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58-677: Arvanitika ( / ˌ ɑːr v ə ˈ n ɪ t ɪ k ə / ; Arvanitika: αρbε̰ρίσ̈τ , romanized : arbërisht ; Greek : αρβανίτικα , romanized : arvanítika ), also known as Arvanitic , is the variety of Albanian traditionally spoken by the Arvanites , a population group in Greece . Arvanitika was brought to southern Greece during the late Middle Ages by Albanian settlers who moved south from their homeland in present-day Albania in several waves. The dialect preserves elements of medieval Albanian, while also being significantly influenced by

116-636: A dachsprache ("roof language"), in the way dialects of a national language within the same country usually are. There are three main groups of Arvanitic settlements in Greece. Most Arvanites live in the south of Greece, across Attica , Boeotia , the Peloponnese and some neighbouring areas and islands. A second, smaller group live in the northwest of Greece, in a zone contiguous with the Albanian-speaking lands proper. A third, outlying group

174-478: A Dachsprache for a number of quite different Romansh language forms spoken in parts of Switzerland . Similarly, Standard Basque and the Southern Quechua literary standard were both developed as standard languages for dialect continua that had historically been thought of as discrete languages with many dialects and no "official" dialect. Standard German and Italian , to some extent, function in

232-452: A pluricentric language . Examples include British and American Standard English , Standard Austrian German and German Standard German , or European and Brazilian variants of Portuguese . High Hindi and Urdu also have a common dialect basis ( Dehlavi ). The same is the case with Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, which also have the same dialect basis ( Shtokavian ), and consequently constitute four standard variants of

290-425: A "language": This framework addresses situations in which multiple varieties from a dialect continuum have been standardized, so that they are commonly considered distinct languages even though they may be mutually intelligible . The continental Scandinavian languages offer a commonly cited example of this situation. One of the applications of this theoretical framework is language standardization (examples since

348-531: A common (spoken or written) Standard Arvanitika has taken place. At the same time, Arvanites do not use Standard Albanian as their standard language either, as they are generally not literate in the Latin-based standard Albanian orthography, and are not reported to use spoken-language media in Standard Albanian. In this sense, then, Arvanitika is not functionally subordinated to Standard Albanian as

406-582: A large degree. Approximately at the same time, Dutch started to replace Low German as a roof of the Low German dialects in the Netherlands that form today's Dutch Low Saxon group, and most Central German dialects went under the "roof" of the evolving High German . Low German ceased to be spoken on the eastern rim of the Baltic Sea. Today, its dialects surviving in northern Germany have come under

464-591: A particular approach. There are several instances of languages and language pairs that have undergone role changes over time. Low German , for instance, was both an Abstand language and a roof of local dialects in the Netherlands and Germany and in parts of the Baltic states and their formerly German vicinity. With the end of the Hanseatic League , Low German lost its status as an official language to

522-535: A sample text in the three language forms. Trudgill (2004: 5) sums up that "[l]inguistically, there is no doubt that [Arvanitika] is a variety of Albanian". In terms of "ausbau" (sociolinguistic "upgrading" towards an autonomous standard language), the strongest indicator of autonomy is the existence of a separate writing system, the Greek-based Arvanitic alphabet . A very similar system was formerly in use also by other Tosk Albanian speakers between

580-611: A similar form of the Greek alphabet (e.g. [8] ). Texts in Arvanitika have survived in the private correspondence between Arvanites who used the dialect. Such is the correspondence of Ioannis Orlandos with Georgios Kountouriotis and other letters by members of the Kountouriotis family written in the Arvanitika of Hydra with Greek script. In public use, Arvanitika has been used in election pamphlets of Attica and Boeotia in

638-774: Is mutual intelligibility , though this does not always produce consistent results, for example when applied to a dialect continuum . An abstand language does not need to have a standard form. This is often the case with minority languages used within a larger state, where the minority language is used only in private, and all official functions are performed in the majority language. The German verb ausbauen ( pronounced [ˈaʊ̯sˌbaʊ̯ən] , literally "to build out") expresses core meanings of "expanding" something or "developing something to completion", e.g. adding to an existing structure. (Croatian linguist Žarko Muljačić  [ hr ] translated Ausbausprache into French as langue par élaboration .) Kloss suggested

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696-489: Is a perfectly mutually intelligible language, essentially meaning that any kind of text-based open source collaboration is impossible among devanagari and nastaʿlīq readers. Initiated in 2011, the Hamari Boli Initiative is a full-scale open-source language planning initiative aimed at Hindustani script, style, status & lexical reform and modernization. One of primary stated objectives of Hamari Boli

