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55-852: Labërishtja is a subdivision of the Southern Tosk group, which is itself a subdivision of Tosk Albanian, the collection of Albanian dialects south of the Shkumbin River . As such, it is most closely related to the Cham dialect of Chamëria , the Arbereshe of the old Albanian diaspora in Italy, and the Arvanitika of Arvanites in Greece . Features typical of Lab include the unrounding of Albanian /y/ ( [y] ) to /i/ ( [i] ), thus merging it with

110-400: A past perfect progressive (or past perfect continuous ) construction, such as had been working . This is the past equivalent of the present perfect progressive , and is used to refer to an ongoing action that continued up to the past time of reference. For example: "It had been raining all night when he awoke." It is also commonly used to refer to actions that had led to consequences in

165-563: A ll ( [ɫ] dark L) in many Lab dialects, leading madhe ( /maðɛ/ , "large") to be pronounced as malle ( [maɫɛ] ). Certain Lab dialects shift the Albanian schwa to a back vowel , [ʌ] (as in English n u t ), while others merge it with e /ɛ/ . Many Lab dialects also pronounce the schwa at the end of words, saying [pɛsʌ] instead of [pɛs] for pesë ("five"). Albanian e /ɛ/ may also become

220-428: A past time had already been started (but not necessarily completed), (e.g. "It had already been raining for a week when the big storm started."). Bernard Comrie classifies the pluperfect as an absolute-relative tense , because it absolutely (not by context) establishes a deixis (the past event) and places the action relative to the deixis (before it). Examples of the English pluperfect (past perfect) are found in

275-424: A pluperfect form (called ὑπερσυντέλικος , "more than completed"). An example is ἐτεθύκει , "had sacrificed" – compare the perfect τέθυκε , "has sacrificed". Modern Greek uses auxiliaries to form the pluperfect; examples are given in the table at the end of this article. In Latin , the pluperfect ( plus quam perfectum ) is formed without an auxiliary verb in the active voice , and with an auxiliary verb plus

330-488: A schwa in Lab before nasal consonants. Lab Albanian uses different past participles than Standard Albanian, which is based on a dialect of Tosk proper, specifically the one from the ethnographic region of Dangellia due to its usage by Albanian nationalist writers. The past participle of marr (to take) is marrur (not marrë as in standard) and the past participle of them is themur , rather than thënë . Lab and its sister dialect, Cham, have been found to lack many of

385-461: A slightly different word order, and is formed with the preterite form of ha ( have in English), i.e. hade ( had in English), plus the supine form of the main verb: När jag kom dit hade han gått hem - When I arrived there he had gone home . In Korean the pluperfect is formed by adding an additional "었". "었" is a morpheme that is analogous to the suffix "ed" in English, in that it

440-449: A synthetic pluperfect ( mais-que-perfeito or antepretérito ) has been conserved from Latin. For example, Quando cheguei, soube que o meu amigo morrera , 'When I came, I found out that my friend had died'. In Portuguese, however, its use has become mostly literary, and particularly in spoken communication, the pluperfect is usually formed using the auxiliary verb ter , in the imperfect form (tinha tinhas tinha tínhamos tínheis tinham) plus

495-553: A vedea 'to see'. Technically, this form is obtained from the singular third person form of the simple perfect tense by adding specific terminations for each person and number. However, in northern Transylvania there is a regional way to state the pluperfect (that may reflect the German influence). The pluperfect is expressed by combining the auxiliary verb fost or the short version fo ' (= "was" in English or "war" in German) with

550-512: Is also used to form the simple past tense. Thus In some of the Slavic languages the pluperfect has fallen out of use or is rarely used; pluperfect meaning is often expressed using the ordinary past tense, with some adverb (such as "earlier") or other periphrastic construction to indicate prior occurrence. Ukrainian and Belarusian preserve a distinct pluperfect ( давньоминулий час or запрошлы час – davńomynulyj čas or zaprošły čas ) that

605-551: Is an additional way to construct a pluperfect by doubling the perfect tense particles. This is called doubled perfect ( doppeltes Perfekt ) or super perfect ( Superperfekt ) in German and plus past perfect ( temps surcomposé ) in French. These forms are not commonly used in written language and they are not taught in school. Both languages allow to construct a past tense with a modal verb (like English "to have", in German "haben", in French "avoir"), for example "I have heard it". This

