113-410: Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as Lamarck ( / l ə ˈ m ɑːr k / ; French: [ʒɑ̃batist lamaʁk] ), was a French naturalist , biologist , academic, and soldier. He was an early proponent of the idea that biological evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws . Lamarck fought in
226-615: A deist . The philosopher of biology Michael Ruse described Lamarck, "as believing in God as an unmoved mover, creator of the world and its laws, who refuses to intervene miraculously in his creation." Biographer James Moore described Lamarck as a "thoroughgoing deist". The historian Jacques Roger has written, "Lamarck was a materialist to the extent that he did not consider it necessary to have recourse to any spiritual principle... his deism remained vague, and his idea of creation did not prevent him from believing everything in nature, including
339-504: A lymphoma or leukemia . Rarely, depending on location, lymph node enlargement may cause problems such as difficulty breathing, or compression of a blood vessel (for example, superior vena cava obstruction ). Enlarged lymph nodes might be felt as part of a medical examination , or found on medical imaging . Features of the medical history may point to the cause, such as the speed of onset of swelling, pain, and other constitutional symptoms such as fevers or weight loss. For example,
452-436: A "steady-state biology". Lamarck saw spontaneous generation as being ongoing, with the simple organisms thus created being transmuted over time becoming more complex. He is sometimes regarded as believing in a teleological (goal-oriented) process where organisms became more perfect as they evolved, though as a materialist, he emphasized that these forces must originate necessarily from underlying physical principles. According to
565-457: A botany book by James Francis Chomel. With a reduced pension of only 400 francs a year, Lamarck resolved to pursue a profession. He attempted to study medicine, and supported himself by working in a bank office. Lamarck studied medicine for four years, but gave it up under his elder brother's persuasion. He was interested in botany , especially after his visits to the Jardin du Roi , and he became
678-551: A deeper part known as the paracortex . The outer cortex consists of groups of mainly inactivated B cells called follicles. When activated, these may develop into what is called a germinal centre . The deeper paracortex mainly consists of the T cells . Here the T-cells mainly interact with dendritic cells , and the reticular network is dense. The medulla contains large blood vessels, sinuses and medullary cords that contain antibody-secreting plasma cells. There are fewer cells in
791-471: A great risk of infection. Management of lymphedema may include advice to lose weight, exercise, keep the affected limb moist, and compress the affected area. Sometimes surgical management is also considered. The spleen and the tonsils are the larger secondary lymphoid organs that serve somewhat similar functions to lymph nodes, though the spleen filters blood cells rather than lymph. The tonsils are sometimes erroneously referred to as lymph nodes. Although
904-428: A larger number of immune cells in the event of an infection. A lymph node contains lymphoid tissue, i.e., a meshwork or fibers called reticulum with white blood cells enmeshed in it. The regions where there are few cells within the meshwork are known as lymph sinus . It is lined by reticular cells, fibroblasts and fixed macrophages. Thin reticular fibers (reticulin) of reticular connective tissue form
1017-456: A lymph node is divided into the outer cortex and the inner medulla . These are rich with cells. The hilum is an indent on the concave surface of the lymph node where lymphatic vessels leave and blood vessels enter and leave. Lymph enters the convex side of a lymph node through multiple afferent lymphatic vessels and from there flows into a series of sinuses. After entering the lymph node from afferent lymphatic vessels, lymph flows into
1130-510: A lymphoid follicle, where they multiply and divide, each producing a different antibody. If a cell is stimulated, it will go on to produce more antibodies (a plasma cell) or act as a memory cell to help the body fight future infection. If a cell is not stimulated, it will undergo apoptosis and die. Antigens are molecules found on bacterial cell walls , chemical substances secreted from bacteria, or sometimes even molecules present in body tissue itself. These are taken up by cells throughout
1243-474: A major work on the classification of invertebrates. In the work, he introduced definitions of natural groups among invertebrates. He categorized echinoderms , arachnids , crustaceans , and annelids , which he separated from the old taxon for worms known as Vermes . Lamarck was the first to separate arachnids from insects in classification, and he moved crustaceans into a separate class from insects. In 1802, Lamarck published Hydrogéologie , and became one of
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#17327758955371356-537: A material life force. Lamarck ran against the modern chemistry promoted by Lavoisier (whose ideas he regarded with disdain), preferring to embrace a more traditional alchemical view of the elements as influenced primarily by earth, air, fire, and water. He asserted that once living organisms form, the movements of fluids in living organisms naturally drove them to evolve toward ever greater levels of complexity: The rapid motion of fluids will etch canals between delicate tissues. Soon their flow will begin to vary, leading to