754-469: Is also closely related to Arbëresh , the dialect of Albanian in Italy , which largely goes back to Arvanite settlers from Greece. Italian Arbëresh has retained some words borrowed from Greek (for instance haristis 'thank you', from ευχαριστώ ; dhrom 'road', from δρόμος ; Ne 'yes', from ναι , in certain villages). Italo-Arbëresh and Graeco-Arvanitika have a mutually intelligible vocabulary base,

812-530: Is called " rōmaji " in Japanese . The most common systems are: While romanization has taken various and at times seemingly unstructured forms, some sets of rules do exist: Several problems with MR led to the development of the newer systems: Thai , spoken in Thailand and some areas of Laos, Burma and China, is written with its own script , probably descended from mixture of Tai–Laotian and Old Khmer , in

870-599: Is found in the northeast of Greece, in a few villages in Thrace . According to some authors, the term "Arvanitika" in its proper sense applies only to the southern group or to the southern and the Thracian groups together i.e. to those dialects that have been separated from the core of Albanian for several centuries. The dialects in the northwest are reported to be more similar to neighbouring Tosk dialects within Albania and to

928-497: Is no single universally accepted system of writing Russian using the Latin script—in fact there are a huge number of such systems: some are adjusted for a particular target language (e.g. German or French), some are designed as a librarian's transliteration, some are prescribed for Russian travellers' passports; the transcription of some names is purely traditional.   All this has resulted in great reduplication of names.   E.g.

986-506: Is the most common system of phonetic transcription. For most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves trade between the two extremes. Pure transcriptions are generally not possible, as the source language usually contains sounds and distinctions not found in the target language, but which must be shown for the romanized form to be comprehensible. Furthermore, due to diachronic and synchronic variance no written language represents any spoken language with perfect accuracy and

1044-548: Is to relieve Hindustani of the crippling devanagari–nastaʿlīq digraphia by way of romanization. Romanization of the Sinitic languages , particularly Mandarin , has proved a very difficult problem, although the issue is further complicated by political considerations. Because of this, many romanization tables contain Chinese characters plus one or more romanizations or Zhuyin . Romanization (or, more generally, Roman letters )

1102-447: Is typically taught in schools, and it is used as a written language in a wide variety of social and political functions, possibly including that of an official national language. In contrast, varieties that are not ausbau languages are typically only spoken and typically only used in private contexts. Trudgill expands the definition to include related varieties: [A]n Ausbau language is an autonomous standardized variety together with all

1160-527: Is used for languages of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. There is a long tradition in the west to study Sanskrit and other Indic texts in Latin transliteration. Various transliteration conventions have been used for Indic scripts since the time of Sir William Jones. Hindustani is an Indo-Aryan language with extreme digraphia and diglossia resulting from the Hindi–Urdu controversy starting in

1218-816: The Brahmic family . The Nuosu language , spoken in southern China, is written with its own script, the Yi script . The only existing romanisation system is YYPY (Yi Yu Pin Yin), which represents tone with letters attached to the end of syllables, as Nuosu forbids codas. It does not use diacritics, and as such due to the large phonemic inventory of Nuosu, it requires frequent use of digraphs, including for monophthong vowels. The Tibetan script has two official romanization systems: Tibetan Pinyin (for Lhasa Tibetan ) and Roman Dzongkha (for Dzongkha ). In English language library catalogues, bibliographies, and most academic publications,

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1276-592: The Greek language . Arvanitika is today endangered, as its speakers have been shifting to the use of Greek and most younger members of the community no longer speak it. The name Arvanítika and its native equivalent Arbërisht are derived from the ethnonym Arvanites , which in turn comes from the toponym Arbën or Arbër (Greek: Άρβανον), which in the Middle Ages referred to a region in modern Albania . Its native equivalents ( Arbërorë, Arbëreshë and others) used to be

1334-509: The Library of Congress transliteration method is used worldwide. In linguistics, scientific transliteration is used for both Cyrillic and Glagolitic alphabets . This applies to Old Church Slavonic , as well as modern Slavic languages that use these alphabets. A system based on scientific transliteration and ISO/R 9:1968 was considered official in Bulgaria since the 1970s. Since