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660-539: Is considered archaic and is rarely used even in literary language. In Polish pluperfect is only found in texts written in or imitating Old Polish, when it was formed with past (perfect) tense of być "to be" and past participle of the main verb. The person marking is movable, e.g. zrobił byłem ~ zrobiłem był "I had done". Past tense of the adjectival verbs ( powinienem był zrobić "I should have done") and conditional mood ( zrobiłbym był "I would have done") are often wrongly considered pluperfect forms – morphologically,

715-522: Is expressed without any auxiliary words, using a particular form of the verb, originated in the Latin pluperfect subjunctive (compare Italian imperfect subjunctive Sembrava che Elsa non venisse with Romanian pluperfect Părea că Elsa nu venise ). For example, in Când l-am întrebat, el văzuse deja filmul 'When I asked him, he had already seen the movie'. The verb văzuse is in the pluperfect form of

770-598: Is formed by preceding the verb with buv / bula in Ukrainian and byŭ / była in Belarusian (literally, 'was'). It was and still is used in daily speech, especially in rural areas. Being mostly unused in literature during Soviet times, it is now regaining popularity. Here is an example of usage: Ja vže buv pіšov, až raptom zhadav... (Ukrainian) and Ja ŭžo byŭ pajšoŭ, kali raptam zhadaŭ (Belarusian) I almost had gone already when I recalled... In Slovenian ,

825-440: Is itself a past event, referred to using the past tense ( found ). The pluperfect is needed to make it clear that the first event (the thinking and the supposed reaching) is placed even earlier in the past. Some languages, like Latin , make pluperfects purely by inflecting the verb, whereas most modern European languages do so using appropriate auxiliary verbs in combination with past participles . Ancient Greek verbs had

880-551: Is largely equivalent to the usage in English. The additional perfect tense is constructed by putting the modal verb ("to have") in the past tense as if being the full verb ("I have had") followed by the actual verb in the past particle mode ("I have had heard it"). The same applies to those verbs which require "to be" (German "sein", French "être") as the modal verb for the construction of the past tense (which would not work in English). In spoken language in Southern Germany

935-827: Is peculiar in that certain Lab dialects may have (limited) use of a "have"( kam ) + subjunctive formation of the future tense, which is more typically characteristic of remote Gheg dialects such as the Upper Reka dialect . Although the idea that the Gheg/Tosk split is the oldest and most significant dialectal division in Albanian is widely viewed as canon, Lab has been found to exhibit certain "Gheg" grammatical characteristics (in addition to limited phonological characteristics such as retention of nasalization in selected Lab subdialects). Features that are typical of Gheg but not Tosk dialects but which are nevertheless found in Lab include

990-404: Is rarely used now. In Italian , there are two pluperfects in the indicative mood: the recent pluperfect ( trapassato prossimo ) and the remote pluperfect ( trapassato remoto ). The recent pluperfect is formed correspondingly to French by using the imperfect of the appropriate auxiliary verb ( essere or avere ) plus the past participle. For example, Ero affamato perché non avevo mangiato I

1045-713: Is roughly the geographical dividing line between Tosk and Gheg Albanian dialects, with Gheg spoken north of the Shkumbin and Tosk south of it. The dialectal split occurred after Christianisation of the region (4th century AD), with the river as the historic dialectal boundary which straddled the Jireček line . Pluperfect The pluperfect (shortening of plusquamperfect ), usually called past perfect in English, characterizes certain verb forms and grammatical tenses involving an action from an antecedent point in time. Examples in English are: "we had arrived " before

1100-432: Is sometimes used in relation to the grammar of other languages.) English also has a past perfect progressive (or past perfect continuous ) form: "had been writing". The pluperfect is traditionally described as a tense ; in modern linguistic terminology it may be said to combine tense with grammatical aspect ; namely past tense (reference to past time) and perfect aspect . It is used to refer to an occurrence that at

1155-582: The Illyrian name of the river: Genusus (recorded in Latin : Genusus , also Genessus , and in Ancient Greek : Γενούσος ). A Slavic intermediation has been rejected. Its inclusion in Latin loanwords into Proto-Albanian and phonetic evolution coincides with the historical existence of a large Roman town (near present-day Elbasan ), which gave the river its new name. The river originates in

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1210-691: The Old Albanian vowel length distinction (lost elsewhere in Tosk). Although the loss of nasal vowels in Tosk is said to be a diagnostic feature separating Southern (Tosk) Albanian from Northern (Gheg) Albanian, Albanian linguists Dilo Sheper and Gjinari have reported that there are nasal vowels present in the Lab dialects of Kurvelesh and Himare , which would mean there are in fact Tosk dialects with nasal vowels, contrary to prior assumptions, although some Albanian writers like Paçarizi expressed uncertainty about