1469-435: A materialistic attitude toward biology. Lamarck referred to a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving "up" a ladder of progress . He referred to this phenomenon as Le pouvoir de la vie or la force qui tend sans cesse à composer l'organisation (The force that perpetually tends to make order). Lamarck believed in the ongoing spontaneous generation of simple living organisms through action on physical matter by
1582-443: A mesh-work in the central or medullary portion of the node. These trabecular spaces formed by the interlacing trabeculae contain the proper lymph node substance or lymphoid tissue. The node pulp does not, however, completely fill the spaces, but leaves between its outer margin and the enclosing trabeculae a channel or space of uniform width throughout. This is termed the subcapsular sinus (lymph path or lymph sinus). Running across it are
1695-442: A more well-established alternative. Lamarck is usually remembered for his belief in the then commonly held theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics , and the use and disuse model by which organisms developed their characteristics. Lamarck incorporated this belief into his theory of evolution, along with other common beliefs of the time, such as spontaneous generation. The inheritance of acquired characteristics (also called
1808-476: A naturalist, studies the world by observing plants and animals directly. Because organisms are functionally inseparable from the environment in which they live and because their structure and function cannot be adequately interpreted without knowing some of their evolutionary history, the study of natural history embraces the study of fossils as well as physiographic and other aspects of the physical environment". A common thread in many definitions of natural history
1921-497: A number of finer trabeculae of reticular fibers, mostly covered by ramifying cells. In the lymphatic system, a lymph node is a secondary lymphoid organ. The primary function of lymph nodes is the filtering of lymph to identify and fight infection. In order to do this, lymph nodes contain lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, which includes B cells and T cells. These circulate through the bloodstream and enter and reside in lymph nodes. B cells produce antibodies . Each antibody has
2034-556: A part of science proper. In Victorian Scotland, the study of natural history was believed to contribute to good mental health. Particularly in Britain and the United States, this grew into specialist hobbies such as the study of birds , butterflies, seashells ( malacology / conchology ), beetles, and wildflowers; meanwhile, scientists tried to define a unified discipline of biology (though with only partial success, at least until
2147-447: A role for use and disuse as an evolutionary mechanism subsidiary to natural selection, most often in respect of disuse . He praised Lamarck for "the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change in the organic... world, being the result of law, not miraculous interposition". Lamarckism is also occasionally used to describe quasi-evolutionary concepts in societal contexts, though not by Lamarck himself. For example,
2260-403: A single predetermined target, an antigen , that it can bind to. These circulate throughout the bloodstream and if they find this target, the antibodies bind to it and stimulate an immune response. Each B cell produces different antibodies, and this process is driven in lymph nodes. B cells enter the bloodstream as "naive" cells produced in bone marrow . After entering a lymph node, they then enter
2373-451: A space ( Latin : sinus ) underneath the capsule called the subcapsular sinus. From here, lymph flows into sinuses within the cortex. After passing through the cortex, lymph then collects in medullary sinuses. All of these sinuses drain into the efferent lymphatic vessels to exit the node at the hilum on the concave side. These are channels within the node lined by endothelial cells along with fibroblastic reticular cells, allowing for
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#17327758955372486-440: A space underneath the capsule called the subcapsular sinus , then into cortical sinuses. After passing through the cortex, lymph then collects in medullary sinuses. All of these sinuses drain into the efferent lymph vessels to exit the node at the hilum on the concave side. Lymph nodes are present throughout the body, are more concentrated near and within the trunk, and are divided into groups. There are about 450 lymph nodes in
2599-593: A student under Bernard de Jussieu , a notable French naturalist. Under Jussieu, Lamarck spent 10 years studying French flora. In 1776, he wrote his first scientific essay—a chemical treatise. After his studies, in 1778, he published some of his observations and results in a three-volume work, entitled Flore française . Lamarck's work was respected by many scholars, and it launched him into prominence in French science. On 8 August 1778, Lamarck married Marie Anne Rosalie Delaporte. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon , one of
