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88-511: LACERA was established on January 1, 1938, following passage of the County Employees Retirement Law of 1937 (CERL), which mandates LACERA to pay for the defined retirement benefits of Los Angeles County employees and their beneficiaries. In 1971, LACERA began administering a retiree healthcare benefits program. LACERA is governed by two Boards, each composed of 9 members: Day-to-day management and operation of LACERA

176-407: A combination of regulation and insurance equalization pool . Moral hazard is avoided by mandating that insurance companies provide at least one policy that meets a government set minimum standard level of coverage, and all adult residents are obliged by law to purchase this coverage from an insurance company of their choice. All insurance companies receive funds from the equalization pool to help cover

264-777: A comprehensive public health insurance scheme run by the National Health Authority called the Ayushman Bharat Yojana or a private health insurance scheme providing comprehensive coverage and that is tightly regulated by the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India . There are three major types of insurance programs available in Japan: Employee Health Insurance (健康保険 Kenkō-Hoken), National Health Insurance (国民健康保険 Kokumin-Kenkō-Hoken), and

352-494: A decrease of $ 1.1 billion, or 2.9%, from the prior year. The latest actuarial valuation on June 30, 2011, determined that LACERA had a funded ratio of actuarial assets to the actuarial accrued liability of 80.6%. For fiscal year (FY) 2011–12, LACERA's fiscal-year-to-date return on investments was 0.10%; the FY 2010-11 return was 20.40%. Over the past 15 years, each LACERA pensions has been funded as follows: LACERA has reciprocity with

440-491: A doctor visit, €0.50 for each box of medicine prescribed, and a fee of €16–18 per day for hospital stays and for expensive procedures. An important element of the French insurance system is solidarity: the more ill a person becomes, the less the person pays. This means that for people with serious or chronic illnesses, the insurance system reimburses them 100% of expenses, and waives their co-pay charges. Finally, for fees that

528-409: A form of insurance offered through some health insurance plans. In the U.S., the patient usually pays a copayment and the prescription drug insurance part or all of the balance for drugs covered in the formulary of the plan. Such plans are routinely part of national health insurance programs. For example, in the province of Quebec, Canada, prescription drug insurance is universally required as part of

616-516: A fund at risk of "adverse selection", attracting a disproportionate number of members from other funds, or from the pool of intending members who might otherwise have joined other funds. It would also attract people with existing medical conditions, who might not otherwise have taken out insurance at all because of the denial of benefits for 12 months due to the PEA Rule. The benefits paid out for these conditions would create pressure on premiums for all

704-595: A government-owned entity, when it was privatized and listed on the Australian Stock Exchange . Australian health funds can be either 'for profit' including Bupa and nib ; 'mutual' including Australian Unity ; or 'non-profit' including GMHBA , HCF and the HBF Health Insurance . Some, such as Police Health, have membership restricted to particular groups, but the majority have open membership. Membership to most health funds

792-460: A motive will increase the rate of medical innovation . Those opposed argue that it will do the opposite, because removing the incentive of profit removes incentives to innovate and inhibits new technologies from being developed and utilized. The existence of sound medical research does not necessarily lead to evidence-based policymaking. For example, in South Africa, whose population sets

880-682: A need for an appeal, the process typically involves initiating it through the insurance company and then reaching out to the Employer's Plan Fiduciary. If a resolution is still not achieved, the decision can be escalated to the USDOL for review to ensure compliance with ERISA regulations, and, if necessary, legal action can be taken by filing a lawsuit in federal court. Health insurance can be combined with publicly funded health care and medical savings accounts . The individual insured person's obligations may take several forms: Prescription drug plans are

968-487: A paid internship during their stay. In that case, they'll need to take out the compulsory basic package of Dutch health insurance. Additional insurance is optional, depending on the student's personal needs. Since 1974, New Zealand has had a system of universal no-fault health insurance for personal injuries through the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC). The ACC scheme covers most of