1265-433: The imperfect of the auxiliary verb haber plus the past participle, the latter is formed with the simple past of haber plus the past participle. For example, in pluperfect Había comido cuando mi madre vino 'I had eaten when my mother came', but in pretérito anterior Hube comido cuando mi madre vino 'I had eaten when my mother would come'. This last form however is rarely used. Sometimes (specially in journalism)

1320-441: The past participle of the main verb, as in had jumped or had written , often used in its contracted form ' d , as in I'd jumped . It is commonly called the past perfect, being a combination of perfect aspect (marked by the use of the have auxiliary with the past participle) and past tense (marked by the use of the past tense of that auxiliary, had ). It is one of a number of analogously formed perfect constructions, such as

1375-403: The present perfect ("have/has jumped"), future perfect ("will have jumped") and conditional perfect ("would have jumped"). Unlike the present perfect, the past perfect can readily be used with an adverb specifying a past time frame for the occurrence. For example, it is incorrect to say * I have done it last Friday (the use of last Friday , specifying the past time, would entail the use of

1430-436: The simple past , I did it , rather than the present perfect). However, there is no such objection to a sentence like I had done it last Friday , where the past perfect is accompanied by a specification of the time of occurrence, especially in a context that clearly provides for a connection with another past event, either specified (as in I hadn't met him then. ) or implied (as in I hadn't expected that. ). English also has

1485-469: The /i/ phoneme, and a velar articulation for Albanian gj ( [ɟ] ) and q ( [c] ). As such, in areas where Lab is less influenced by Standard Albanian , Albanians from elsewhere may be shocked to hear words like gjyshi ( [ɟyʃi] , grandfather) pronounced as gishi ( [ɡiʃi] ). Likewise, Lab Albanians may say they speak " shkip " ( [ʃkip] ), not shqip ( [ʃcip] ). Lab also has some features that are more typical of Gheg dialects than Tosk ones: it preserves

1540-816: The Late Middle Ages and during the Ottoman era . Shkumbin River The Shkumbin ( / ʃ k uː m b iː n / ; Albanian pronunciation: [ʃkumbin] ), also known as Shkembi , is a river in Southern Europe . It is 181.4 km (112.7 mi) long and its drainage basin is 2,444 km (944 sq mi). Its average discharge is 61.5 m /s (2,170 cu ft/s). It derives from Latin Scampinus (recorded alternatively as Scampis ), which replaced

1595-768: The course, it flows inside a syncline between the Mokra and Shebenik Mountains in the east and the Polis Mountains in the west. Close to Librazhd the river turns some 50 km (31 mi) westwards of its origin and joins the Rapun stream. At the end, the river crosses the Myzeqe Plain and forms a small delta in Karavasta Lagoon , the direct proximity of the Adriatic Sea . The ancient name of

1650-606: The doubled perfect construction sometimes replaces the Standard German pluperfect construction. In France it is uncommon in the Northern regions (with Parisian influence) but it can be found widely in Provençal dialects as well as in other regions around the world. In all regions the doubled pluperfect ("I had had heard it") is uncommon although it is possible - all of these forms emphasize the perfect aspect by extending

1705-620: The eastern Valamara Mountains between Maja e Valamarës (2,375 m (7,792 ft)) and Gur i Topit (2,120 m (6,960 ft)) in Southeastern Albania. After descending from the Valamaras, it flows northwards through Proptisht and Qukës with many deep gorges and canyons and passes the Gora Mountains. A significant inflow comes from Gur i Kamjës (1,481 m (4,859 ft)) southwest of Pogradec . Over

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1760-540: The following sentence (from Viktor Frankl 's Man's Search for Meaning ): A man who for years had thought he had reached the absolute limit of all possible suffering now found that suffering had no limits, and that he could suffer still more, and more intensely. Here, "had thought" and "had reached" are examples of the pluperfect. They refer to an event (a man thinking he has reached the limit of his capacity to suffer), which takes place before another event (the man finding that his capacity to suffer has no limit), that

1815-445: The game began; "they had been writing " when the bell rang. The word derives from the Latin plus quam perfectum , "more than perfect". The word "perfect" in this sense means "completed"; it contrasts with the "imperfect", which denotes uncompleted actions or states. In English grammar , the pluperfect (e.g. "had written") is now usually called the past perfect, since it combines past tense with perfect aspect . (The same term

