions. The Academy of
5886-534: The Secretariat for the AFNC. SSA is an accredited Standards Australia (Australia's peak non-government standards development organisation) Standards Development The Entomological Society of America maintains a database of official common names of insects, and proposals for new entries must be submitted and reviewed by a formal committee before being added to the listing. Efforts to standardize English names for
5995-529: The United Kingdom, the town of Whitstable is noted for oyster farming from beds on the Kentish Flats that have been used since Roman times. The borough of Colchester holds an annual Oyster Feast each October, at which "Colchester Natives" (the native oyster, Ostrea edulis ) are consumed. The United Kingdom hosts several other annual oyster festivals; for example, Woburn Oyster Festival
6104-483: The actual color of the venous blood. Skinks in the genus Prasinohaema have green blood due to a buildup of the waste product biliverdin . Substances other than oxygen can bind to hemoglobin; in some cases, this can cause irreversible damage to the body. Carbon monoxide, for example, is extremely dangerous when carried to the blood via the lungs by inhalation, because carbon monoxide irreversibly binds to hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, so that less hemoglobin
6213-505: The amphibians and reptiles of North America (north of Mexico) began in the mid-1950s. The dynamic nature of taxonomy necessitates periodical updates and changes in the nomenclature of both scientific and common names. The Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles (SSAR) published an updated list in 1978, largely following the previous established examples, and subsequently published eight revised editions ending in 2017. More recently
6322-515: The author introduced into it so many new English names, that are to be found in no dictionary, and that do not preclude the necessity of learning with what Latin names they are synonymous. A tolerable idea may be given of the danger of too great a multiplicity of vulgar names, by imagining what geography would be, or, for instance, the Post-office administration, supposing every town had a totally different name in every language. Various bodies and
6431-493: The authors of many technical and semi-technical books do not simply adapt existing common names for various organisms; they try to coin (and put into common use) comprehensive, useful, authoritative, and standardised lists of new names. The purpose typically is: Other attempts to reconcile differences between widely separated regions, traditions, and languages, by arbitrarily imposing nomenclature, often reflect narrow perspectives and have unfortunate outcomes. For example, members of
6540-434: The beds by the early 20th century. Oysters' popularity has put ever-increasing demands on wild oyster stocks. This scarcity increased prices, converting them from their original role as working-class food to their current status as an expensive delicacy. In Britain, the native species ( European flat oyster ) has five years to mature and is protected by the people during their May-to-August spawning season. The current market
6649-473: The blood or bound to plasma proteins), and removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide , urea , and lactic acid . Other important components include: The term serum refers to plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed. Most of the proteins remaining are albumin and immunoglobulins . Blood pH is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic (compensation). Extra-cellular fluid in blood that has
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#17327729536446758-475: The body, including: Blood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density around 1060 kg/m , very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m . The average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 litres (11 US pt) or 1.3 gallons, which is composed of plasma and formed elements . The formed elements are the two types of blood cell or corpuscle – the red blood cells , (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leukocytes), and
6867-406: The body. At the same time, two kidneys , located on the underside of the muscle, remove waste products from the blood. Their nervous system includes two pairs of nerve cords and three pairs of ganglia . There is no evidence that oysters have a brain. While some oysters have two sexes ( European oyster and Olympia oyster ), their reproductive organs contain both eggs and sperm. Because of this, it
6976-405: The capacity to dramatically alter nitrogen levels in estuaries. In the U.S., Delaware is the only East Coast state without aquaculture, but making aquaculture a state-controlled industry of leasing water by the acre for commercial harvesting of shellfish is being considered. Supporters of Delaware's legislation to allow oyster aquaculture cite revenue, job creation, and nutrient cycling benefits. It