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1056-410: A person's previous medical history, the current state of health, or (generally speaking) their age (but see Lifetime Health Cover below). Balancing this are waiting periods, in particular for pre-existing conditions (usually referred to within the industry as PEA, which stands for "pre-existing ailment"). Funds are entitled to impose a waiting period of up to 12 months on benefits for any medical condition

1144-590: A policy, or charge anything other than their nationally set and published standard premiums. Therefore, every person buying insurance will pay the same price as everyone else buying the same policy, and every person will get at least the minimum level of coverage. This applies to all people permanently living and working in the Netherlands. International students that move to the Netherlands for study purposes have to take out compulsory Dutch health insurance if they also decide to work (zero-hour contracts included) or do

1232-586: A policy. Understood in this sense, there are many categories of health policies, including global health policy, public health policy, mental health policy, health care services policy, insurance policy , personal healthcare policy, pharmaceutical policy , and policies related to public health such as vaccination policy , tobacco control policy or breastfeeding promotion policy. Health policy may also cover topics related to healthcare delivery, for example of financing and provision, access to care, quality of care , and health equity. Health policy also includes

1320-399: A portion of their income to a not-for-profit health insurance fund, which mutualises the risk of illness, and which reimburses medical expenses at varying rates. Children and spouses of insured people are eligible for benefits, as well. Each fund is free to manage its own budget, and used to reimburse medical expenses at the rate it saw fit, however following a number of reforms in recent years,

1408-430: A program or intervention. Operational policies are the rules, regulations, guidelines, and administrative norms that governments use to translate national laws and policies into programs and services. The policy process encompasses decisions made at a national or decentralized level (including funding decisions) that affect whether and how services are delivered. Thus, attention must be paid to policies at multiple levels of

1496-518: A stay in ward B2 or C in a Public hospital. For the hospitalization in a Private hospital, or in ward A or B1 in Public hospital, MediShield Life coverage is pegged to B2 or C ward prices and insured is required to pay the remaining bill amount. This remaining bill amount can be paid using MediSave but limits are applied on the MediSave usage. MediShield Life does not cover overseas medical expenses and

1584-421: Is a insurance contract between an insurance provider (e.g. an insurance company or a government) and an individual or his/her sponsor (that is an employer or a community organization). The contract can be renewable (annually, monthly) or lifelong in the case of private insurance. It can also be mandatory for all citizens in the case of national plans. The type and amount of health care costs that will be covered by

1672-478: Is a right of all people: In some jurisdictions and among different faith-based organizations , health policies are influenced by the perceived obligation shaped by religious beliefs to care for those in less favorable circumstances, including the sick. Other jurisdictions and non-governmental organizations draw on the principles of humanism in defining their health policies, asserting the same perceived obligation and enshrined right to health . In recent years,

1760-408: Is a type of insurance that covers the whole or a part of the risk of a person incurring medical expenses . As with other types of insurance, risk is shared among many individuals. By estimating the overall risk of health risk and health system expenses over the risk pool, an insurer can develop a routine finance structure, such as a monthly premium or payroll tax , to provide the money to pay for

1848-416: Is called Medicare , which provides free universal access to hospital treatment and subsidised out-of-hospital medical treatment. It is funded by a 2% tax levy on all taxpayers, an extra 1% levy on high income earners, as well as general revenue. The private health system is funded by a number of private health insurance organizations. The largest of these is Medibank Private Limited , which was, until 2014,

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1936-495: Is covered by the employer and basically covers all risks for commuting to work and at the workplace. The National Health System in Greece covers both out and in-patient treatment. The out-patient treatment is carried out by social administrative structures as following: The in-patient treatment is carried out by: In Greece anyone can cover the hospitalization expenses using a private insurance policy, that can be bought by any of

2024-409: Is delegated to a Chief Executive Officer, who is appointed by both Boards. The Board of Retirement (BOR) administers the retirement system, the retiree healthcare program, and the review and processing of disability retirement applications. The Board of Retirement's members are appointed as follows: The Board of Retirement meets at 9 a.m. on the first Wednesday of each month and the next Thursday of