1870-483: The imperfect subjunctive with '-ar' termination can be used with a pluperfect sense in subordinated phrases, but it is neither normative nor recommended. In Dutch , the pluperfect ( voltooid verleden tijd ) is formed similarly as in German: the past participle ( voltooid deelwoord ) is combined with the past-tense form of the auxiliary verb hebben or zijn , depending on the full lexical verb: Voordat ik er erg in had,

1925-668: The imperfect subjunctive. It has a similar form to the Portuguese, thus, the Portuguese example below, in Judeo-Spanish, is: Kuando yegí suve ke mi haver morera , 'When I came I knew that my friend had died'. It remains the main spoken form, though in some varieties, similarly to Spanish or Portuguese, the pluperfect is formed using the auxiliary verbs tener or aver plus the past participle. For example, Kuando yegí suve ke mi haver tuve morido or Kuando yegí suve ke mi haver avía morido . In Portuguese and Galician ,

1980-474: The latter is actually past conditional, rarely used in modern Polish. In Serbo-Croatian , the pluperfect ("pluskvamperfekt") is constructed with the past tense ("perfekt") of the verb to be ("biti") plus the adjective form of the main verb. Alternatively, it can be formed by using the imperfect ("imperfekt") of "biti" with the past participle of the main verb. For example: "Ja sam bio učio" (or: "Ja bijah učio"), which means, "I had been studying". In Bulgarian ,

2035-565: The lower valley of the river, and to the east the Dassaretii who lived in the region of Lake Ohrid , including the upper valley of the river. The ancient Via Egnatia followed the river, giving it the role of a strategically important corridor between orient and occident. The Via Egnatia started with two branches, the northern one from Epidamnos-Dyrrhachion , and the southern one from Apollonia . The two branches converged at Ad Quintum , near modern Elbasan , continuing eastwards through

2090-427: The merchant, the buyer left." In French , the indicative pluperfect ( Plus-que-parfait , "more than perfect") is formed by taking the appropriate form of the imperfect indicative of the auxiliaries avoir or être and adding the past participle, j'avais mangé . Another type of pluperfect ( passé antérieur , "past anterior") can be formed with the appropriate simple past form of the auxiliary: j'eus mangé , though it

2145-425: The modal verb in the preterite or the auxiliary ( haben for all modals): There is a drastic shift of meaning between these variants: the first sentences denote that it "had been necessary" to rain in the past. The second sentence denotes that the speaker assumed that it had rained. In standard Swedish , the pluperfect ( pluskvamperfekt ) is similar to the pluperfect in a number of other Germanic languages, but with

2200-411: The participle, which (quite difficult to explain) is stated in its feminine form. Examples: o fost foastă (or o fo' foastă ) = he had been; am fost văzută = I had seen; or fost venită = they had come. In Spanish , there are also two pluperfects, being the pluperfect proper ( pluscuamperfecto , or antecopretérito ) and the so called pretérito anterior (or antepretérito ). While the former uses

2255-521: The particularities that wider Albanian has in morphological rules and syntactical patterns. Some but not all Lab dialects lack the admirative mood, typically considered a curious and unique particularism of Albanian although there are also related phenomena in some Bulgarian dialects. Lab has exerted some influence on Standard Albanian, for example causing the emergence of the short particle due to its use (in Lab) for compound past tenses. Laberishtja also

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2310-454: The past (as in I was sleepy because I'd been working all night. ). The past perfect form also has some uses in which it does not directly refer to an actual past event. These are generally in condition clauses and some other dependent clauses referring to hypothetical circumstances (as in "If I'd known about that, I wouldn't have asked."), as well as certain expressions of wish (as in "I wish I hadn't been so stupid back then."). In German ,

2365-459: The past participle. For example, Quando cheguei, soube que o meu amigo tinha morrido . A more formal way of expressing the pluperfect uses the verb "haver". For example: Quando cheguei, soube que o meu amigo havia morrido . This periphrastic construction is not permitted in Galician, so Galician uses the synthetic pluperfect exclusively. In Romanian , the pluperfect ( mai mult ca perfect )

2420-422: The past. (I.e. "After I used to find it, I would sell it" OR "After I would find it, I would sell it"). The first example, being the preterite, refers only to actions completed once in the remote past, or distant past. In Judeo-Spanish , the Latin pluperfect forms with little alteration have been preserved (e.g. final /m/ and /t/ are dropped) to express this tense ( pluskuamperfekto ), which is identical in form to