7085-422: The cell fragments called platelets that are involved in clotting. By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%. Whole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics . One microliter of blood contains: 45 ± 7 (38–52%) for males 42 ± 5 (37–47%) for females Oxygenated: 98–99% Deoxygenated: 75% About 55% of blood
7194-408: The choice of the name "thick-knees" is not easy to defend but is a clear illustration of the hazards of the facile coinage of terminology. For collective nouns for various subjects, see a list of collective nouns (e.g. a flock of sheep, pack of wolves). Some organizations have created official lists of common names, or guidelines for creating common names, hoping to standardize
7303-540: The city's waterfront. They were naturally quite popular in New York City , and helped initiate the city's restaurant trade. New York's oystermen became skilled cultivators of their beds, which provided employment for hundreds of workers and nutritious food for thousands. Eventually, rising demand exhausted many of the beds. To increase production, they introduced foreign species, which brought disease; effluent and increasing sedimentation from erosion destroyed most of
7412-548: The cultivator putting spat in racks or bags and keeping them above the bottom. Harvesting involves simply lifting the bags or rack to the surface and removing the mature oysters. The latter method prevents losses to some predators, but is more expensive. The Pacific oyster has been grown in the outflow of mariculture ponds. When fish or prawns are grown in ponds, it takes typically 10 kg (22 lb) of feed to produce 1 kg ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 4 lb) of product ( dry-dry basis). The other 9 kg (20 lb) goes into
7521-465: The cultured pearl market has far outgrown the natural pearl market. A number of bivalve molluscs (other than true oysters and pearl oysters) also have common names that include the word "oyster", usually because they either taste like or look somewhat like true oysters, or because they yield noticeable pearls. Examples include: In the Philippines , a local thorny oyster species known as Tikod amo
7630-413: The digestive tract. After severe acute blood loss, liquid preparations, generically known as plasma expanders, can be given intravenously, either solutions of salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl 2 etc.) at physiological concentrations, or colloidal solutions, such as dextrans, human serum albumin , or fresh frozen plasma. In these emergency situations, a plasma expander is a more effective life-saving procedure than
7739-444: The eastern United States during the summer months, lending further credence to this belief. Oysters can be eaten on the half shell, raw, smoked , boiled , baked , fried , roasted , stewed , canned , pickled , steamed , or broiled , or used in a variety of drinks. Eating can be as simple as opening the shell and eating the contents, including juice. Butter and salt are often added. Poached oysters can be served on toast with
7848-431: The exact color. Arterial blood and capillary blood are bright red, as oxygen imparts a strong red color to the heme group. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red; this is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. This is because the spectrum of light absorbed by hemoglobin differs between the oxygenated and deoxygenated states. Blood in carbon monoxide poisoning
7957-400: The freshwater mussels , also yield pearls of commercial value. The largest pearl-bearing oyster is the marine Pinctada maxima , which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. Not all individual oysters produce pearls. In nature, pearl oysters produce pearls by covering a minute invasive object with nacre . Over the years, the irritating object is covered with enough layers of nacre to become
8066-522: The genus Burhinus occur in Australia, Southern Africa, Eurasia, and South America. A recent trend in field manuals and bird lists is to use the name " thick-knee " for members of the genus. This, in spite of the fact that the majority of the species occur in non-English-speaking regions and have various common names, not always English. For example, "Dikkop" is the centuries-old South African vernacular name for their two local species: Burhinus capensis
8175-409: The global oyster harvest. In Europe, France remained the industry leader. Common oyster predators include crabs , seabirds , starfish , and humans . Some oysters contain crabs, known as oyster crabs . Bivalves , including oysters, are effective filter feeders and can have large effects on the water columns in which they occur. As filter feeders, oysters remove plankton and organic particles from
8284-418: The high 60s to the high 70s (20–26 °C). Under ideal laboratory conditions, an oyster can filter up to 190 L (50 US gal) of water per day. Under average conditions, mature oysters filter 11–45 L (3–12 U.S. gal). Chesapeake Bay 's once-flourishing oyster population historically filtered excess nutrients from the estuary's entire water volume every three to four days. As of 2008 it