2112-408: Is designed for people who are age 75 and older. National Health Insurance is organised on a household basis. Once a household has applied, the entire family is covered. Applicants receive a health insurance card, which must be used when receiving treatment at a hospital. There is a required monthly premium, but co-payments are standardized so payers are only expected to cover ten to thirty percent of

2200-437: Is distributed among labour market participants as a laissez-faire approach to health policy. Evidence-based policies for workforce development are typically based on findings from health services research . Many governments and agencies include a health dimension in their foreign policy in order to achieve global health goals. Promoting health in lower income countries has been seen as instrumental to achieve other goals on

2288-522: Is distributed to insurance companies for each person they insure under the required policy. However, high-risk individuals get more from the pool, and low-income persons and children under 18 have their insurance paid for entirely. Because of this, insurance companies no longer find insuring high-risk individuals an unappealing proposition, avoiding the potential problem of adverse selection. Insurance companies are not allowed to have co-payments, caps, or deductibles, or deny coverage to any person applying for

2376-426: Is financed via general taxation and reimburses at a higher rate than the profession-based system for those who cannot afford to make up the difference. Finally, to counter the rise in health care costs, the government has installed two plans, (in 2004 and 2006), which require insured people to declare a referring doctor in order to be fully reimbursed for specialist visits, and which installed a mandatory co-pay of €1 for

2464-578: Is left to the individual to gain access to healthcare goods and services by paying for them directly as out-of-pocket expenses , and to private sector players in the medical and pharmaceutical industries to develop research. Planning and production of health human resources is distributed among labour market participants. Other countries have an explicit policy to ensure and support access for all of its citizens, to fund health research, and to plan for adequate numbers, distribution and quality of health workers to meet healthcare goals. Many governments around

2552-493: Is now also available through comparison websites. These comparison sites operate on a commission-basis by agreement with their participating health funds. The Private Health Insurance Ombudsman also operates a free website that allows consumers to search for and compare private health insurers' products, which includes information on price and level of cover. Most aspects of private health insurance in Australia are regulated by

2640-576: Is ongoing on which type of health financing policy results in better or worse quality of healthcare services provided, and how to ensure allocated funds are used effectively, efficiently and equitably . There are many arguments on both sides of the issue of public versus private health financing policies: Claims that publicly funded healthcare improves the quality and efficiency of personal health care delivery: Claims that privately funded healthcare leads to greater quality and efficiencies in personal health care: Health policy options extend beyond

2728-475: The European Commission and national governments debate strategic health concerns. The EU's health policy and yearly work programmes are implemented with the assistance of member states, institutions, and other interest groups. The European Commission's Directorate for Health and Food Safety assists member states in their efforts to protect and improve the health of their people and to guarantee

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2816-630: The Private Health Insurance Act 2007 . Complaints and reporting of the private health industry is carried out by an independent government agency, the Private Health Insurance Ombudsman . The ombudsman publishes an annual report that outlines the number and nature of complaints per health fund compared to their market share The private health system in Australia operates on a "community rating" basis, whereby premiums do not vary solely because of

2904-584: The Royal Canadian Mounted Police , the armed forces, and Members of Parliament). Consequently, each province administers its own health insurance program. The federal government influences health insurance by virtue of its fiscal powers – it transfers cash and tax points to the provinces to help cover the costs of the universal health insurance programs. Under the Canada Health Act , the federal government mandates and enforces

2992-831: The authorisation of medicines at EU level by the European Medicines Agency or at the national level by the appropriate authorities in the EU member states. To guarantee a high degree of health protection in the European Union, monitoring, early warning, preparedness, and reaction measures to counter major cross-border threats to health are crucial. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) offers EU member states independent scientific advice, support, and knowledge on public health risks, including infectious diseases. The EU4Health program provides funds to tackle cross-border health concerns, improve

3080-501: The "decisions, plans, and actions that are undertaken to achieve specific healthcare goals within a society". According to the World Health Organization , an explicit health policy can achieve several things: it defines a vision for the future; it outlines priorities and the expected roles of different groups; and it builds consensus and informs people. Health policy often refers to the health-related content of