1392-626: The Moselle River valley and neighbouring French département of Moselle ). Other examples of groups of vernaculars lacking abstand internally but that have given rise to multiple ausbau languages are: Persian of Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan ( cf. Farsi , Dari , Tajik ); Bulgarian and Macedonian , because they have different dialect bases. Finally, the ausbau languages may be so different that they also constitute abstand languages. Examples include Dutch versus German , Persian versus Pashto , and Tamil versus Telugu . In

1450-634: The Scandinavian dialect continuum spanning Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The three standardized languages Norwegian , Swedish and Danish (or four if Norwegian Bokmål and Nynorsk are distinguished) are mutually distinct ausbau languages, even though speakers of the different standards can readily understand one another. This classification invokes the criterion of social and political functions of language use. The sociolinguist Peter Trudgill has linked Kloss's theoretical framework with Einar Haugen 's framework of autonomy and heteronomy , with

1508-697: The Soviet Union , with some material published. The 2010 Ukrainian National system has been adopted by the UNGEGN in 2012 and by the BGN/PCGN in 2020. It is also very close to the modified (simplified) ALA-LC system, which has remained unchanged since 1941. The chart below shows the most common phonemic transcription romanization used for several different alphabets. While it is sufficient for many casual users, there are multiple alternatives used for each alphabet, and many exceptions. For details, consult each of

1566-767: The Tosk dialect spoken in Southern Albania. However, it has received a great deal of influence from Greek , mostly related to the vocabulary and the phonological system. At the same time, it is reported to have preserved some conservative features that were lost in mainstream Albanian Tosk. For example, it has preserved certain syllable-initial consonant clusters which have been simplified in Standard Albanian (cf. Arvanitika gljuhë /ˈɡʎuxə/ ('language/tongue'), vs. Standard Albanian gjuhë /ˈɟuhə/ ). In recent times, linguists have observed signs of accelerated structural convergence towards Greek and structural simplification of

1624-428: The pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language . Standards created from different dialects, but with little abstand , would not be considered separate abstand languages, but constitute distinct ausbau languages, as noted above for Danish , Swedish and Norwegian . The concept of ausbau is particularly important in cases where the local spoken varieties across a larger region form a dialect continuum. In such cases,

1682-542: The 16th and 18th century. However, this script is very rarely used in practice today, as Arvanitika is almost exclusively a spoken language confined to the private sphere. There is also some disagreement amongst Arvanites (as with the Aromanians ) as to whether the Latin alphabet should be used to write their language. Spoken Arvanitika is internally richly diversified into sub-dialects, and no further standardization towards

1740-462: The 1800s. Technically, Hindustani itself is recognized by neither the language community nor any governments. Two standardized registers , Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu , are recognized as official languages in India and Pakistan. However, in practice the situation is, The digraphia renders any work in either script largely inaccessible to users of the other script, though otherwise Hindustani

1798-454: The 1960s including Basque and Romansh ). Abstandsprache means "language by virtue of linguistic distance". Kloss suggested the English translation "language by distance", referring to linguistic differences rather than geographical separation. Abstand means a distance of ongoing separation, e.g. a clearance by mechanical design. In the context of language varieties, abstand indicates

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1856-880: The 19th century. These pamphlets were published in Greek and Arvanitika for the better propagation of party lines among Arvanites and to ease communication between non-Arvanite candidates who could not speak Arvanitika and Arvanite voters. Source: Arvanitikos Syndesmos Ellados Compared with Standard Tosk (red) , Gheg (green) and Arbëresh (blue) Albanian: Source: Η Καινή Διαθήκη στα Αρβανίτικα; "Christus Rex" website Source: Arvanitikos Syndesmos Ellados Romanization There are many consistent or standardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics. A particular system's characteristics may make it better-suited for various, sometimes contradictory applications, including document retrieval, linguistic analysis, easy readability, faithful representation of pronunciation. If

1914-423: The English translation "language by development", referring to the development of a standard variety from part of a dialect continuum : Languages belonging in this category are recognized as such because of having been shaped or reshaped, molded or remolded—as the case may be—in order to become a standardized tool of literary expression. Kloss identified several stages of this development, beginning with use of

1972-589: The Japanese martial art 柔術: the Nihon-shiki romanization zyûzyutu may allow someone who knows Japanese to reconstruct the kana syllables じゅうじゅつ , but most native English speakers, or rather readers, would find it easier to guess the pronunciation from the Hepburn version, jūjutsu . The Arabic script is used to write Arabic , Persian , Urdu , Pashto and Sindhi as well as numerous other languages in

