222-661: The SA80 (Small Arms for the 1980s) is a British family of 5.56×45mm NATO service weapons used by the British Army . The L85 Rifle variant has been the standard issue service rifle of the British Armed Forces since 1987, replacing the L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle . The prototypes were created in 1976, with production of the A1 variant starting in 1985 and ending in 1994. The A2 variant came to be as
444-502: A STANAG magazine , usually with a 30-round capacity. Initially issued magazines were aluminium Colt magazines which were not particularly robust, leading to a steel replacement being produced by ROF Radway Green . These magazines were then replaced during the A2 upgrade programme with two new steel magazines by Heckler & Koch ; the main variant is for live ammunition, and the other is exclusively used for blank ammunition. The blank variant
666-457: A bullpup configuration, designated the EM-1 and EM-2 . The latter was brought into service briefly as "Rifle, Automatic, Calibre .280, Number 9". When NATO standardised on the 7.62mm rifle cartridge as the standard calibre for its service rifles , further development of these rifles was discontinued and the British Army adopted the 7.62 mm L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle semi-automatic rifle ,
888-463: A fireteam level. The weapon has a heavier, longer 646 millimetres (25.4 in) barrel than the rifle and features a shorter handguard with an integrated bipod protruding from the front. The stock has a shoulder strap to take the weapon's weight in the prone position and a rear vertical grip for better control of the weapon when firing bursts. The weapon is otherwise identical to the L85 version on which it
1110-491: A precipitate of aluminium hydroxide , Al(OH) 3 , forms. This is useful for clarification of water, as the precipitate nucleates on suspended particles in the water, hence removing them. Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as aluminate , [Al(H 2 O) 2 (OH) 4 ] , is formed. Aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali, as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides. This behavior of Al(OH) 3
1332-698: A single state and, with that, united the English Army and the Scots Army as the British Army . Members of the British Army swear allegiance to the monarch as their commander-in-chief , since both the English Bill of Rights of 1689 and Scottish Claim of Right Act 1689 require parliamentary consent for the Crown to maintain a peacetime standing army . The army is administered by
1554-525: A "less classical sound". This name persisted: although the -um spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used -ium from the start. Most scientists throughout the world used -ium in the 19th century; and it was entrenched in several other European languages, such as French , German , and Dutch . In 1828, an American lexicographer, Noah Webster , entered only
1776-779: A 21-year engagement, following which (should he survive so long) he was discharged as a Pensioner. Pensioners were sometimes still employed on garrison duties, as were younger soldiers no longer deemed fit for expeditionary service who were generally organised in invalid units or returned to the regimental depot for home service. The cost of paying pensioners, and the obligation the government was under to continue to employ invalids as well as soldiers deemed by their commanding officers as detriments to their units were motivations to change this system. The long period of engagement also discouraged many potential recruits. The long service enlistments were consequently replaced with short service enlistments, with undesirable soldiers not permitted to re-engage on
1998-577: A Catholic) during his brief controversial reign, off the throne and into exile. England then involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance on the Continent, primarily to prevent a possible French Catholic monarch organizing invasion restoring the exiled James II (Queen Mary's father and still a Roman Catholic ). Later in 1689, William III to solidify his and Mary's hold on the monarchy, expanded
2220-499: A Swedish chemist, Jöns Jacob Berzelius , in which the name aluminium is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum. (Another article in the same journal issue also refers to the metal whose oxide is the basis of sapphire , i.e. the same metal, as to aluminium .) A January 1811 summary of one of Davy's lectures at the Royal Society mentioned the name aluminium as a possibility. The next year, Davy published
2442-561: A chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling aluminum . Both spellings have coexisted since. Their usage is currently regional: aluminum dominates in the United States and Canada; aluminium is prevalent in the rest of the English-speaking world. In 1812, British scientist Thomas Young wrote an anonymous review of Davy's book, in which he proposed the name aluminium instead of aluminum , which he thought had
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#17327722875172664-449: A complication, as the rate of fire dropped but the pressure and time curve of the rounds were different. The 4.85mm round was based on the 5.56mm case in anticipation of the need to convert calibres. The barrel was changed easily, but the gas ports were much larger. Pressure problems had less of an effect on the LSW due to its longer barrel. After receiving feedback from users and incorporating
2886-707: A deployment in Afghanistan as part of Operation Toral . Following an announcement by the US Government of the end of their operations in the Afghanistan, the Ministry of Defence announced in April 2021 that British forces would withdraw from the country by 11 September 2021. It was later reported that all UK troops would be out by early July. Following the collapse of the Afghan Army, and the completion of
3108-725: A fact picked up by the UK media, entertainment industry, and members of the House of Lords. Special Air Service sergeant Chris Ryan regarded the SA80s as being "poor-quality, unreliable weapons at the best of times, prone to stoppages, and it seemed pretty tough to have to rely on them". Immediately after the Gulf War , the Ministry of Defence (MOD) commissioned the LANDSET Report, into
3330-471: A forward post vertical blade foresight, installed on a bracket above the gas block. The rear sight can be adjusted for windage, and the foresight—elevation. In place of the SUSAT, a passive night vision CWS scope can be used. More recently, weapons used by some Royal Marines, Infantry, RAF Regiment, Ministry of Defence Police and soldiers with a dismounted close combat role in operations in Afghanistan have had
3552-545: A large reserve of recently discharged soldiers, ready to be recalled on the outbreak of war to immediately bring the small peacetime regular army up to strength), the Regular Reserve of the British Army was originally created in 1859 by Secretary of State for War Sidney Herbert , and re-organised under the Reserve Force Act 1867 . Prior to this, a soldier was generally enlisted into the British Army for
3774-575: A licence-built version of the Belgian FN FAL . In 1969, the Enfield factory began work on a brand new family of weapons, chambered in a newly designed British 4.85×49mm intermediate cartridge. While the experimental weapon family was very different from the EM-2 in internal design and construction methods, its bullpup configuration with an optical sight was a clear influence on the design of what
3996-415: A long and continuous life and it was estimated by the trials specialists from Enfield that this weapon would ultimately be superior in the 4.85mm configuration. For the 4.85mm round, both propellant and projectile were at the beginning of their respective development curves. Weight for weight, more rounds of ammunition could be carried by an individual soldier – a considerable advantage on the battlefield. It
4218-578: A multinational armoured battlegroup in Estonia under Operation Cabrit and contributes troops to another military battle group in Poland . As part of the NATO plans, Britain has committed a full mechanized infantry brigade to be on a high state of readiness to defend Estonia. Between 2015 and 2022, the British Army deployed Short Term Training Teams (STTTs) to Ukraine under Operation Orbital to help train
4440-588: A part in the final decision. In 1976, the prototypes were ready to undergo trials. After NATO's decision to standardise ammunition among its members, Enfield engineers re-chambered the rifles to the American 5.56×45mm NATO M193 cartridge. The newly redesigned 5.56mm version of the XL64E5 became known as the XL70E3. The left-handed XL68 was also re-chambered in 5.56×45mm as the XL78. The 5.56mm light support weapon variant,
4662-546: A person's ribs without embedding into bone, and a ribbed section for rope cutting. The bayonet handle is shaped so as to allow the bayonet to be used as a fighting knife in its own right. The issued scabbard features a saw blade for use on wood, a sharpening stone to hone the bayonet, and a bottle opener. When combined with the bayonet, it also forms a wire cutter. When soldiers from the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment went into battle with fixed bayonets on their SA80s during
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#17327722875174884-441: A probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low electrical resistivity . Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray depending on its surface roughness . Aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for near ultraviolet and far infrared light. It is also one of the most reflective for light in the visible spectrum, nearly on par with silver in this respect, and
5106-683: A process termed passivation . Because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints. Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation. This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as nitric acid , concentrated sulfuric acid , and some organic acids. In hot concentrated hydrochloric acid , aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen, and in aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at room temperature to form aluminates —protective passivation under these conditions
5328-423: A redesigned cocking handle, modified bolt, extractor and a redesigned hammer assembly that produces a slight delay in the hammer's operation in continuous fire mode, improving reliability and stability. The rifle and the LSW underwent modifications, and the programme also saw the introduction of a carbine variant. The Ministry of Defence describes the A2 revision as "producing the most reliable weapons of their type in
5550-525: A refractory material, and in ceramics , as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals. The two main oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore . There are three main trihydroxides: bayerite , gibbsite , and nordstrandite , which differ in their crystalline structure ( polymorphs ). Many other intermediate and related structures are also known. Most are produced from ores by
5772-821: A safe distance by aiding the Ottoman Empire ). Like the English Army , the British Army fought the kingdoms of Spain, France (including the First French Empire ) and the Netherlands ( Dutch Republic ) for supremacy in North America and the West Indies . With native and provincial and colonial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the French and Indian War (North American theatre) of
5994-589: A series of support vehicles, including six-, nine- and fifteen-tonne MAN trucks, Oshkosh heavy-equipment transporters (HET), close-support tankers, quad bikes and ambulances. Tactical communication uses the Bowman radio system, and operational or strategic communication is controlled by the Royal Corps of Signals . Aluminium Aluminium (or aluminum in North American English )