3168-433: The EU can also send recommendations on public health to member states. EU citizens are entitled, by law , to receive healthcare in any member state of the EU and to have their home nation compensate them for care received elsewhere. The European Health Insurance Card (EHIC) guarantees that essential medical care is given under the same conditions and at the same cost as people insured in that country. The EU regulates

3256-663: The Health Care for the Aged Law of 1982. It allowed many health insurance systems to offer financial assistance to elderly people. There is a medical coverage fee. To be eligible, those insured must be either: older than 70, or older than 65 with a recognized disability. The Late-stage Elderly Medical System includes preventive and standard medical care. Due to Japan's aging population , the Late-stage Elderly Medical System represents one third of

3344-500: The Health Union. The goals of EU public health policies and initiatives are to protect and improve the health of EU residents , promote the modernization and digitalization of health systems and infrastructure, increase the resilience of Europe's health systems, and improve the ability of EU member states to prevent and respond to pandemics in the future. In a senior-level working group on public health, representatives from

3432-474: The Late-stage Elderly Medical System (後期高齢医療制度 Kouki-Kourei-Iryouseido). Although private health insurance is available, all Japanese citizens, permanent residents, and non-Japanese with a visa lasting one year or longer are required to be enrolled in either National Health Insurance or Employee Health Insurance. National Health Insurance is designed for those who are not eligible for any employment-based health insurance program. The Late-stage Elderly Medical System

3520-407: The U.S. (nearly 16% of GDP). Germans are offered three kinds of social security insurance dealing with the physical status of a person and which are co-financed by employer and employee: health insurance, accident insurance, and long-term care insurance. Long-term care insurance ( Gesetzliche Pflegeversicherung ) emerged in 1994 and is mandatory. Accident insurance (gesetzliche Unfallversicherung)

3608-502: The United Kingdom, Germany, Canada and the U.S. Its 2007 study found that, although the U.S. system is the most expensive, it consistently under-performs compared to the other countries. One difference between the U.S. and the other countries in the study is that the U.S. is the only country without universal health insurance coverage. The Commonwealth Fund completed its thirteenth annual health policy survey in 2010. A study of

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3696-518: The United States (5 to 6 days). Part of the difference is that the chief consideration for hospital reimbursement is the number of hospital days as opposed to procedures or diagnosis. Drug costs have increased substantially, rising nearly 60% from 1991 through 2005. Despite attempts to contain costs, overall health care expenditures rose to 10.7% of GDP in 2005, comparable to other western European nations, but substantially less than that spent in

3784-942: The accessibility, efficiency, and resilience of their healthcare structures. This is accomplished in a number of ways, such as by proposing legislation , providing financial support , coordinating and facilitating the exchange of best practices between EU countries and health experts and by health promotion activities. The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union grants the EU the authority to enact health legislation in accordance with Article 168 (protection of public health), Article 114 (single market), and Article 153 (social policy). The EU has adopted legislation in following areas: Patient's rights in cross-border healthcare, Pharmaceuticals and medical devices (pharmacovigilance, falsified medicines, clinical trials), Health security and infectious diseases, Digital health and care, Tobacco, organs, blood, tissues and cells. The Council of

3872-505: The actors and norms that frame the global health response. The EU contributes to the improvement of public health through financing and laws addressing medications, patient rights in cross-border healthcare, illness prevention, and the promotion of good health. EU countries hold primary responsibility for organizing and delivering health services and medical care. Therefore, EU health policy works to supplement national policies, assure health protection in all EU measures and to strengthen

3960-734: The best interests of their customers compared to government regulation and oversight. Another claim in the United States perceives government over-regulation of the healthcare and insurance industries as the effective end of charitable home visits from doctors among the poor and elderly. Many types of health policies exist focusing on the financing of healthcare services to spread the economic risks of ill health. These include publicly funded health care (through taxation or insurance, also known as single-payer systems), mandatory or voluntary private health insurance , and complete capitalization of personal health care services through private companies, and medical savings accounts , among others. The debate