8393-519: The late 1880s, when the bay's population was in the billions, and watermen harvested about 910,000 m (25 million imp bsh) annually. The 2009 harvest was less than 7,300 m (200,000 imp bsh). Researchers claim the keys to the project were: The "oyster-tecture" movement promotes the use of oyster reefs for water purification and wave attenuation. An oyster-tecture project has been implemented at Withers Estuary, Withers Swash, South Carolina, by Neil Chambers-led volunteers, at
8502-539: The local conditions, the Pacific oyster spread up and down the coast and now is the basis of the North American west coast oyster industry. Pendrell Sound is now a reserve that supplies spat for cultivation. Near the mouth of the Great Wicomico River in the Chesapeake Bay , five-year-old artificial reefs now harbor more than 180 million native Crassostrea virginica . That is far lower than in
8611-663: The loss of half of California's Olympia oysters . Oyster reefs occupy a small fraction of their distribution prior to mass harvesting during the last three centuries. In October 2017, it was reported that underwater noise pollution can affect oysters as they close their shells when exposed to low frequencies of sounds in experimental conditions. Oysters rely on hearing waves and currents to regulate their circadian rhythms , and perception of weather events—such as rain —may induce spawning . Cargo ships , pile drivers , and explosions conducted underwater produce low frequencies that may be detected by oysters. Environmental stressors as
8720-530: The lungs is still roughly 75% (70 to 78%) saturated. Increased oxygen consumption during sustained exercise reduces the oxygen saturation of venous blood, which can reach less than 15% in a trained athlete; although breathing rate and blood flow increase to compensate, oxygen saturation in arterial blood can drop to 95% or less under these conditions. Oxygen saturation this low is considered dangerous in an individual at rest (for instance, during surgery under anesthesia). Sustained hypoxia (oxygenation less than 90%),
8829-711: The modern (now binding) International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants contains the following: Art. 68. Every friend of science ought to be opposed to the introduction into a modern language of names of plants that are not already there unless they are derived from a Latin botanical name that has undergone but a slight alteration. ... ought the fabrication of names termed vulgar names, totally different from Latin ones, to be proscribed. The public to whom they are addressed derives no advantage from them because they are novelties. Lindley's work, The Vegetable Kingdom, would have been better relished in England had not
8938-407: The movement of skeletal muscles , which can compress veins and push blood through the valves in veins toward the right atrium . The blood circulation was famously described by William Harvey in 1628. In vertebrates, the various cells of blood are made in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis , which includes erythropoiesis , the production of red blood cells; and myelopoiesis ,
9047-425: The next two or three years and develop greater energy reserves, they spawn as females by releasing eggs . Bay oysters usually spawn from the end of June until mid-August. An increase in water temperature prompts a few oysters to spawn. This triggers spawning in the rest, clouding the water with millions of eggs and sperm. A single female oyster can produce up to 100 million eggs annually. The eggs become fertilized in
9156-464: The observation of blood clotting in a transparent container. When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen. A dark clot forms at the bottom (the "black bile"). Above the clot is a layer of red blood cells (the "blood"). Above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the "phlegm"). The top layer is clear yellow serum (the "yellow bile"). In general, Greek thinkers believed that blood
9265-419: The oxygen is consumed; afterwards, venules and veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Under normal conditions in adult humans at rest, hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 98–99% saturated with oxygen , achieving an oxygen delivery between 950 and 1150 ml/min to the body. In a healthy adult at rest, oxygen consumption is approximately 200–250 ml/min, and deoxygenated blood returning to
9374-462: The pond and after mineralization, provides food for phytoplankton, which in turn feeds the oyster. To prevent spawning, sterile oysters are now cultured by crossbreeding tetraploid and diploid oysters. The resulting triploid oyster cannot propagate, which prevents introduced oysters from spreading into unwanted habitats. In many areas, non-native oysters have been introduced in attempts to prop up failing harvests of native varieties. For example,
9483-505: The production of white blood cells and platelets. During childhood, almost every human bone produces red blood cells; as adults, red blood cell production is limited to the larger bones: the bodies of the vertebrae, the breastbone (sternum), the ribcage, the pelvic bones, and the bones of the upper arms and legs. In addition, during childhood, the thymus gland, found in the mediastinum , is an important source of T lymphocytes . The proteinaceous component of blood (including clotting proteins)