6216-474: A stable noble gas configuration. Accordingly, the combined first three ionization energies of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone. Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well-characterized members of its group, boron , gallium , indium , and thallium ; it is also expected for nihonium . Aluminium can surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions (see below ). The electronegativity of aluminium
6438-412: A stoppage in the first magazine fired. Some platoon commanders considered that casualties would have occurred due to weapon stoppages if the enemy had put up any resistance in the trench and bunker clearing operations. Even discounting the familiarisation period of desert conditions, when some may have still been using the incorrect lubrication drill, stoppages continued to occur." The report was leaked to
6660-512: A target strength of 82,000, and just over 30,000 Army Reservists , with a target strength of 30,000. All former Regular Army personnel may also be recalled to duty in exceptional circumstances during the 6-year period following completion of their Regular service, which creates an additional force known as the Regular Reserve . The table below illustrates British Army personnel figures from 1710 to 2024. The British Army's basic weapon
6882-496: A tool to clear. The Individual Weapon fired 165 battlefield missions, each comprising 150 rounds over 8 mins 40 secs. A total of 24,750 rounds were fired and suffered only 51 stoppages. Out of 165 battlefield missions, the A2 passed 156; the nine failures stoppages were easily cleared and not mission critical. The L85A2 achieved a 95% success rate, above the operational requirement of 90%, and its nearest rival of popular choice achieved only 47%. Originally slated for introduction in 2002,
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7104-820: A variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful. Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful, such as spinel (MgAl 2 O 4 ), Na-β-alumina (NaAl 11 O 17 ), and tricalcium aluminate (Ca 3 Al 2 O 6 , an important mineral phase in Portland cement ). The only stable chalcogenides under normal conditions are aluminium sulfide (Al 2 S 3 ), selenide (Al 2 Se 3 ), and telluride (Al 2 Te 3 ). All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F) and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and
7326-604: A volunteer army and threatened to emulate the American colonists if their conditions were not met. Learning from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution. The British Army fought Irish rebels—Protestant and Catholic—primarily in Ulster and Leinster ( Wolfe Tone's United Irishmen ) in the 1798 rebellion . In addition to battling the armies of other European empires (and its former colonies,
7548-843: A war against the Prussian -led German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire ). When the First World War broke out in August 1914 the British Army sent the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), consisting mainly of regular army troops, to France and Belgium . The fighting bogged down into static trench warfare for the remainder of the war. In 1915 the army created the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force to invade
7770-575: A way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina, now known as the Bayer process , in 1889. Modern production of aluminium is based on the Bayer and Hall–Héroult processes. As large-scale production caused aluminium prices to drop, the metal became widely used in jewelry, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil , and other everyday items in the 1890s and early 20th century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided
7992-434: Is Al. Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0.005% relative to Al but its half-life of 728,000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive; Al is therefore extinct . Unlike for Al, hydrogen burning is the primary source of Al, with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of Mg catches a free proton. However, the trace quantities of Al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in
8214-407: Is paramagnetic and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields. The high electrical conductivity, however, means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of eddy currents . Aluminium combines characteristics of pre- and post-transition metals. Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding, like its heavier group 13 congeners, it has
8436-429: Is small and highly charged ; as such, it has more polarizing power , and bonds formed by aluminium have a more covalent character. The strong affinity of aluminium for oxygen leads to the common occurrence of its oxides in nature. Aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the crust , where it is the third-most abundant element , after oxygen and silicon , rather than in the mantle , and virtually never as
8658-483: Is 1.61 (Pauling scale). A free aluminium atom has a radius of 143 pm . With the three outermost electrons removed, the radius shrinks to 39 pm for a 4-coordinated atom or 53.5 pm for a 6-coordinated atom. At standard temperature and pressure , aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a face-centered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms' outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions)
8880-415: Is 10,000 rounds, meaning they might never suffer stoppages during their lifetimes. Mean rounds between failures was the measure of the average number of rounds that are fired between failures of a battlefield mission test. A battlefield mission was counted as a failure when there was more than one stoppage that the soldier could clear immediately on their own or there was a stoppage that required an armourer or
9102-399: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than that of other common metals , about one-third that of steel . It has a great affinity towards oxygen , forming a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles silver , both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It
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9324-548: Is a metal. This crystal system is shared by many other metals, such as lead and copper ; the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals. The system, however, is not shared by the other members of its group: boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization, thallium has a hexagonal close-packed structure, and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close-packed like those of aluminium and thallium. The few electrons that are available for metallic bonding in aluminium are
9546-522: Is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars , the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl , cryolite , garnet , spinel , and turquoise . Impurities in Al 2 O 3 , such as chromium and iron , yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire , respectively. Native aluminium metal
9768-405: Is also easily machined and cast . Aluminium is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor , having around 60% the conductivity of copper , both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity , with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas ). It
9990-408: Is also the standard sighting arrangement for the LSW variant. Mounted on the SUSAT's one-piece, pressure die-cast aluminium body are a set of back-up iron sights that consist of a front blade and small rear aperture. Rifles used with other branches of the armed forces when not on operations are configured with fixed iron sights, consisting of a flip rear aperture housed inside the carrying handle and
10212-648: Is based on that of the earlier English army. Although technically the Scots Royal Regiment of Foot was raised in 1633 and is the oldest Regiment of the Line, Scottish and Irish regiments were only allowed to take a rank in the English army on the date of their arrival in England (or the date when they were first placed on the English establishment). In 1694, a board of general officers was convened to decide
10434-460: Is based, and the same magazines and sighting systems are used. In addition to British Armed Forces use, the LSW was adopted by MOD-sponsored cadet organisations. The increased barrel length, bipod and the optical performance of the SUSAT give the weapon excellent accuracy, increased muzzle velocity and greater effective range. From its inception, the L86 was a target of criticism on much the same basis as
10656-553: Is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes. Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea . It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH) 4 . Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of
10878-401: Is for use in difficult environmental conditions, while the third setting ("Off") prevents any gas from reaching the piston and is used to launch rifle grenades . The weapon uses a rotating cylindrical bolt that contains seven radially mounted locking splines, an extractor and casing ejector. The bolt's rotation is controlled by a cam stud that slides inside a helical camming guide machined into
11100-536: Is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating, forming compounds such as aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium sulfide (Al 2 S 3 ), and the aluminium halides (AlX 3 ). It also forms a wide range of intermetallic compounds involving metals from every group on the periodic table. The vast majority of compounds, including all aluminium-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in
11322-406: Is identified by yellow stripes on the magazine, and is designed to prevent the unintentional loading of live rounds. This magazine has less internal length so that live rounds will not fit, while still fitting blank rounds, which are shorter. Blank rounds will fit into the live-round magazine, but the difference in length increases the chance of a stoppage. The Magpul Industries polymer EMAG magazine
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#173277228751711544-492: Is in fact more basic than that of gallium. Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group: AlX 3 compounds are valence isoelectronic to BX 3 compounds (they have the same valence electronic structure), and both behave as Lewis acids and readily form adducts . Additionally, one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is regular icosahedral structures, and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral quasicrystal alloys, including
11766-585: Is issued on a scale of one per fireteam, and is used with fragmentation, high-explosive dual-purpose (HEDP), red phosphorus, white illuminating parachute, infra-red illuminating parachute, practice, and drill ammunition, with buckshot ammunition also being intended for adoption. The addition of the UGL adds another 1.12 kg to the L85A2's weight. The L86 Light Support Weapon (LSW) is a magazine-fed squad automatic weapon originally intended to provide fire support at
11988-407: Is located at the left side of the receiver, just aft of the magazine). A cross bolt type safety prevents accidental firing and is located above the trigger; the "safe" setting blocks the movement of the trigger. The magazine release button is placed above the magazine housing, on the left side of the receiver. When the last cartridge is fired from the magazine, the bolt and bolt carrier assembly lock to
12210-476: Is low in comparison with many other metals. All other isotopes of aluminium are radioactive . The most stable of these is Al : while it was present along with stable Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well, its half-life is only 717,000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of