4048-457: The case in Canada's national health insurance program . Laissez-faire supporters argue that this erodes the cost-effectiveness of the health system, as even those who can afford to pay for private healthcare services drain resources from the public system. The issue here is whether investor-owned medical insurance companies or health maintenance organizations are in a better position to act in

4136-455: The case of Brazil, where debates have arisen over government policy authorizing the domestic manufacture of antiretroviral drugs used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS in violation of drug patents . Some countries and jurisdictions have an explicit policy or strategy to plan for adequate numbers, distribution and quality of health workers to meet healthcare goals, such as to address physician and nursing shortages . Elsewhere, workforce planning

4224-547: The context of an ERISA plan, these insurance companies do not actively participate in insurance practices; instead, they handle administrative tasks. Consequently, ERISA plans are exempt from state regulations and fall under federal jurisdiction, overseen by the US Department of Labor (USDOL). Specific details about benefits or coverage can be found in the Summary Plan Description (SPD). Should there be

4312-439: The cost of this government-mandated coverage. This pool is run by a regulator which collects salary-based contributions from employers, which make up about 50% of all health care funding, and funding from the government to cover people who cannot afford health care, which makes up an additional 5%. The remaining 45% of health care funding comes from insurance premiums paid by the public, for which companies compete on price, though

4400-688: The cost, depending on age. If out-of-pocket costs exceed pre-determined limits, payers may apply for a rebate from the National Health Insurance program. Employee Health Insurance covers diseases, injuries, and death regardless of whether an incident occurred at a workplace. Employee Health Insurance covers a maximum of 180 days of medical care per year for work-related diseases or injuries and 180 days per year for other diseases or injuries. Employers and employees must contribute evenly to be covered by Employee Health Insurance. The Late-stage Elderly Medical System began in 1983 following

4488-423: The costs of medical care for all people and under what circumstances. For example, government spending on healthcare is sometimes used as a global indicator of a government's commitment to the health of its people. On the other hand, one school of thought emerging from the United States rejects the notion of health care financing through taxpayer funding as incompatible with the (considered no less important) right of

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4576-667: The costs of related to treatment of injuries acquired in New Zealand (including overseas visitors) regardless of how the injury occurred, and also covers lost income (at 80 percent of the employee's pre-injury income) and costs related to long-term rehabilitation, such as home and vehicle modifications for those seriously injured. Funding from the scheme comes from a combination of levies on employers' payroll (for work injuries), levies on an employee's taxable income (for non-work injuries to salary earners), levies on vehicle licensing fees and petrol (for motor vehicle accidents), and funds from

4664-484: The country's total healthcare cost. When retiring employees shift from Employee Health Insurance to the Late-stage Elderly Medical System, the national cost of health insurance is expected to increase since individual healthcare costs tend to increase with age. In 2006, a new system of health insurance came into force in the Netherlands. This new system avoids the two pitfalls of adverse selection and moral hazard associated with traditional forms of health insurance by using

4752-401: The different health care funds (there are five: General, Independent, Agricultural, Student, Public Servants) now all reimburse at the same rate. Secondly, since 2000, the government now provides health care to those who are not covered by a mandatory regime (those who have never worked and who are not students, meaning the very rich or the very poor). This regime, unlike the worker-financed ones,

4840-401: The efficiency of health care delivery and minimize costs. The modern concept of healthcare involves access to medical professionals from various fields as well as medical technology , such as medications and surgical equipment . It also involves access to the latest information and evidence from research, including medical research and health services research . In many countries it

4928-442: The financing and delivery of personal health care, to domains such as medical research and health workforce planning, both domestically and internationally. Medical research can be both the basis for defining evidence-based health policy, and the subject of health policy itself, particularly in terms of its sources of funding. Those in favor of government policies for publicly funded medical research posit that removing profit as