9592-429: The public might disregard warnings and consume tainted oysters. New Jersey Baykeepers responded by changing their strategy for utilizing oysters to clean up the waterway, by collaborating with Naval Weapons Station Earle. The Navy station is under 24/7 security and therefore eliminates any poaching and associated human health risk. Oyster-tecture projects have been proposed to protect coastal cities, such as New York, from
9701-488: The same animal. For example, in Irish, there are many terms that are considered outdated but still well-known for their somewhat humorous and poetic descriptions of animals. w/ literal translations of the poetic terms Common names are used in the writings of both professionals and laymen . Lay people sometimes object to the use of scientific names over common names, but the use of scientific names can be defended, as it
9810-402: The scientific name into English or some other vernacular. Such translation may be confusing in itself, or confusingly inaccurate, for example, gratiosus does not mean "gracile" and gracilis does not mean "graceful". The practice of coining common names has long been discouraged; de Candolle's Laws of Botanical Nomenclature , 1868, the non-binding recommendations that form the basis of
9919-555: The scientific name. Creating an "official" list of common names can also be an attempt to standardize the use of common names, which can sometimes vary a great deal between one part of a country and another, as well as between one country and another country, even where the same language is spoken in both places. A common name intrinsically plays a part in a classification of objects, typically an incomplete and informal classification, in which some names are degenerate examples in that they are unique and lack reference to any other name, as
10028-579: The scientific names. The Swedish common names were all binomials (e.g. plant no. 84 Råg-losta and plant no. 85 Ren-losta); the vernacular binomial system thus preceded his scientific binomial system. Linnaean authority William T. Stearn said: By the introduction of his binomial system of nomenclature, Linnaeus gave plants and animals an essentially Latin nomenclature like vernacular nomenclature in style but linked to published, and hence relatively stable and verifiable, scientific concepts and thus suitable for international use. The geographic range over which
10137-422: The second and the third most supplied organs, with 1100 ml/min and ~700 ml/min, respectively. Relative rates of blood flow per 100 g of tissue are different, with kidney, adrenal gland and thyroid being the first, second and third most supplied tissues, respectively. The restriction of blood flow can also be used in specialized tissues to cause engorgement, resulting in an erection of that tissue; examples are
10246-567: The sun for up to a year to kill bacteria. Some states encourage shell recycling by offering tax incentives. Jonathan Swift is quoted as having said, "He was a bold man that first ate an oyster". Evidence of oyster consumption goes back into prehistory, evidenced by oyster middens found worldwide. Oysters were an important food source in all coastal areas where they could be found, and oyster fisheries were an important industry where they were plentiful. Overfishing and pressure from diseases and pollution have sharply reduced supplies, but they remain
10355-489: The surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially. Rate of blood flow varies greatly between different organs. Liver has the most abundant blood supply with an approximate flow of 1350 ml/min. Kidney and brain are
10464-424: The surface area of a flat bottom 50-fold. An oyster's mature shape often depends on the type of bottom to which it is originally attached, but it always orients itself with its outer, flared shell tilted upward. One valve is cupped and the other is flat. Oysters usually reach maturity in one year. They are protandric ; during their first year, they spawn as males by releasing sperm into the water. As they grow over
10573-529: The task is the same: the oysterman scrapes oysters into a pile, and then scoops them up with the rake or tongs. In some areas, a scallop dredge is used. This is a toothed bar attached to a chain bag. The dredge is towed through an oyster bed by a boat, picking up the oysters in its path. While dredges collect oysters more quickly, they heavily damage the beds, and their use is highly restricted. Until 1965, Maryland limited dredging to sailboats , and even since then motor boats can be used only on certain days of
10682-483: The threat of rising sea levels due to climate change . Additionally Oyster reef restoration has shown to increase the population of oyster beds within the oceans while also conserving the biolife within the oyster reefs. The accidental or intentional introduction of species by humans has the potential to negatively impact native oyster populations. For example, non-native species in Tomales Bay have resulted in