12432-500: Is negligible. Aqua regia also dissolves aluminium. Aluminium is corroded by dissolved chlorides , such as common sodium chloride , which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium. The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with mercury due to amalgamation or with salts of some electropositive metals. As such, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion-resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper , and aluminium's corrosion resistance
12654-521: Is not as important. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH 3 ) n , in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH 3 ) 2 . Aluminium's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 3.15 ppm (parts per million). It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen. The only stable isotope of aluminium, Al,
12876-713: Is provided by L16 81mm mortars . Sniper rifles include the L118A1 7.62 mm, L115A3 and the AW50F , all manufactured by Accuracy International . The British Army utilises the Glock 17 as its side arm. Anti tank guided weapons include the Javelin , the medium range anti-tank guided weapon replacement for Milan , with overfly and direct attack modes of operation, and the NLAW . The Next-generation Light Anti-tank Weapon ( NLAW )
13098-416: Is quite soft and lacking in strength. In most applications various aluminium alloys are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa , while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium is ductile , with a percent elongation of 50-70%, and malleable allowing it to be easily drawn and extruded . It
13320-435: Is soft, nonmagnetic , and ductile . It has one stable isotope, Al, which is highly abundant, making aluminium the twelfth-most common element in the universe. The radioactivity of Al leads to it being used in radiometric dating . Chemically, aluminium is a post-transition metal in the boron group ; as is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 oxidation state . The aluminium cation Al
13542-527: Is supplied with a sling, blank-firing adaptor , and cleaning kit. The rifle can be adapted to use .22 Long Rifle training ammunition with a special conversion kit. The Small Arms Weapons Effects Simulator can be used on the L85 when in training with blank ammunition . On operations with ground close combat units (Infantry, Royal Marines, RAF Regiment), the rifle is often fitted with an LLM01 Laser Light Module and deployable bipod mounted within an optional front grip. There are four main variants that make up
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#173277228751713764-422: Is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted octahedral arrangement, with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra. Such {AlF 6 } units also exist in complex fluorides such as cryolite , Na 3 AlF 6 . AlF 3 melts at 1,290 °C (2,354 °F) and is made by reaction of aluminium oxide with hydrogen fluoride gas at 700 °C (1,300 °F). With heavier halides,
13986-547: Is termed amphoterism and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons. One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride: for example, aluminium sulfide yields hydrogen sulfide . However, some salts like aluminium carbonate exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such; and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids, such as
14208-416: Is that of the preceding noble gas , whereas those of its heavier congeners gallium , indium , thallium , and nihonium also include a filled d-subshell and in some cases a filled f-subshell. Hence, the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely, unlike those of aluminium's heavier congeners. As such, aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group, and its hydroxide
14430-514: Is the 5.56 mm L85A2 or L85A3 assault rifle, with some specialist personnel using the L22A2 carbine variant (pilots and some tank crew). The weapon was traditionally equipped with either iron sights or an optical SUSAT , although other optical sights have been subsequently purchased to supplement these. The weapon can be enhanced further utilising the Picatinny rail with attachments such as
14652-433: Is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovas : this fusion creates Mg, which upon capturing free protons and neutrons, becomes aluminium. Some smaller quantities of Al are created in hydrogen burning shells of evolved stars, where Mg can capture free protons. Essentially all aluminium now in existence
14874-591: Is the first, non-expert, short-range, anti-tank missile that rapidly knocks out any main battle tank in just one shot by striking it from above. The army's main battle tank is the Challenger 2 , which is being upgraded to Challenger 3 . It is supported by the Warrior tracked armoured vehicle as the primary infantry fighting vehicle , (which will soon be replaced by the Boxer 8x8 armoured fighting vehicle ) and
15096-670: Is the official list of which bodies of the British Military (not to be confused with naval ) Forces were to be considered Corps of the British Army for the purposes of the Army Act , the Reserve Forces Act, 1882, and the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act, 1907, had not been updated since 1926 (Army Order 49 of 1926), although amendments had been made up to and including Army Order 67 of 1950. A new Corps Warrant
15318-709: The AR-15 was previously considered but the buffer tube in stock prevented the idea from reaching fruition. Technically, in the mid-1970s, the 4.85×49mm round was seen as superior to the then existing version of 5.56mm M193 round in use by the US (for the M16/M16A1 ) and by other forces. This was the expressed view of trials team members whilst demonstrating the XL64E5 prototype at the British Army School of Infantry at Warminster . Development of small-arms munitions have
15540-729: The Americas , Africa , Asia , India and Australasia . British soldiers captured strategically important sites and territories, with the army involved in wars to secure the empire's borders, internal safety and support friendly governments and princes. Among these actions were the French and Indian War / Seven Years' War, the American Revolutionary War , the Napoleonic Wars , the First and Second Opium Wars ,
15762-433: The Anglo-Irish War . The increasing demands of imperial expansion and the inadequacy and inefficiency of the underfunded British Army, Militia , Ordnance Military Corps, Yeomanry and Volunteer Force after the Napoleonic Wars led to series of reforms following the failures of the Crimean War . Inspired by the successes of the Prussian Army (which relied on short-term conscription of all eligible young men to maintain
15984-690: The Armed Forces of Ukraine against further Russian aggression. This operation was succeeded by Operation Interflex in July 2022. The British Army has been a volunteer force since national service ended during the 1960s. Since the creation of the part-time, reserve Territorial Force in 1908 (renamed the Army Reserve in 2014), the full-time British Army has been known as the Regular Army. In July 2020 there were just over 78,800 Regulars, with
16206-693: The Battle of Al Amara in Iraq on 14 May 2004, it was the first time fixed bayonets had been used by British troops since the Falklands War . On several occasions, fixed bayonets were used during the Afghanistan conflict. The bayonet cannot be fitted to the L22 Carbine or L86 Light Support Weapon. As a result, soldiers equipped with the latter sometimes swapped their weapons for vehicle crewmen's L85s when clearing trenches during Operation Granby . The SA80
16428-1072: The Boxer Rebellion , the New Zealand Wars , the Australian frontier wars , the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 , the first and second Boer Wars , the Fenian raids , the Irish War of Independence , interventions in Afghanistan (intended to maintain a buffer state between British India and the Russian Empire ) and the Crimean War (to keep the Russian Empire to the north on the Black Sea at
16650-741: The Bulldog armoured personnel carrier . Light armoured units often utilise the Supacat "Jackal" MWMIK and Coyote tactical support vehicle for reconnaissance and fire support. The army has three main artillery systems: the M270 multiple launch rocket system (MLRS), the AS-90 and the L118 light gun . The MLRS, first used in Operation Granby , has an 85-kilometre (53 mi) standard range, or with
16872-842: The Far East , the British Army rallied against the Japanese in the Burma Campaign and regained the British Far Eastern colonial possessions. After the Second World War the British Army was significantly reduced in size, although National Service continued until 1960. This period saw decolonisation begin with the partition and independence of India and Pakistan, followed by the independence of British colonies in Africa and Asia. The Corps Warrant , which
17094-455: The Friedel–Crafts reactions . Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction, such as in the manufacture of anthraquinones and styrene ; it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides (a transhalogenation reaction ). Aluminium forms one stable oxide with
17316-504: The Islamic State (ISIL). The British Army maintains a standing liability to support the civil authorities in certain circumstances, usually in either niche capabilities (e.g. explosive ordnance removal) or in general support of the civil authorities when their capacity is exceeded. In recent years this has been seen as army personnel supporting the civil authorities in the face of the 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth outbreak ,
17538-886: The L17A2 under-barrel grenade launcher. In 2023, the Army Special Operations Brigade , which includes the Ranger Regiment , began using the L403A1 , an AR-pattern rifle also used by the Royal Marines . Some soldiers are equipped with the 7.62mm L129A1 sharpshooter rifle , which in 2018 formally replaced the L86A2 Light Support Weapon. Support fire is provided by the L7 general-purpose machine gun (GPMG), and indirect fire
17760-737: The L4 Light Machine Gun (a modernised Bren ), and the L7A2 General Purpose Machine Gun as used at section level. Regular infantry, Royal Marine units, and the RAF Regiment were to change over by 1987, remaining regular army units by 1990, remaining RAF units by 1991, Territorial Army units by 1991–1993, and the Royal Navy by 1993. In 1994, production was officially completed. More than 350,000 L85 rifles and L86 LSWs had been manufactured for
17982-475: The London Metal Exchange , the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world, in 1978. The output continued to grow: the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50,000,000 metric tons in 2013. The real price for aluminium declined from $ 14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $ 2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars). Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and
18204-699: The Ministry of Defence and commanded by the Chief of the General Staff . At its inception, being composed primarily of cavalry and infantry, the British Army was one of two Regular Forces (there were also separate Reserve Forces ) within the British military (those parts of the British Armed Forces tasked with land warfare, as opposed to the naval forces), with the other having been the Ordnance Military Corps (made up of
18426-588: The Naval Service and the Royal Air Force . As of 1 July 2024, the British Army comprises 74,296 regular full-time personnel, 4,244 Gurkhas , 25,934 volunteer reserve personnel and 4,612 "other personnel", for a total of 109,086. The British Army traces back to 1707 and the formation of the united Kingdom of Great Britain which joined the Kingdoms of England and Scotland into
18648-680: The Netherlands for the War of the Spanish Succession . Although all the regiments were now part of the new British military establishment, they remained under the old operational-command structure and retained much of the institutional ethos, customs and traditions of the standing armies created shortly after the Restoration of the Monarchy 47 years earlier. The order of seniority of the most-senior British Army line regiments