5016-978: The following week. The Board of Investments (BOI) establishes LACERA's investment policy and objectives and exercises authority and control over the retirement fund's investment management. The Board of Investments’ members are appointed as follows: The Board of Investments meets at 9 a.m. on the second Wednesday of each month. LACERA provides health insurance plans for its retired members. LACERA covers 100% of healthcare premiums for Los Angeles County retirees who have at least 25 years of public service . For members with 10 years of public service, LACERA contributes 40% of health care plan premiums, with an additional contribution of 4% for each additional year worked. LACERA offers two tracks of retirement plans , for general members (civil servants) and for safety members (safety employees, including sheriff deputies and firefighters ), further subdivided as follows: As of June 30, 2012, LACERA's net assets were worth US$ 38.3 billion ,

5104-664: The fund's members, causing some to drop their membership, which would lead to further rises in premiums, and a vicious cycle of higher premiums-leaving members would ensue. The Australian government has introduced a number of incentives to encourage adults to take out private hospital insurance. These include: As per the Constitution of Canada , health care is mainly a provincial government responsibility in Canada (the main exceptions being federal government responsibility for services provided to aboriginal peoples covered by treaties,

5192-474: The general taxation pool (for non-work injuries to children, senior citizens, unemployed people, overseas visitors, etc.) Rwanda is one of a handful of low income countries that has implemented community-based health insurance schemes in order to reduce the financial barriers that prevent poor people from seeking and receiving needed health services. This scheme has helped reach 90% of the country's population with health care coverage. Singaporeans have one of

5280-548: The global agenda, including: Global health policy encompasses the global governance structures that create the policies underlying public health throughout the world. In addressing global health, global health policy "implies consideration of the health needs of the people of the whole planet above the concerns of particular nations." Distinguished from both international health policy (agreements among sovereign states) and comparative health policy (analysis of health policy across states), global health policy institutions consist of

5368-421: The governance and implementation of health-related policy, sometimes referred to as health governance, health systems governance or healthcare governance. Conceptual models can help show the flow from health-related policy development to health-related policy and program implementation and to health systems and health outcomes. Policy should be understood as more than a national law or health policy that supports

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5456-633: The government account for nearly 30 percent of total health care spending. In 2005, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled, in Chaoulli v. Quebec , that the province's prohibition on private insurance for health care already insured by the provincial plan violated the Quebec Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and in particular, the sections dealing with the right to life and security , if there were unacceptably long wait times for treatment, as

5544-603: The health care benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization, such as a government agency, private business, or not-for-profit entity. According to the Health Insurance Association of America , health insurance is defined as "coverage that provides for the payments of benefits as a result of sickness or injury. It includes insurance for losses from accident, medical expense, disability, or accidental death and dismemberment". A health insurance policy

5632-520: The health insurance provider are specified in writing, in a member contract or "Evidence of Coverage" booklet for private insurance, or in a national health policy for public insurance. There are two types of health insurance – tax payer-funded and private-funded. A private-funded insurance plan example includes an employer-sponsored self-funded ERISA (Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974) plan. Typically, these companies promote themselves as having ties to major insurance providers. However, in

5720-864: The health system and over time to ensure sustainable scale-up. A supportive policy environment will facilitate the scale-up of health interventions. There are many aspects of politics and evidence that can influence the decision of a government, private sector business or other group to adopt a specific policy. Evidence-based policy relies on the use of science and rigorous studies such as randomized controlled trials to identify programs and practices capable of improving policy relevant outcomes. Most political debates surround personal health care policies, especially those that seek to reform healthcare delivery , and can typically be categorized as either philosophical or economic . Philosophical debates center around questions about individual rights , ethics and government authority, while economic topics include how to maximize

5808-612: The individual's income, private health insurance contributions are based on the individual's age and health condition. Reimbursement is on a fee-for-service basis, but the number of physicians allowed to accept Statutory Health Insurance in a given locale is regulated by the government and professional societies. Co-payments were introduced in the 1980s in an attempt to prevent over utilization. The average length of hospital stay in Germany has decreased in recent years from 14 days to 9 days, still considerably longer than average stays in