10791-443: The total blood oxygen capacity seventyfold, compared to if oxygen solely were carried by its solubility of 0.03 ml O 2 per liter blood per mm Hg partial pressure of oxygen (about 100 mm Hg in arteries). With the exception of pulmonary and umbilical arteries and their corresponding veins, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and deliver it to the body via arterioles and capillaries , where
10900-832: The use of common names. For example, the Australian Fish Names List or AFNS was compiled through a process involving work by taxonomic and seafood industry experts, drafted using the CAAB (Codes for Australian Aquatic Biota) taxon management system of the CSIRO , and including input through public and industry consultations by the Australian Fish Names Committee (AFNC). The AFNS has been an official Australian Standard since July 2007 and has existed in draft form (The Australian Fish Names List) since 2001. Seafood Services Australia (SSA) serve as
11009-503: The water and develop into larvae, which eventually find suitable sites, such as another oyster's shell, on which to settle. Attached oyster larvae are called spat. Spat are oysters less than 25 mm (1 in) long. Many species of bivalves, oysters included, seem to be stimulated to settle near adult conspecifics . Oysters filter large amounts of water to feed and breathe (exchange O 2 and CO 2 with water) but they are not permanently open. They regularly shut their valves to enter
11118-540: The water column. In California's Tomales Bay , native oyster presence is associated with higher species diversity of benthic invertebrates. As the ecological and economic importance of oyster reefs has become more acknowledged, restoration efforts have increased. Middens testify to the prehistoric importance of oysters as food, with some middens in New South Wales , Australia, dated at ten thousand years. They have been cultivated in Japan from at least 2000 BC. In
11227-411: The water column. Multiple studies have shown individual oysters are capable of filtering up to 190 litres (42 imp gal; 50 US gal) of water per day, and thus oyster reefs can significantly improve water quality and clarity. Oysters consume nitrogen-containing compounds ( nitrates and ammonia ), phosphates , plankton, detritus, bacteria, and dissolved organic matter, removing them from
11336-487: The water. What is not used for animal growth is then expelled as solid waste pellets, which eventually decompose into the atmosphere as nitrogen. In Maryland , the Chesapeake Bay Program had implemented a plan to use oysters to reduce the amount of nitrogen compounds entering the Chesapeake Bay by 8,600 t (9,500 short tons) per year by 2010. Several studies have shown that oysters and mussels have
11445-480: The week. These regulations prompted the development of specialized sailboats (the bugeye and later the skipjack ) for dredging. Similar laws were enacted in Connecticut before World War I and lasted until 1969. The laws restricted the harvesting of oysters in state-owned beds to vessels under sail. These laws prompted the construction of the oyster sloop-style vessel to last well into the 20th century. Hope
11554-492: Was discovered in the year 1900 by Karl Landsteiner . Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, and O) in 1907, which remains in use today. In 1907 the first blood transfusion was performed that used the ABO system to predict compatibility. The first non-direct transfusion was performed on 27 March 1914. The Rhesus factor was discovered in 1937. Due to its importance to life, blood
11663-678: Was estimated that a complete cycle would take nearly a year. A group of oysters is commonly called a bed or oyster reef . As a keystone species , oysters provide habitat for many marine species. Crassostrea and Saccostrea live mainly in the intertidal zone , while Ostrea is subtidal . The hard surfaces of oyster shells and the nooks between the shells provide places where a host of small animals can live. Hundreds of animals, such as sea anemones , barnacles , and hooked mussels , inhabit oyster reefs . Many of these animals are prey to larger animals, including fish, such as striped bass , black drum and croakers . An oyster reef can increase
11772-697: Was in 1938 at the Hammerton Brewery in London. That is where the oyster stout was first started. The French seaside resort of Cancale in Brittany is noted for its oysters, which also date from Roman times. Sergius Orata of the Roman Republic is considered the first major merchant and cultivator of oysters. Using his considerable knowledge of hydraulics , he built a sophisticated cultivation system, including channels and locks, to control
11881-464: Was made from food. Plato and Aristotle are two important sources of evidence for this view, but it dates back to Homer's Iliad . Plato thinks that fire in our bellies transform food into blood. Plato believes that the movements of air in the body as we exhale and inhale carry the fire as it transforms our food into blood. Aristotle believed that food is concocted into blood in the heart and transformed into our body's matter. The ABO blood group system
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