18870-527: The Ottoman Empire via Gallipoli , an unsuccessful attempt to capture Constantinople and secure a sea route to Russia . The First World War was the most devastating in British military history , with nearly 800,000 men killed and over two million wounded. Early in the war, the BEF was virtually destroyed and was replaced first by volunteers and then by a conscript force. Major battles included those at
19092-544: The PrSM , up to 500 km. The AS-90 is a 155 mm self-propelled armoured gun with a 24-kilometre (15 mi) range. The L118 light gun is a 105 mm towed gun, which is typically towed by a Pinzgauer all-terrain vehicle. To identify artillery targets, the army operates the TAIPAN artillery detection radar and utilises artillery sound ranging . For air defence it uses the new Sky Sabre system, which in 2021 replaced
19314-557: The Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). Under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement , there was a gradual reduction in the number of soldiers deployed. In 2005, after the PIRA declared a ceasefire, the British Army dismantled posts, withdrew many troops and restored troop levels to those of a peacetime garrison. Operation Banner ended at midnight on 31 July 2007 after about 38 years of continuous deployment,
19536-775: The Rapier . It also deploys the Very Short-Range Air Defence (VSHORAD) Starstreak HVM (high-velocity missile) launched by a single soldier or from a Stormer HVM vehicle-mounted launcher. Where armour is not required or mobility and speed are favoured the British Army utilises protected patrol vehicles, such as the Panther variant of the Iveco LMV , the Foxhound , and variants of the Cougar family (such as
19758-629: The Royal Artillery , Royal Engineers , and the Royal Sappers and Miners ) of the Board of Ordnance , which along with the originally civilian Commissariat Department , stores and supply departments, as well as barracks and other departments, were absorbed into the British Army when the Board of Ordnance was abolished in 1855. Various other civilian departments of the board were absorbed into
19980-547: The Royal Small Arms Factory , the national arms development and production facility at Enfield Lock , before its weapons factory was closed down in 1988. The idea dates back to the late 1940s, when an ambitious programme to develop a new cartridge and new class of rifle was launched in the United Kingdom based on combat experience drawn from World War II. Two 7mm (.280 in) prototypes were built in
20202-525: The Ruger Mini-14 in 1983, although small stocks of the L85 were also acquired for the purpose of familiarisation training as many of its personnel attend courses or attachments in Britain. The Regiment later acquired an additional 400 L85A2 rifles in 2015 to replace the Mini-14 as the standard-issue rifle. The Royal Gibraltar Regiment , which is more closely integrated with the British Army, adopted
20424-634: The Sterling Armaments Company of Dagenham , Essex , and which had been tested by the British Ministry of Defence in 1966 and 1969. During the development of the SA80, a bullpup conversion was made of an AR-18 and a Stoner 63 at Enfield due to the fact they could be used with stocks folded/without stocks which allowed the bullpup conversion and were later chambered in the experimental 4.85x49mm round. A bullpup conversion of
20646-631: The Territorial Force as the army's volunteer reserve component, merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia and Yeomanry. Great Britain was challenged by other powers, primarily the German Empire and Nazi Germany , during the 20th century. A century earlier it vied with Napoleonic France for global pre-eminence, and Hanoverian Britain's natural allies were the kingdoms and principalities of northern Germany . By
20868-553: The War Office . The British Army has seen action in major wars between the world's great powers , including the Seven Years' War , the American Revolutionary War , the Napoleonic Wars , the Crimean War and the First and Second World Wars . Britain's victories in most of these decisive wars allowed it to influence world events and establish itself as one of the world's leading military and economic powers. Since
21090-475: The aluminum spelling in his American Dictionary of the English Language . In the 1830s, the -um spelling gained usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science. In 1892, Hall used the -um spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the -ium spelling in all
21312-423: The chemical formula Al 2 O 3 , commonly called alumina . It can be found in nature in the mineral corundum , α-alumina; there is also a γ-alumina phase. Its crystalline form, corundum, is very hard ( Mohs hardness 9), has a high melting point of 2,045 °C (3,713 °F), has very low volatility, is chemically inert, and a good electrical insulator, it is often used in abrasives (such as toothpaste), as
21534-638: The free metal . It is obtained industrially by mining bauxite , a sedimentary rock rich in aluminium minerals. The discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted . The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall–Héroult process developed independently by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886, and
21756-551: The interstellar gas ; if the original Al were still present, gamma ray maps of the Milky Way would be brighter. Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass (seventh in abundance by mass). Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth's crust than in the universe at large. This is because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the Earth's crust , while less reactive metals sink to
21978-552: The "HK A2" marking on the top of the weapon just forward of the buttplate and the distinctive comma-shaped cocking handle (shaped to aid the ejection of the empty round casing and prevent stoppages). Continued testing of the L85A2 in adverse conditions demonstrates its reliability over contemporary rifles, including the M16. Although it is heavier than most conventional and more modern bullpup rifles, its full-length barrel gives higher muzzle velocities and better terminal performance than both
22200-720: The 2002 firefighters strike, widespread flooding in 2005, 2007, 2009, 2013 and 2014, Operation Temperer following the Manchester Arena bombing in 2017 and, most recently, Operation Rescript during the COVID-19 pandemic . Since 2016, the British Army has maintained a presence in the Baltic States in support of the NATO Enhanced Forward Presence strategy which responded to the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea . The British Army leads
22422-729: The 2014 West African Ebola virus epidemic . In November 2001, as part of Operation Enduring Freedom with the United States, the United Kingdom deployed forces in Afghanistan to topple the Taliban in Operation Herrick . The 3rd Division were sent to Kabul to assist in the liberation of the capital and defeat Taliban forces in the mountains. In 2006 the British Army began concentrating on fighting Taliban forces and bringing security to Helmand Province , with about 9,500 British troops (including marines, airmen and sailors) deployed at its peak —the second-largest force after that of
22644-526: The 5th century BCE. The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing mordant and for city defense. After the Crusades , alum, an indispensable good in the European fabric industry, was a subject of international commerce; it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid-15th century. The nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested alum
22866-472: The Al–Zn–Mg class. Aluminium has a high chemical affinity to oxygen, which renders it suitable for use as a reducing agent in the thermite reaction. A fine powder of aluminium reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen ; under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5 nm at room temperature) that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid,
23088-578: The American M4 carbine and M16 assault rifle . Rounds from an M4 will only reliably fragment out to 50–100 metres, while the L85A2 and M16 allowed fragmentation out to 150–200 metres and the L86A2 has an even longer fragmentation range. Despite these modifications, the L86A2 was supplemented with a belt-fed machine gun. British troops were issued with FN Minimi machine guns to add suppressive fire out to 300 metres. The weapon drills were changed with
23310-420: The American colonial rebels early in the war). Halifax, Nova Scotia and Bermuda were to become Imperial fortresses (although Bermuda, being safer from attack over water and impervious to attack overland, quickly became the most important in British North America), along with Malta and Gibraltar , providing bases in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea for Royal Navy squadrons to control
23532-400: The British Armed Forces, with the former variant comprising 95% of the total run, with over 21,700 L98A1 rifles were produced for cadet use. The production line was broken up shortly afterwards, with the Nottingham facility closing in 2001. Upgrade programmes and requirements for spare and replacement parts have since been fulfilled by then British-owned Heckler & Koch , which later reopened
23754-408: The British Army was deployed as a peacekeeping force from 1969 to 2007 in Operation Banner . Initially, this was (in the wake of unionist attacks on nationalist communities in Derry and Belfast ) to prevent further loyalist attacks on Catholic communities; it developed into support of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and its successor, the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) against
23976-486: The British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world; at its peak in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian armies under the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal von Blücher finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815. The English were involved politically and militarily in Ireland. The campaign of English republican Protector Oliver Cromwell involved uncompromising treatment of
24198-439: The British military, mostly civilians. An estimated 100 soldiers committed suicide during Operation Banner or soon afterwards and a similar number died in accidents. A total of 6,116 were wounded. Sierra Leone The British Army deployed to Sierra Leone for Operation Palliser in 1999, under United Nations resolutions, to aid the government in quelling violent uprisings by militiamen. British troops also provided support during
24420-618: The Defence and Security Equipment International event and official adoption taking place in 2018. The changes from the SA80A2 design include a modification to the upper receiver and a full-length rail system for optional add-ons such as a vertical foregrip, laser pointer and torch. It also includes a weight saving of 100 g and a new Flat Dark Earth coating offering improved durability and better camouflage across various environments. The Mid Life Improvement (MLI) project received an initial investment of £5.4 million to have 5,000 weapons upgraded initially, with plans for more weapons to be upgraded in
24642-444: The E3/E4 variants. SA80 development was complicated from the start. One complication was at least three project staffing changes at the Royal Small Arms Factory, which resulted in repetitive testing. One problem with the design of the gun itself was that the cases would be ejected at constantly varying angles as it heated up and the rate of fire changed, resulting in a large ejection port. The conversion from 4.85mm to 5.56mm also caused