5896-456: The local or multinational insurance companies that operate in the region (e.g. Metlife, Interamerican, Aetna, IMG). In India, provision of healthcare services and their efficiency varies state-wise. Public health services are prominent in most of the regions with the national government playing an important role in funding, framing and implementing policies and operating public health insurances. The vast majority of Indians are covered by either

5984-469: The longest life expectancy at birth in the world. During this long life, encountering uncertain situations requiring hospitalization are inevitable. Health insurance or medical insurance cover high healthcare costs during hospitalization. Health insurance for Singapore Citizens and Permanent Residents MediShield Life , is a universal health insurance covering all Singapore Citizens and Permanent Residents. MediShield Life covers hospitalization costs for

6072-409: The majority of funds provide the same level of reimbursement and benefits. The government has two responsibilities in this system. Today, this system is more or less intact. All citizens and legal foreign residents of France are covered by one of these mandatory programs, which continue to be funded by worker participation. However, since 1945, a number of major changes have been introduced. Firstly,

6160-588: The mandatory system does not cover, there is a large range of private complementary insurance plans available. The market for these programs is very competitive, and often subsidised by the employer, which means that premiums are usually modest. 85% of French people benefit from complementary private health insurance. Germany has the world's oldest national social health insurance system, with origins dating back to Otto von Bismarck 's Sickness Insurance Law of 1883. Beginning with 10% of blue-collar workers in 1885, mandatory insurance has expanded; in 2009, insurance

6248-799: The other California public retirement systems, including: LACERA also has reciprocity with other California public agencies and districts, cities, counties, school districts, superintendents of schools and others that are covered by CalPERS or have a reciprocal relationship with CalPERS. LACERA is one of eight institutional investors represented by the Shareholder Rights Projects, which worked to present shareholder declassification proposals in S&;P 500 annual meetings. Health insurance Health insurance or medical insurance (also known as medical aid in South Africa)

6336-537: The physician's professional judgment, and the related concerns that government involvement in overseeing the health of its citizens could erode the right to privacy between doctors and patients. The argument furthers that universal health insurance denies the right of individual patients to dispose of their own income as per their own will. Another issue in the rights debate is governments' use of legislation to control competition among private medical insurance providers against national social insurance systems, such as

6424-457: The provider's usual fee. The provider may also have a separate contract with the insurer to accept what amounts to a discounted rate or capitation to the provider's standard charges. It generally costs the patient less to use an in-network provider. The Commonwealth Fund, in its annual survey, "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall", compares the performance of the health care systems in Australia, New Zealand,

6512-499: The public health insurance plan, but may be purchased and administered either through private or group plans, or through the public plan. Some, if not most, health care providers in the United States will agree to bill the insurance company if patients are willing to sign an agreement that they will be responsible for the amount that the insurance company does not pay. The insurance company pays out of network providers according to "reasonable and customary" charges, which may be less than

6600-666: The public health plans do not cover (for example, semi-private or private rooms in hospitals and prescription drug plans). Four provinces allow insurance for services also mandated by the Canada Health Act, but in practice, there is no market for it. All Canadians are free to use private insurance for elective medical services such as laser vision correction surgery, cosmetic surgery, and other non-basic medical procedures. Some 65% of Canadians have some form of supplementary private health insurance; many of them receive it through their employers. Private-sector services not paid for by

6688-429: The public provincial health insurance systems in Canada are frequently referred to as Medicare . This public insurance is tax-funded out of general government revenues, although British Columbia and Ontario levy a mandatory premium with flat rates for individuals and families to generate additional revenues – in essence, a surtax. Private health insurance is allowed, but in six provincial governments only for services that

6776-424: The record for HIV infections , previous government policy limiting funding and access for AIDS treatments met with strong controversy given its basis on a refusal to accept scientific evidence on the means of transmission. A change of government eventually led to a change in policy, with new policies implemented for widespread access to HIV services. Another issue relates to intellectual property , as illustrated by