2030-454: The Muslim world, particularly African and Asian languages without alphabets of their own. Romanization standards include the following: or G as in genre اِ || e || e || i || e || e || e || e Notes : Notes : There are romanization systems for both Modern and Ancient Greek . The Hebrew alphabet is romanized using several standards: The Brahmic family of abugidas

2088-519: The casual reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle of phonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds ( phonemes ) of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language. The popular Hepburn Romanization of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers. A phonetic conversion goes one step further and attempts to depict all phones in

2146-501: The discontinuity of two dialects; in the words of Kloss, there is a "definite break" between the varieties. An abstand language is a cluster of varieties that is distinctly separate from any other language. European examples include Basque and Breton . Kloss also spoke of degrees of abstand between pairs of varieties. He did not specify how the differences between two varieties would be measured, assuming that linguists would apply objective criteria. A standard linguistic criterion

2204-455: The former two cases, scholars do not always agree on the best classification, as they always partake, inadvertently, in the "language making" and "language unmaking" process. The concept of a One Standard German Axiom in that language is a case in point that illustrates the contested nature of the first two types of ausbau languages, occasionally also the third, varying with the degree with which sociolinguistic processes are assigned relevance in

2262-538: The language sections above. (Hangul characters are broken down into jamo components.) For Persian Romanization For Cantonese Romanization Dachsprache In sociolinguistics , an abstand language is a language variety or cluster of varieties with significant linguistic distance from all others, while an ausbau language is a standard variety, possibly with related dependent varieties . Heinz Kloss introduced these terms in 1952 to denote two separate and largely independent sets of criteria for recognizing

2320-405: The language, which have been interpreted as signs of "language attrition", i.e. effects of impoverishment leading towards language death . Arvanitika has rarely been written. Reportedly ( GHM 1995 ), it has been written in both the Greek alphabet (often with the addition of the letters b, d, e and j, or diacritics, e.g. [7] ) and the Latin alphabet. Orthodox Tosk Albanians also used to write with

2378-457: The late 1990s, Bulgarian authorities have switched to the so-called Streamlined System avoiding the use of diacritics and optimized for compatibility with English. This system became mandatory for public use with a law passed in 2009. Where the old system uses <č,š,ž,št,c,j,ă>, the new system uses <ch,sh,zh,sht,ts,y,a>. The new Bulgarian system was endorsed for official use also by UN in 2012, and by BGN and PCGN in 2013. There

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2436-526: The linguistic systems), linguists' assessment of the degree of mutual intelligibility between Arvanitika and Standard Tosk range from fairly high to only partial (Ethnologue). The Ethnologue also mentions that mutual intelligibility may even be problematic between different subdialects within Arvanitika. Mutual intelligibility between Standard Tosk and Arvanitika is higher than that between the two main dialect groups within Albanian, Tosk and Gheg. See below for

2494-475: The name of the Russian composer Tchaikovsky may also be written as Tchaykovsky , Tchajkovskij , Tchaikowski , Tschaikowski , Czajkowski , Čajkovskij , Čajkovski , Chajkovskij , Çaykovski , Chaykovsky , Chaykovskiy , Chaikovski , Tshaikovski , Tšaikovski , Tsjajkovskij etc. Systems include: The Latin script for Syriac was developed in the 1930s, following the state policy for minority languages of

2552-642: The nonstandard dialects from that part of the dialect continuum which are heteronomous with respect to it i.e. dependent on it. Kloss described an ausbau language as providing a "roof" (German: Dach ) over dependent varieties, whereas non-standard varieties without a reference standard were "roofless dialects". He used the term "near-dialectized sister languages" for varieties roofed by a standard variety with which they are related but not mutually intelligible, such as Low Saxon (roofed by Standard German ), Occitan and Haitian Creole (roofed by French ), and Sardinian (roofed by Italian ). Muljačić introduced

2610-522: The question of where the one language ends and the other starts is often a question more of ausbau than of abstand. In some instances, ausbau languages have been created out of dialects for purposes of nation-building . This applies, for instance, to Luxembourgish vis-a-vis German (the vernaculars in Luxembourg are varieties of Moselle Franconian , which is also spoken in the German sections of

2668-589: The romanization attempts to transliterate the original script, the guiding principle is a one-to-one mapping of characters in the source language into the target script, with less emphasis on how the result sounds when pronounced according to the reader's language. For example, the Nihon-shiki romanization of Japanese allows the informed reader to reconstruct the original Japanese kana syllables with 100% accuracy, but requires additional knowledge for correct pronunciation. Most romanizations are intended to enable