24864-518: The Enfield site's total of 230, with the rest being outsourced to subcontractors. Since the plant kept low stocks of pre-produced components, significant delays were incurred if subcontracted components were late in arriving at the Nottingham site or did not meet required tolerances. When the L85A1 and L86A1 were first sent into major combat during the Gulf War , individual performance was far from adequate. The L85A1 proved unreliable in semi-automatic mode, and slightly better in fully automatic mode, while
25086-485: The English Long Parliament realised that the use of county militia organised into regional associations (such as the Eastern Association ), often commanded by local members of Parliament (both from the House of Commons and the House of Lords), while more than able to hold their own in the regions which Parliamentarians ('Roundheads") controlled, were unlikely to win the war. So Parliament initiated two actions. The Self-denying Ordinance forbade members of Parliament (with
25308-404: The Germans and Italians at the Second Battle of El Alamein in North Africa in 1942–1943 and helped drive them from Africa. It then fought through Italy and, with the help of American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand, Indian and Free French forces, was the principal organiser and participant in the D-Day invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944; nearly half the Allied soldiers were British. In
25530-494: The Irish towns (most notably Drogheda and Wexford ) which supported the Royalists during the English Civil War . The English Army (and the subsequent British Army) remained in Ireland primarily to suppress Irish revolts or disorder. In addition to its conflict with Irish nationalists, it was faced with the prospect of battling Anglo-Irish and Ulster Scots in Ireland who were angered by unfavourable taxation of Irish produce imported into Britain. With other Irish groups, they raised
25752-412: The L85 rifle (with optional Grip Pod downgrip), and a new vortex style flash eliminator was introduced as an Urgent Operational Requirement ; initially introduced for use by selected units in 2007, the upgrade package was subsequently rolled out on a more general basis from 2009 onwards. The SA80A3 was first unveiled in prototype form in September 2016 with working models on display in September 2017 at
25974-435: The L85. The LSW has the additional issue of its inability to deliver sustained automatic fire as it lacks a belt feed. This is common with any light support weapon derived from a rifle, for example the heavy-barrel FN FAL. British Army The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom , British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies , a part of the British Armed Forces along with
26196-471: The LSW's bipod lock often failed to hold the bipod legs in closed position, the plastic furniture was melted by insect repellent, metal parts were quick to rust in jungle environments, and the weapon's mechanism was highly susceptible to dusty and arctic environments. These problems were not helped by the production process. The SA80 series was produced from metal stampings. While RSAF Enfield had previous experience in manufacturing stamped-metal firearms, this
26418-404: The Luchaire grenade; when these experienced problems with premature detonation, the L85A1 HE grenade was adopted in their place. Various underbarrel grenade launcher models were trialled, including the M203 and a proprietary "Enfield Close Assault Weapon" developed by Royal Ordnance. It was eventually decided that the L17A2/L123 40mm Underslung Grenade Launcher (UGL) should be adopted; this
26640-426: The Nottingham site. As responsibility for the funding and supply of the home defence regiments of the British Overseas Territories has been handed to the local governments of the territories, despite the regiments themselves coming under command of the national (British) government and being loosely integrated with the British Army, the SA80 was not automatically supplied to these units. The Bermuda Regiment adopted
26862-458: The Ridgeback, Husky and Mastiff). For day-to-day utility work the army commonly uses the Land Rover Wolf , which is based on the Land Rover Defender . Specialist engineering vehicles include bomb-disposal robots such as the T7 Multi-Mission Robotic System and the modern variants of the Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers , including the Titan bridge-layer, Trojan armoured engineer vehicle, Terrier armoured digger . Day-to-day utility work uses
27084-451: The SA80 family: the L85 Rifle , the L86 Light Support Weapon , the L22 Carbine and the L98 Cadet rifle . The L85 Rifle , referred to on occasion as the L85 Individual Weapon (IW) , is the standard rifle for the British Armed Forces. When initially adopted for service, the L85's grenade-launching ability was fulfilled by then-conventional rifle grenades, namely the L74A1 high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and L75A1 HEAT-APERS versions of
27306-616: The SA80 from the outset. The Falkland Islands Defence Force adopted the Steyr AUG (another 5.56×45mm bullpup rifle) which served until 2019 when the Defence Force adopted the L85A2 as part of a wider effort to align its weapons, training and procedures with those of the British Armed Forces. The L85 is in use with the Jamaica Defence Force . Various African and South American countries received SA80s as part of wider military aid packages. Soon after being adopted for service, problems began to surface during troop trials held between 1986 and 1987. Components were found to be insufficiently robust,
27528-411: The SUSAT replaced with the Trijicon Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight (ACOG). In 2011, the Ministry of Defence began issuing ELCAN SpecterOS 4× Lightweight Day Sights (LDS) in an effort to replace ageing SUSAT units across the British Armed Forces, forming the first stage of the FIST infantry enhancement project. In order to mount the new sight, the weapon has been provided with an adapter to convert
27750-416: The Scots Greys was reassessed and based on their June 1685 entry into England. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, and the Scots Greys eventually received the British Army rank of 2nd Dragoons. After 1700, British continental policy was to contain expansion by competing powers such as France and Spain. Although Spain was the dominant global power during the previous two centuries and
27972-473: The Somme and Passchendaele . Advances in technology saw the advent of the tank (and the creation of the Royal Tank Regiment ) and advances in aircraft design (and the creation of the Royal Flying Corps ) which would be decisive in future battles. Trench warfare dominated Western Front strategy for most of the war, and the use of chemical weapons (disabling and poison gases) added to the devastation. The Second World War broke out in September 1939 with
28194-411: The Soviet and German Army 's invasion of Poland . British assurances to the Poles led the British Empire to declare war on Germany . As in the First World War, a relatively small BEF was sent to France but then hastily evacuated from Dunkirk as the German forces swept through the Low Countries and across France in May 1940. After the British Army recovered from its earlier defeats, it defeated
28416-404: The Troubles . Following the 1994–1996 IRA ceasefires and since 1997, demilitarisation has been part of the peace process and the military presence has been reduced. On 25 June 2007 the 2nd Battalion of the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment left the army complex in Bessbrook , County Armagh , ending the longest operation in British Army history. The British Army contributed 50,000 troops to
28638-423: The US. In December 2012 Prime Minister David Cameron announced that the combat mission would end in 2014, and troop numbers gradually fell as the Afghan National Army took over the brunt of the fighting. Between 2001 and 26 April 2014 a total of 453 British military personnel died in Afghan operations. Operation Herrick ended with the handover of Camp Bastion on 26 October 2014, but the British Army maintained
28860-418: The United States dollar, and alumina prices. The BRIC countries' combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century. China is accumulating an especially large share of the world's production thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli; it also increased its consumption share from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010. In
29082-462: The United States, Western Europe, and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging. In 2021, prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to near-record levels as energy shortages in China drive up costs for electricity. The names aluminium and aluminum are derived from the word alumine , an obsolete term for alumina , the primary naturally occurring oxide of aluminium . Alumine
29304-444: The United States, in the American War of 1812 ), the British Army fought the Chinese in the First and Second Opium Wars and the Boxer Rebellion , Māori tribes in the first of the New Zealand Wars, Nawab Shiraj-ud-Daula's forces and British East India Company mutineers in the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 , the Boers in the first and second Boer Wars, Irish Fenians in Canada during the Fenian raids and Irish separatists in
29526-524: The XL73E3, developed from the XL65E4, was noted for the full-length receiver extension with the bipod under the muzzle now indicative of the type. Further development out of the initial so-called "Phase A" pre-production series led to the XL85 and XL86. While the XL85E1 and XL86E1 were ultimately adopted as the L85 and L86 respectively, a number of additional test models were produced. The XL85E2 and XL86E2 were designed to an alternate build standard with 12 components different from E1 variants, including parts of
29748-578: The aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four-coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five-coordination. Four pnictides – aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium phosphide (AlP), aluminium arsenide (AlAs), and aluminium antimonide (AlSb) – are known. They are all III-V semiconductors isoelectronic to silicon and germanium , all of which but AlN have the zinc blende structure. All four can be made by high-temperature (and possibly high-pressure) direct reaction of their component elements. Aluminium alloys well with most other metals (with
29970-400: The army saw the introduction of new weapons systems. Despite the decline of the British Empire, the army was engaged in Aden , Indonesia , Cyprus , Kenya and Malaya . In 1982, the British Army and the Royal Marines helped liberate the Falkland Islands during the conflict with Argentina after that country's invasion of the British territory. In the three decades following 1969,
30192-421: The army was heavily deployed in Northern Ireland 's Operation Banner to support the Royal Ulster Constabulary (later the Police Service of Northern Ireland ) in their conflict with republican paramilitary groups. The locally recruited Ulster Defence Regiment was formed, becoming home-service battalions of the Royal Irish Regiment in 1992 before it was disbanded in 2006. Over 700 soldiers were killed during
30414-461: The bolt carrier. The family is built in a bullpup layout (the action is behind the trigger group), with a forward-mounted pistol grip . The main advantage of this type of arrangement is the overall compactness of the weapon, which can be achieved without compromising the barrel length, hence the overall length of the L85 rifle is shorter than a carbine, but the barrel length is that of an assault rifle. While left-handed conversion kits were trialled,
30636-436: The characteristic physical properties of a post-transition metal, with longer-than-expected interatomic distances. Furthermore, as Al is a small and highly charged cation, it is strongly polarizing and bonding in aluminium compounds tends towards covalency ; this behavior is similar to that of beryllium (Be ), and the two display an example of a diagonal relationship . The underlying core under aluminium's valence shell