6864-435: The requirement that all people have free access to what are termed "medically necessary services," defined primarily as care delivered by physicians or in hospitals, and the nursing component of long-term residential care. If provinces allow doctors or institutions to charge patients for medically necessary services, the federal government reduces its payments to the provinces by the amount of the prohibited charges. Collectively,

6952-507: The signs and symptoms of which existed during the six months ending on the day the person first took out insurance. They are also entitled to impose a 12-month waiting period for benefits for treatment relating to an obstetric condition, and a 2-month waiting period for all other benefits when a person first takes out private insurance. Funds have the discretion to reduce or remove such waiting periods in individual cases. They are also free not to impose them, to begin with, but this would place such

7040-480: The survey "found significant differences in access, cost burdens, and problems with health insurance that are associated with insurance design". Of the countries surveyed, the results indicated that people in the United States had more out-of-pocket expenses, more disputes with insurance companies than other countries, and more insurance payments denied; paperwork was also higher although Germany had similarly high levels of paperwork. The Australian public health system

7128-468: The treatment of serious pre-existing illnesses for which one has been receiving treatment during the 12 months before the start of the MediShield Life coverage. MediShield Life also does not cover treatment of congenital anomalies (medical conditions that are present at birth), cosmetic surgery, pregnancy-related charges and mental illness. Health policy Health policy can be defined as

7216-414: The variation between the various competing insurers is only about 5%. However, insurance companies are free to sell additional policies to provide coverage beyond the national minimum. These policies do not receive funding from the equalization pool but cover additional treatments, such as dental procedures and physiotherapy, which are not paid for by the mandatory policy. Funding from the equalization pool

7304-446: The world have established universal health care , which takes the burden of healthcare expenses off of private businesses or individuals through pooling of financial risk. There are a variety of arguments for and against universal healthcare and related health policies. Healthcare is an important part of health systems and therefore it often accounts for one of the largest areas of spending for both governments and individuals all over

7392-485: The world. Many countries and jurisdictions integrate a human rights philosophy in directing their healthcare policies. The World Health Organization reports that every country in the world is party to at least one human rights treaty that addresses health-related rights, including the right to health as well as other rights that relate to conditions necessary for good health. The United Nations ' Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) asserts that medical care

7480-482: The worldwide human rights organization Amnesty International has focused on health as a human right, addressing inadequate access to HIV drugs and women's sexual and reproductive rights including wide disparities in maternal mortality within and across countries. Such increasing attention to health as a basic human right has been welcomed by the leading medical journal The Lancet . There remains considerable controversy regarding policies on who would be paying

7568-1179: Was alleged in this case. The ruling has not changed the overall pattern of health insurance across Canada, but has spurred on attempts to tackle the core issues of supply and demand and the impact of wait times. In 2020 in Cyprus introduced the General Healthcare System (GHS, also known as GESY) which is an independent insurance fund through which clinics, private doctors, pharmacists, laboratories, microbiological laboratories, and physiotherapists will be paid so that they can offer medical care to permanent residents of Cyprus who will be paying contributions to this fund. In addition to GESY, more than 12 local and international insurance companies (e.g. Bupa , Aetna, Cigna , Metlife ) provide individual and group medical insurance plans. The plans are divided into two main categories plans providing coverage from inpatient expenses (i.e. hospitalization, operations) and plans covering inpatient and outpatient expenses (such as doctor visits, medications, physio-therapies). The national system of health insurance

7656-570: Was instituted in 1945, just after the end of the Second World War. It was a compromise between Gaullist and Communist representatives in the French parliament. The Conservative Gaullists were opposed to a state-run healthcare system, while the Communists were supportive of a complete nationalisation of health care along a British Beveridge model. The resulting programme is profession-based: all people working are required to pay

7744-504: Was made mandatory on all citizens, with private health insurance for the self-employed or above an income threshold. As of 2016, 85% of the population is covered by the compulsory Statutory Health Insurance (SHI) ( Gesetzliche Krankenversicherung or GKV ), with the remainder covered by private insurance ( Private Krankenversicherung or PKV ). Germany's health care system was 77% government-funded and 23% privately funded as of 2004. While public health insurance contributions are based on

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