2726-466: The roof of Standard German . Local Low German dialects spoken in the Netherlands have come under the roof of Dutch. This happened despite the effect of notable migration streams in both directions between the Western (Dutch) and Eastern (Prussian, now mainly Polish and Russian) areas of the region of the Low German languages, motivated by both religious intolerance and labour need. In several spots along

2784-418: The same way. Perhaps the most widely used Dachsprache is Modern Standard Arabic , which links together the speakers of many different, often mutually unintelligible varieties of Arabic . Kloss recognized three degrees of separation between ausbau languages. When two standards are based on identical or near-identical dialects, he considered them as splits of the same standard into two or more, constituting

2842-440: The self-designation of Albanians in general. In the past Arvanitika had sometimes been described as "Graeco-Albanian" and the like (e.g., Furikis, 1934); although today many Arvanites consider such names offensive, they generally identify nationally and ethnically as Greeks and not Albanians . Arvanitika is part of the Tosk dialect group of Albanian, and as such closely related to the varieties spoken across southern Albania. It

2900-398: The source language, sacrificing legibility if necessary by using characters or conventions not found in the target script. In practice such a representation almost never tries to represent every possible allophone—especially those that occur naturally due to coarticulation effects—and instead limits itself to the most significant allophonic distinctions. The International Phonetic Alphabet

2958-416: The speech of the former Cham Albanians (Çamërishte) , who used to live in the same region. These dialects are classified by Ethnologue as part of core Tosk Albanian, as opposed to "Arvanitika Albanian" in the narrow sense, although Ethnologue notes that the term "Arvanitika" is also often applied indiscriminately to both forms in Greece. In their own language, some groups in the north-west are reported to use

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3016-418: The statement that a variety is an ausbau language corresponding to the statement that it is used "autonomously" with respect to other related languages. Such a language has an independent cultural status, even though it may be mutually intelligible with other ausbau languages from the same continuum. This typically means that it has its own standardized form independent of neighbouring standard languages, it

3074-407: The term Dachsprache , or "roofing language", for a dialect that serves as a standard language for other dialects. These dialects would usually be in a dialect continuum , but may be so different that mutual intelligibility is not possible between all dialects, particularly those separated by significant geographical distance. In 1982, "Rumantsch Grischun" was developed by Heinrich Schmid as such

3132-705: The term Shqip ( Albanian language ) to refer to their own language as well as to that of Albanian nationals, and this has sometimes been interpreted as implying that they are ethnically Albanians. The Arvanitika of southern Greece is richly sub-divided into local dialects. Sasse (1991) distinguishes as many as eleven dialect groups within that area: West Attic, Southeast Attic, Northeast-Attic-Boeotian, West Boeotian, Central Boeotian, Northeast Peloponnesian, Northwest Peloponnesian, South Peloponnesian, West Peloponnesian, Euboean, and Andriote. Estimated numbers of speakers of Arvanitika vary widely, between 30,000 and 150,000. These figures include "terminal speakers" (Tsitsipis 1998) of

3190-483: The unintelligible elements of the two dialects stem from the usage of Italian or Greek modernisms in the absence of native ones. While linguistic scholarship unanimously describes Arvanitika as a dialect of Albanian many Arvanites are reported to dislike the use of the name "Albanian" to designate it. Sociolinguistic work has described Arvanitika within the conceptual framework of "ausbausprachen" and " abstandssprachen " . In terms of "abstand" (objective difference of

3248-426: The variety for humour or folklore , followed by lyrics and then narrative prose. The next phase, which he considered crucial, was use of the variety for serious non-fiction. From this point, the variety could be further developed for use in technical, scientific or government domains. A standard variety developed in this way can be mutually intelligible with other standard varieties. A commonly cited example occurs in

3306-509: The vocal interpretation of a script may vary by a great degree among languages. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written foreign language, written native language, spoken (read) native language. Reducing the number of those processes, i.e. removing one or both steps of writing, usually leads to more accurate oral articulations. In general, outside a limited audience of scholars, romanizations tend to lean more towards transcription. As an example, consider

3364-472: The younger generation, who have only acquired an imperfect command of the language and are unlikely to pass it on to future generations. The number of villages with traditional Arvanite populations is estimated to more than 500. There are no monolingual Arvanitika-speakers, as all are today bilingual in Greek. Arvanitika is considered an endangered language due to the large-scale language shift towards Greek in recent decades. Arvanitika shares many features with

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