30858-427: The chief threat to England's early trans-Atlantic colonial ambitions, its influence was now waning. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the later Napoleonic Wars . Although the Royal Navy is widely regarded as vital to the rise of the British Empire , the British Army played an important role in the formation of colonies, protectorates and dominions in
31080-442: The coalition which fought Iraq in the Persian Gulf War , and British forces controlled Kuwait after its liberation. Forty-seven British military personnel died during the war. The army was deployed to former Yugoslavia in 1992. Initially part of the United Nations Protection Force , in 1995 its command was transferred to the Implementation Force (IFOR) and then to the Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR);
31302-417: The colours and the remainder in the Regular Reserve, remaining liable for recall to the colours if required. Among the other benefits, this thereby enabled the British Army to have a ready pool of recently trained men to draw upon in an emergency. The name of the Regular Reserve (which for a time was divided into a First Class and a Second Class ) has resulted in confusion with the Reserve Forces , which were
31524-403: The commitment rose to over 10,000 troops. In 1999, British forces under SFOR command were sent to Kosovo and the contingent increased to 19,000 troops. Between early 1993 and June 2010, 72 British military personnel died during operations in the former Yugoslavian countries of Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia. Although there have been permanent garrisons in Northern Ireland throughout its history,
31746-438: The completion of their first engagement. The size of the army also fluctuated greatly, increasing in war time, and drastically shrinking with peace. Battalions posted on garrison duty overseas were allowed an increase on their normal peacetime establishment, which resulted in their having surplus men on their return to a Home station. Consequently, soldiers engaging on short term enlistments were enabled to serve several years with
31968-419: The coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral four-coordinate aluminium centers. Aluminium trichloride (AlCl 3 ) has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of 192.4 °C (378 °F) but transforms on melting to Al 2 Cl 6 dimers. At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl 3 monomers similar to
32190-428: The core. In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element (8.23% by mass ) and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). A large number of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium. In contrast, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminium by mass. Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg. Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium
32412-474: The decay of Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago. The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with mass numbers ranging from 21 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three metastable states are known, all with half-lives under a minute. An aluminium atom has 13 electrons, arranged in an electron configuration of [ Ne ] 3s 3p , with three electrons beyond
32634-450: The disbanded New Model Army , were formed between November 1660 and January 1661 and became a standing military force for England (financed by Parliament ). The Royal Scots and Irish Armies were financed by the parliaments of Scotland and Ireland . Parliamentary control was established by the Bill of Rights 1689 and Claim of Right Act 1689 , although the monarch continued to influence aspects of army administration until at least
32856-408: The effectiveness of the L85A1 and L86A1. This report criticised the acceptance of the weapon into service. Neither weapon had managed to pass the sand trials and both frequently jammed. The mechanism of both weapons needed to be well-lubricated as the weapon became prone to seizure if fired "dry", yet in a sandy environment the lubricated weapon became unreliable due to the lubricant attracting sand into
33078-457: The end of the Cold War , the British Army has been deployed to a number of conflict zones, often as part of an expeditionary force , a coalition force or part of a United Nations peacekeeping operation. Until the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , neither England or Scotland had had a standing army with professional officers and career corporals and sergeants. England relied on militia organised by local officials or private forces mobilised by
33300-451: The end of the 19th century. After the Restoration, King Charles II pulled together four regiments of infantry and cavalry, calling them his guards, at a cost of £122,000 from his general budget. This became the foundation of the permanent English Army. By 1685, it had grown to number 7,500 soldiers in marching regiments, and 1,400 men permanently stationed in garrisons. A Monmouth Rebellion in 1685 allowed successor King James II to raise
33522-399: The environment, no living organism is known to metabolize aluminium salts , but this aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of interest, and studies are ongoing. Of aluminium isotopes, only Al is stable. This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number. It is
33744-478: The exception of most alkali metals and group 13 metals) and over 150 intermetallics with other metals are known. Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion, followed by gradual cooling and annealing . Bonding in them is predominantly metallic and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing. There are few compounds with lower oxidation states. A few aluminium(I) compounds exist: AlF, AlCl, AlBr, and AlI exist in
33966-404: The exception of the L98A2, the SA80 system is a selective fire gas-operated design that uses ignited powder gases bled through a port in the barrel to provide the weapon's automation. The rifle uses a short-stroke gas piston system located above the barrel, which is fed gas through a three-position adjustable gas regulator. The first gas setting is used for normal operation, the second ("Excess")
34188-481: The existing sight rail to the Picatinny standard, in keeping with the updated handguard. The FIST project has also seen upgrades to the existing Qioptiq CWS (4×) and Maxi-Kite (6×) night vision scopes, and the introduction of the FIST Thermal Sight, following operational experience with the VIPIR-2+ thermal weapon sight in Afghanistan. All of the new FIST weapon sights have the capacity to accept Shield's Close Quarter Battlesight reflex sight. SA80 weapons are fed from
34410-520: The fact that its nuclei are much lighter, while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference. The only lighter metals are the metals of groups 1 and 2 , which apart from beryllium and magnesium are too reactive for structural use (and beryllium is very toxic). Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel, but the low density makes up for this in the aerospace industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial. Pure aluminium
34632-505: The first A2-style SA80 weapons were rushed into action in Afghanistan in December 2001, and all 200,000 were converted by February 2006. Three to four thousand weapons were converted per month. Despite the modifications, reports emerged that the L85A2 was still jamming; in reality, there were few jams and problems were much less serious than they were made out to be, since they stemmed from isolated cases of soldiers not cleaning their weapons correctly. The modified A2 variants are distinguished by
34854-410: The forces to 20,000 men. There were 37,000 in 1678, when England played a role in the closing stage of the cross-channel Franco-Dutch War . After Protestant dual Monarchs William III , formerly William of the Dutch House of Orange , and his wife Mary II's joint accession to the throne after a short constitutional crisis with Parliament sending Mary's father, predecessor King James II, (who remained
35076-483: The furniture and the safety plunger. Initially, rifles used by the Royal Marines , British Army infantry soldiers (and other soldiers with a dismounted close combat role) and the RAF Regiment are equipped with a SUSAT (Sight Unit Small Arms, Trilux) optical sight, with a fixed 4× magnification and an illuminated aiming pointer powered by a variable tritium light source (as of 2006 almost all British Army personnel deployed on operations have been issued SUSATs); this
35298-453: The future. The MLI project should see the weapon in service with the British military beyond 2025. Only the L85 rifle was announced as being upgraded; the L86 LSW would be withdrawn from use. The A3 received further upgrades in late 2020 following feedback from soldiers. These upgrades mainly included improvements to the ergonomics of the handguard and a switch from Heckler & Koch's HKey accessory attachment system to Magpul 's M-LOK . With
35520-730: The gas phase after explosion and in stellar absorption spectra. More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R 4 Al 2 which contain an Al–Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand . A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR 3 and AlR 1.5 Cl 1.5 exist. The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive, volatile, and colorless liquids or low-melting solids. They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water, thus necessitating precautions when handling them. They often form dimers, unlike their boron analogues, but this tendency diminishes for branched-chain alkyls (e.g. Pr , Bu , Me 3 CCH 2 ); for example, triisobutylaluminium exists as an equilibrium mixture of
35742-415: The gas system, bolt, and magazine catch. Three series of variants were created for "Environmental User Trials". XL85E3 and XL86E3 variants were developed with 24 modified parts, most notably a plastic safety plunger. The E4's had 21 modified parts, no modification to the pistol grip, and an aluminium safety plunger, unlike the E3 variants. Lastly, the E5 variants had 9 modified parts in addition to those from
35964-453: The gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium, and at cryogenic temperatures. A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine , Al 4 I 4 (NEt 3 ) 4 . Al 2 O and Al 2 S also exist but are very unstable. Very simple aluminium(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide , AlO, has been detected in
36186-599: The halides, nitrate , and sulfate . For similar reasons, anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their "hydrates": hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl 3 ·6H 2 O but [Al(H 2 O) 6 ]Cl 3 , and the Al–O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al–Cl bonds instead: All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF 3 ) features six-coordinate aluminium, which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high heat of formation . Each aluminium atom
36408-411: The hell should we care if [the SA80] worked or not. All we wanted to do was see the last of the bloody things and leave." While production at the Nottingham facility was supposed to result in better-quality weapons owing to the use of newer manufacturing methods, few of the staff working there had any experience of firearms manufacture. Only 15 to 20 components were actually produced in-house, compared to
36630-467: The location and stiffness of the fire selector switch. During Operation Palliser and other intervention operations in Sierra Leone, it was discovered that the version of the safety plunger used for production weapons was made from cheap injection-moulded plastic that swelled when wet, potentially rendering weapons inoperative if they had been left on 'safe'. The SA80 initially gained a poor reputation amongst British soldiers as being unreliable and fragile,