2475-479: The perfect passive participle in the passive voice . For example, in the indicative mood : The subjunctive mood is formed similarly (in this case dedisset and data esset respectively). In many cases an ablative absolute phrase, consisting of a noun and perfect participle in the ablative case, may be used in place of a pluperfect; for example: Pecuniis mercatori datis, cessit emptor , "When money had been given (more literally: Money having been given) to

2530-442: The pluperfect ( минало предварително време ) is formed with the imperfect tense of the auxiliary verb съм (to be) and the perfect active participle of the main verb. In Welsh , the pluperfect is formed without an auxiliary verb, usually by interpolating -as- before the simple past ending: parhasem , "we had remained". In Irish , perfect forms are constructed using the idea of being (or having been) after doing something. In

2585-490: The pluperfect ( Plusquamperfekt , Präteritumperfekt , or Vorvergangenheit , lit. pre-past ) is used in much the same manner, normally in a nachdem sentence. The Plusquamperfekt is formed with the Partizip Perfekt ( Partizip II) of the full lexical verb, plus the auxiliary verb haben or sein in its preterite form, depending on the full lexical verb in question. When using modal verbs, one can use either

2640-484: The pluperfect ( predpreteklik , 'before the past') is formed with the verb 'to be' ( biti ) in past tense and the participle of the main verb. It is used to denote a completed action in the past before another action ( Pred nekaj leti so bile vode poplavile vsa nabrežja Savinje , 'A few years ago, all the banks of Savinja River had been flooded) or, with a modal verb , a past event that should have happened ( Moral bi ti bil povedati , 'I should have told you'). Its use

2695-556: The pluperfect, bhíomar tar éis imeacht , "we had gone", literally, "we were after going". In Finnish , the pluperfect ( pluskvamperfekti ) is constructed with an auxiliary verb olla 'to be', which is in the past tense. The primary verbs get the past participle endings -nyt/-nut in singular, -neet in plural forms (the 'n' assimilates with certain consonants) and -ttu/-tty/-tu/-ty in passive forms. میں نے سنا تھا تم نے سنا تھا اس نے سنا تھا ہم نے سنا تھا آپ نے سنا تھا انہوں نے سنا تھا In German and French there

2750-560: The presence of the compound perfect and the pluperfect . It is believed that Lab Albanian split from its sibling dialects of Cham, Arvanitika and Arbereshe some time in the Middle Ages. Since then, its features have evolved through a variety of influences: language contact with Greek and specifically the Himariote dialect , isolation in mountainous regions and influence from Gheg dialects as Gheg speakers migrated to Lab areas in

2805-461: The reports. Menela Totoni, meanwhile, has detected the presence of nasal vowels in the extreme southern town of Borsh . Paçarizi notes that the presence of nasal vowels in Lab might imply that the loss of nasals in Tosk can no longer be viewed as the taxonomical difference between Gheg and Tosk, and that it may have occurred in the majority of Tosk dialects after Tosk had already split from Gheg. Standard Albanian dh ( [ð] ) may also be represented as

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2860-458: The river was Genusus and was located in central southern Illyria . At the same time, it was referred as Scampini , as it was identified by the town of Scampa . In classical antiquity, the valley of the Shkumbin was inhabited by several Illyrian peoples. The Parthini lived in the middle valley of the river. They neighbored to the west the Taulantii who lived in the coastal area including

2915-479: The valley of the Shkumbin. In Roman Imperial times, the line of division between the administrative provinces of Illyricum and Epirus Nova ran from the west somewhere between Scodra and Dyrrachium , to the east somewhere between the north side of the Shkumbin and Lake Ohrid . During this period, the valley of Skumbin constituted roughly the border between the Latin and the Greek -speaking area. The river

2970-409: Was het al twaalf uur geworden . - Before I noticed, it had become noon already . In addition, pluperfect is sometimes used instead of present perfect: Dat had ik al gezien (voordat jij het zag) - lit.: I had seen that (before you did) . The parenthesized part is implied and, therefore, can be omitted. In English grammar , the pluperfect is formed by combining the auxiliary verb had with

3025-459: Was hungry because I had not eaten. The remote pluperfect is formed by using the preterite of the appropriate auxiliary verb plus the past participle. In the Italian consecutio temporum, the trapassato remoto should be used for completed actions in a clause subjugated to a clause whose verb is in the preterite. The second example may refer to an event that happened continuously or habitually in

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