2712-490: A supporting meshwork inside the node. These reticular cells also form a conduit network within the lymph node that functions as a molecular sieve, to prevent pathogens that enter the lymph node through afferent vessels re-enter the blood stream. The lymph node capsule is composed of dense irregular connective tissue with some plain collagenous fibers , and a number of membranous processes or trabeculae extend from its internal surface. The trabeculae pass inward, radiating toward
2825-487: A tumour of the breast may result in swelling of the lymph nodes under the arms and weight loss and night sweats may suggest a malignancy such as lymphoma. In addition to a medical exam by a medical practitioner , medical tests may include blood tests and scans may be needed to further examine the cause. A biopsy of a lymph node may also be needed. Lymph nodes can be affected by both primary cancers of lymph tissue, and secondary cancers affecting other parts of
2938-434: Is a kidney -shaped organ of the lymphatic system and the adaptive immune system . A large number of lymph nodes are linked throughout the body by the lymphatic vessels . They are major sites of lymphocytes that include B and T cells . Lymph nodes are important for the proper functioning of the immune system , acting as filters for foreign particles including cancer cells , but have no detoxification function. In
3051-482: Is a domain of inquiry involving organisms , including animals , fungi , and plants , in their natural environment , leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is called a naturalist or natural historian . Natural history encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it. It involves the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms, so while it dates from studies in
3164-460: Is also echoed by H.W. Greene and J.B. Losos: "Natural history focuses on where organisms are and what they do in their environment, including interactions with other organisms. It encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do". Some definitions go further, focusing on direct observation of organisms in their environments, both past and present, such as this one by G.A. Bartholomew: "A student of natural history, or
3277-630: Is criss-crossed by the pseudopods of macrophages, which act to trap foreign particles and filter the lymph. The medullary sinuses converge at the hilum and lymph then leaves the lymph node via the efferent lymphatic vessel towards either a more central lymph node or ultimately for drainage into a central venous subclavian blood vessel . Lymph node enlargement or swelling is known as lymphadenopathy . Swelling may be due to many causes, including infections , tumors , autoimmune disease , drug reactions , diseases such as amyloidosis and sarcoidosis , or because of lymphoma or leukemia . Depending on
3390-424: Is divided into compartments called nodules (or lobules), each consisting of a region of cortex with combined follicle B cells, a paracortex of T cells, and a part of the nodule in the medulla. The substance of a lymph node is divided into the outer cortex and the inner medulla . The cortex of a lymph node is the outer portion of the node, underneath the capsule and the subcapsular sinus. It has an outer part and
3503-400: Is most often defined as a type of observation and a subject of study, it can also be defined as a body of knowledge, and as a craft or a practice, in which the emphasis is placed more on the observer than on the observed. Definitions from biologists often focus on the scientific study of individual organisms in their environment, as seen in this definition by Marston Bates: "Natural history is
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3616-472: Is one of the most deprecatory and chillingly partisan biographies I have ever read—though he was supposedly writing respectful comments in the old tradition of de mortuis nil nisi bonum . While he was working on Hydrogéologie (1802), Lamarck had the idea to apply the principle of erosion to biology. This led him to the basic principle of evolution, which saw the fluids in organs inheriting more complex forms and functions, thus passing on these traits to
3729-399: Is the inclusion of a descriptive component, as seen in a recent definition by H.W. Greene: "Descriptive ecology and ethology". Several authors have argued for a more expansive view of natural history, including S. Herman, who defines the field as "the scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments. It is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to
3842-550: The American Society of Naturalists and Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists . Professional societies have recognized the importance of natural history and have initiated new sections in their journals specifically for natural history observations to support the discipline. These include "Natural History Field Notes" of Biotropica , "The Scientific Naturalist" of Ecology , "From the Field" of Waterbirds , and
3955-704: The French Academy of Sciences in 1779. Lamarck became involved in the Jardin des Plantes and was appointed to the Chair of Botany in 1788. When the French National Assembly founded the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle in 1793, Lamarck became a professor of zoology . In 1801, he published Système des animaux sans vertèbres , a major work on the classification of invertebrates , a term which he coined. In an 1802 publication, he became one of