36852-442: The longest in British Army history. According to an internal document released in 2007, the British Army had failed to defeat the IRA but made it impossible for them to win by violence. Operation Helvetic replaced Operation Banner in 2007, maintaining fewer service personnel in a more-benign environment. Of the 300,000 troops who served in Northern Ireland since 1969, there were 763 British military personnel killed and 306 killed by
37074-433: The low-pressure polymerization of ethene and propene . There are also some heterocyclic and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al–N bonds. The industrially most important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH 4 ), which is used as a reducing agent in organic chemistry . It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride . The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane,
37296-399: The magazine when loaded with British-issue ammunition meant that it was not adopted. In British Armed Forces use, the L85 Rifle is issued with the socket-type L3A1 Bayonet, which has a hollow handle that fits onto the muzzle. The blade is offset to the side of the handle to allow the rifle to be fired while the bayonet is fitted. It is shaped to produce good penetration when thrust and to part
37518-461: The mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In the First and Second World Wars, aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation . In 1954, aluminium became the most produced non-ferrous metal , surpassing copper . In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. Despite its prevalence in
37740-529: The metal remained rare; its cost exceeded that of gold. The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and companions. Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used. Even then, aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample. Because of its electricity-conducting capacity, aluminium
37962-406: The metal to be isolated from alum was alumium , which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research, published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . It appeared that the name was created from the English word alum and the Latin suffix -ium ; but it was customary then to give elements names originating in Latin, so this name was not adopted universally. This name
38184-465: The metal with many uses at the time. During World War I , major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes; during World War II , demand by major governments for aviation was even higher. By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares. In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of copper , historically second in production only to iron, making it
38406-434: The metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlO x (OH) 3–2 x ). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions. In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India. The history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of alum . The first written record of alum, made by Greek historian Herodotus , dates back to
38628-410: The middle of the 19th century, Britain and France were allies in preventing Russia's appropriation of the Ottoman Empire , although the fear of French invasion led shortly afterwards to the creation of the Volunteer Force. By the first decade of the 20th century, the United Kingdom was allied with France (by the Entente Cordiale ) and Russia (which had a secret agreement with France for mutual support in
38850-485: The monomer and dimer. These dimers, such as trimethylaluminium (Al 2 Me 6 ), usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms. They are hard acids and react readily with ligands, forming adducts. In industry, they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions, as discovered by Karl Ziegler , most importantly in "growth reactions" that form long-chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols, and in
39072-506: The most produced non-ferrous metal . During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work, and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines. Earth's first artificial satellite , launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent. The aluminium can
39294-500: The moving parts. The LANDSET report identified in excess of 50 faults, most notably the magazine release catch, which could easily be caught on clothing and accidentally release the magazine; the plastic safety plunger which became brittle in cold climates; and firing pins that were not up to repeated use, and prone to fracture if used in automatic fire mode. The report concluded that "It is, however, quite clear that infantrymen did not have CONFIDENCE in their personal weapon. Most expected
39516-440: The new English army to 74,000, and then a few years later to 94,000 in 1694. Parliament was very nervous and reduced the cadre to 70,000 in 1697. Scotland and Ireland had theoretically separate military establishments, but they were unofficially merged with the English Crown force. By the time of the 1707 Acts of Union , many regiments of the English and Scottish armies were combined under one operational command and stationed in
39738-484: The next decade, the -um spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the American Chemical Society adopted this spelling. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990. In 1993, they recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant; the most recent 2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry also acknowledges this spelling. IUPAC official publications use
39960-409: The nobility, or on hired mercenaries from Europe. From the later Middle Ages until the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, when a foreign expeditionary force was needed, such as the one that Henry V of England took to France and that fought at the Battle of Agincourt (1415), the army, a professional one, was raised for the duration of the expedition. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, the members of
40182-424: The notable exception of Oliver Cromwell , then a member of parliament and future Lord Protector) from serving as officers in the Parliamentary armies. This created a distinction between the civilians in Parliament, who tended to be Presbyterian and conciliatory to the Royalists ("Cavaliers") in nature, and a corps of professional officers, who tended to be Independent ( Congregational ) in theology. The second action
40404-458: The oceans and trade routes, and heavily garrisoned by the British Army both for defence of the bases and to provide mobile military forces to work with the Navy in amphibious operations throughout their regions. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars , participating in a number of campaigns in Europe (including continuous deployment in the Peninsular War ), the Caribbean , North Africa and North America . The war between
40626-429: The only primordial aluminium isotope, i.e. the only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet. It is therefore a mononuclidic element and its standard atomic weight is virtually the same as that of the isotope. This makes aluminium very useful in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity. The standard atomic weight of aluminium
40848-403: The opposite was true of the L86A1. Specific complaints included: the poor quality plastic furniture fell apart and the gun was damaged easily; the magazine release catch was easily knocked accidentally and dropped the magazine; the catch on the top cover over the gas mechanism was too weak and constantly popped open, so it had to be taped down; only 26–28 rounds could be loaded in a magazine because
41070-407: The oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al is either six- or four-coordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless. In aqueous solution, Al exists as the hexaaqua cation [Al(H 2 O) 6 ] , which has an approximate K a of 10 . Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively hydrolyze until
41292-436: The parallel Seven Years' War and suppressed a Native / Indian North Americans uprising in Pontiac's War around the Great Lakes . The British Army was defeated in the American Revolutionary War , losing the Thirteen Colonies but retaining The Canadas and The Maritimes as in British North America , including Bermuda (originally part of the Colony of Virginia , and which had been originally strongly sympathetic to
41514-460: The patents he filed between 1886 and 1903. It is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally, but Hall preferred aluminum since its introduction because it resembled platinum , the name of a prestigious metal. By 1890, both spellings had been common in the United States, the -ium spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, aluminum had become twice as common as aluminium ; in
41736-404: The planet. However, minute traces of Al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons. The ratio of Al to Be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 10 to 10 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion. Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by
41958-481: The pre-existing part-time, local-service home-defence forces that were auxiliary to the British Army (or Regular Force ), but not originally part of it: the Yeomanry , Militia (or Constitutional Force ) and Volunteer Force . These were consequently also referred to as Auxiliary Forces or Local Forces . The late-19th-century Cardwell and Childers Reforms gave the army its modern shape and redefined its regimental system . The 1907 Haldane Reforms created
42180-450: The press, at which point the Ministry of Defence claimed that it was fake; while it was later admitted that the report was a genuine document, the MOD continued to downplay its significance, and only seven of the 50 faults identified were addressed by subsequent modifications, meaning that complaints over reliability in service continued. The MOD finally began to take the SA80 family's issues seriously in 1992, but procuring entirely new weapons
42402-410: The rank of English, Irish and Scots regiments serving in the Netherlands; the regiment which became known as the Scots Greys were designated the 4th Dragoons because there were three English regiments raised prior to 1688 when the Scots Greys were first placed in the English establishment. In 1713, when a new board of general officers was convened to decide the rank of several regiments, the seniority of
42624-515: The rear. To release the bolt, the user has to press a black button on the left side of the rifle, near the fire selector. The SA80 barrel features a flash eliminator which serves as a mounting base for attaching a blank firing attachment ; it also allows for the use of rifle grenades or a bayonet with the rifle variant. The weapon's receiver is made from stamped sheet steel , reinforced with welded and riveted machined steel inserts. Synthetic materials such as nylon were used to fabricate
42846-423: The respective hydrogen chalcogenide . As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens, these have four-coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to wurtzite , with two-thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly (α) or random (β) fashion; the sulfide also has a γ form related to γ-alumina, and an unusual high-temperature hexagonal form where half
43068-424: The result of a significant upgrade in the early 2000s by Heckler & Koch and remains in service as of 2024. The A3 variant was first issued in 2018 with several new improvements. The remainder of the SA80 family comprises the L86 Light Support Weapon, the short-barrelled L22 Carbine and the L98 Cadet rifle. The SA80 was the last in a long line of British weapons (including the Lee–Enfield family) to come from
43290-491: The return of a king. The militia acts of 1661 and 1662 prevented local authorities from calling up militia and oppressing their own local opponents. Calling up the militia was possible only if the king and local elites agreed to do so. King Charles II and his " Cavalier " / Royalist supporters favoured a new army under royal control, and immediately after the Restoration of 1660 to 1661 began working on its establishment. The first English Army regiments, including elements of
43512-411: The right hand side of the rifle downwards, reducing the impediments of the cocking handle and the ejection port; the MOD also maintains that left-handed soldiers are capable of accurately firing the weapon from the right shoulder. The SA80 family is hammer-fired and has a trigger mechanism with a fire-control selector that enables semi-automatic/repetition and fully automatic fire (the fire selector lever
43734-485: The scale of the economies. However, the need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs (above all, energy) increased the net cost of aluminium; the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost. Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper. Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology, lower energy prices, exchange rates of
43956-457: The springs were weak, something that was also mentioned in training manuals, at least with regard to earlier Colt -produced magazines, and it had to be kept very clean and the lips checked for dents. The magazine was made from aluminium and would deform if grasped too tightly. During firing, this could choke the flow of rounds and result in a jam; the LSW had a small magazine capacity for its role and overheated after 120–150 rounds fired in bursts;
44178-408: The structure of BCl 3 . Aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form Al 2 X 6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change. These materials are prepared by treating aluminium with the halogen. The aluminium trihalides form many addition compounds or complexes; their Lewis acidic nature makes them useful as catalysts for
44400-536: The two therefore look similar. Aluminium is also good at reflecting solar radiation , although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal; this may be prevented if aluminium is anodized , which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface. The density of aluminium is 2.70 g/cm , about 1/3 that of steel, much lower than other commonly encountered metals, making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness. Aluminium's low density compared to most other metals arises from
44622-455: The upgrade to A2, including a requirement to forward assist with the left hand to ensure the bolt is properly closed and locked; without this there is increased risk of a jam. A new cleaning kit was issued with major enhancements designed for simpler and more effective use while on operations. A further upgrade including the provision of Advanced Combat Optical Gunsights (ACOGs), a Daniel Defense -designed Picatinny rail (RIS) handguard for
44844-444: The various design changes requested, including adapting the rifle for use with the heavier Belgian SS109 version of the 5.56×45mm round and improving reliability, the weapon system was accepted into service with the British Armed Forces in 1985 as the SA80. The SA80 family originally consisted of the L85A1 Rifle, the L86A1 Light Support Weapon (LSW), and L98A1 Cadet GP Rifle. The first weapons were issued in October 1985. The SA80 family
45066-443: The weapon as finally issued must be used exclusively right-handed since the ejection port and cocking handle (which reciprocates during firing) are on the right side of the receiver, making aimed fire from the left shoulder difficult. This can also give rise to a tactical disadvantage when firing around the left side of cover, where the shooter must expose the majority of their body. However left shoulder firing can be achieved by tilting
45288-408: The weapons were difficult to strip and reassemble, with the gas plug easily jamming in place and requiring an armorer to remove; the firing pin was too narrow and would snap; the back of the trigger surface was flat which with snow or dirt accumulating behind it would prevent the trigger from pulling back all the way and firing the gun; and ergonomic issues related to the safety catch, cocking lever, and
45510-611: The withdrawal of civilians, all British troops had left by the end of August 2021. In 2003, the United Kingdom was a major contributor to the invasion of Iraq , sending a force of over 46,000 military personnel. The British Army controlled southern Iraq, and maintained a peace-keeping presence in Basra . All British troops were withdrawn from Iraq by 30 April 2009, after the Iraqi government refused to extend their mandate. One hundred and seventy-nine British military personnel died in Iraqi operations. The British Armed Forces returned to Iraq in 2014 as part of Operation Shader to counter
45732-537: The world". Armed Forces trials indicated extremely good reliability over a range of climates for various operational scenarios, though with a decline in reliability in hot, and especially hot and dry conditions. The L85A2 achieved an average reliability rate of 25,200 mean rounds between failure , and the L86A2 achieved 12,897 mean rounds between failures. Both weapons have higher reliability rates in cold/dry, temperate, and hot/wet conditions, but lower rates in hot/dry environments. The minimum expected life of A2 components
45954-461: Was a salt of an earth of alum. In 1595, German doctor and chemist Andreas Libavius experimentally confirmed this. In 1722, German chemist Friedrich Hoffmann announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth. In 1754, German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding potash . Attempts to produce aluminium date back to 1760. The first successful attempt, however,
46176-424: Was borrowed from French, which in turn derived it from alumen , the classical Latin name for alum , the mineral from which it was collected. The Latin word alumen stems from the Proto-Indo-European root *alu- meaning "bitter" or "beer". British chemist Humphry Davy , who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal, is credited as the person who named the element. The first name proposed for
46398-422: Was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted . He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam , yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin. He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825. In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium. (The reason for this inconsistency
46620-411: Was considered too expensive. As a result, a more extensive modification programme was executed. In 2000, a team from Heckler & Koch, led by Ernst Mauch, was contracted to upgrade the SA80 family of weapons. At that time Heckler & Koch were owned by BAE Systems. 200,000 SA80s were re-manufactured for £400 each, producing the A2 variant. Changes focused primarily on improving reliability and include
46842-443: Was criticized by contemporary chemists from France, Germany, and Sweden, who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide, alumina, from which it would be isolated. The English name alum does not come directly from Latin, whereas alumine / alumina obviously comes from the Latin word alumen (upon declension , alumen changes to alumin- ). One example was Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique (July 1811), written in French by
47064-420: Was declared in 1951. Although the British Army was a major participant in Korea in the early 1950s and Suez in 1956, during this period Britain's role in world events was reduced and the army was downsized. The British Army of the Rhine , consisting of I (BR) Corps , remained in Germany as a bulwark against Soviet invasion. The Cold War continued, with significant technological advances in warfare, and
47286-405: Was designed and produced by the Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield Lock . In 1988, production of the rifle was transferred to the Nottingham Small Arms Facility owned by Royal Ordnance (later British Aerospace , Royal Ordnance; now BAE Systems ), the site was previously known as ROF Nottingham . It was envisaged that the family would replace the L1A1 SLR, the L2A3 (Sterling) submachine gun ,
47508-415: Was introduced from 2011, featuring a lower weight of 130 grams (4.6 oz) compared to the steel magazine's 249 grams (8.8 oz), a detachable dust cover, and a clear window in the magazine body that allows easy monitoring of how much ammunition remains in the magazine. The Beta C-Mag was trialled in an attempt to improve the L86's limited ability to lay down sustained fire, but reliability problems with
47730-418: Was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958. Throughout the 20th century, the production of aluminium rose rapidly: while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons, the annual production first exceeded 100,000 metric tons in 1916; 1,000,000 tons in 1941; 10,000,000 tons in 1971. In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered
47952-409: Was legislation for the creation of a Parliamentary-funded army, commanded by Lord General Thomas Fairfax , which became known as the New Model Army (originally phrased "new-modelled Army"). While this proved to be a war-winning formula, the New Model Army, being organised and politically active, went on to dominate the politics of the Interregnum and by 1660 was widely disliked. The New Model Army
48174-433: Was only discovered in 1921.) He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium. In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal. For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium. As Wöhler's method could not yield great quantities of aluminium,
48396-481: Was only in relation to weapons such as the Sten submachine gun that had relatively loose tolerances. The tighter tolerances required by the SA80 soon led to production delays and high wastage levels. There were also issues with regard to working practices and employee attitudes at the Enfield site which were exacerbated by its closure in 1988 and resulting redundancies. One worker was recorded as saying that "Having been shafted by BAE and our own management, we thought why
48618-432: Was paid off and disbanded at the later Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 with the accession of King Charles II . For many decades the alleged excesses of the New Model Army under the Protectorate / Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell were used as propaganda (and still feature in Irish folklore) and the Whig Party element recoiled from allowing a standing army to continue with the agreed-upon rights and privileges under
48840-425: Was regarded as probable at the time that the argument for the 5.56mm standard within NATO had more to do with the economics involved. Over the lifetime of a small-arms weapon type, far more money is spent on the munitions than the weapons themselves. If the 5.56mm supporters had lost the argument in favour of a British 4.85mm round, the economic impact would have been very large, and political pressure undoubtedly played
49062-426: Was to become the SA80. The system was to be composed of two weapons: the XL64E5 rifle (also called the "Enfield Individual Weapon") and a light support weapon known as the XL65E4 light machine gun . The sheet metal construction and the design of the bolt, bolt carrier, guide rods and the weapon's disassembly showed strong similarities to the Armalite AR-18 which was manufactured under licence from 1975 to 1983 by
49284-510: Was used as the cap of the Washington Monument , completed in 1885. The tallest building in the world at the time, the non-corroding metal cap was intended to serve as a lightning rod peak. The first industrial large-scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall ; it is now known as the Hall–Héroult process . The Hall–Héroult process converts alumina into metal. Austrian chemist Carl Joseph Bayer discovered
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