4068-486: The Natural History Society of Northumbria founded in 1829, London Natural History Society (1858), Birmingham Natural History Society (1859), British Entomological and Natural History Society founded in 1872, Glasgow Natural History Society, Manchester Microscopical and Natural History Society established in 1880, Whitby Naturalists' Club founded in 1913, Scarborough Field Naturalists' Society and
4181-531: The Renaissance , making it one of the longest-lasting of all natural history books. From the ancient Greeks until the work of Carl Linnaeus and other 18th-century naturalists, a major concept of natural history was the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being , an arrangement of minerals, vegetables, more primitive forms of animals, and more complex life forms on a linear scale of supposedly increasing perfection, culminating in our species. Natural history
4294-502: The Seven Years' War against Prussia , and was awarded a commission for bravery on the battlefield. Posted to Monaco , Lamarck became interested in natural history and resolved to study medicine. He retired from the army after being injured in 1766, and returned to his medical studies. Lamarck developed a particular interest in botany, and later, after he published the three-volume work Flore françoise (1778), he gained membership of
4407-488: The adaptive immune response . There is usually only one efferent vessel though sometimes there may be two, in contrast to the multiple afferent channels that bring lymph into the node. Medullary sinuses contain histiocytes (immobile macrophages) and reticular cells, the former of which, along with T and B cells, become activated in the presence of antigens through lymphatic flow. The fewer efferent vessels allow this flow to be slowed, providing time to activate and distribute
4520-548: The ancient Greco-Roman world and the mediaeval Arabic world , through to European Renaissance naturalists working in near isolation, today's natural history is a cross-discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences; e.g., geobiology has a strong multidisciplinary nature. The meaning of the English term "natural history" (a calque of the Latin historia naturalis ) has narrowed progressively with time, while, by contrast,
4633-518: The biological and geological sciences. The two were strongly associated. During the heyday of the gentleman scientists , many people contributed to both fields, and early papers in both were commonly read at professional science society meetings such as the Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences —both founded during the 17th century. Natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus' aspiration to improve
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4746-457: The central dogma of biology ) but prevents the expression of genes , such as by methylation to modify DNA transcription ; this can be produced by changes in behaviour and environment. Many epigenetic changes are heritable to a degree. Thus, while DNA itself is not directly altered by the environment and behavior except through selection, the relationship of the genotype to the phenotype can be altered, even across generations, by experience within
4859-497: The humanities (primarily what is now known as classics ) and divinity , with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. The study of nature revived in the Renaissance , and quickly became a third branch of academic knowledge, itself divided into descriptive natural history and natural philosophy , the analytical study of nature. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry , while natural history included
4972-405: The memetic theory of cultural evolution is sometimes described as a form of Lamarckian inheritance of nongenetic traits. During his lifetime, Lamarck named a large number of species, many of which have become synonyms. The World Register of Marine Species gives no fewer than 1,634 records. The Indo-Pacific Molluscan Database gives 1,781 records. Among these are some well-known families such as
5085-642: The modern evolutionary synthesis ). Still, the traditions of natural history continue to play a part in the study of biology, especially ecology (the study of natural systems involving living organisms and the inorganic components of the Earth's biosphere that support them), ethology (the scientific study of animal behavior), and evolutionary biology (the study of the relationships between life forms over very long periods of time), and re-emerges today as integrative organismal biology. Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building
5198-421: The paracortex . There are fewer cells in the medulla than the cortex. The medulla contains plasma cells, as well as macrophages which are present within the medullary sinuses. As part of the reticular network, there are follicular dendritic cells in the B cell follicle and fibroblastic reticular cells in the T cell cortex. The reticular network provides structural support and a surface for adhesion of
5311-412: The prognosis . Lymphadenopathy refers to glands that are enlarged or swollen. When inflamed or enlarged, lymph nodes can be firm or tender. Lymph nodes are kidney or oval shaped and range in size from 2 mm to 25 mm on their long axis, with an average of 15 mm. Each lymph node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule, which extends inside a lymph node to form trabeculae . The substance of
5424-587: The "Natural History Miscellany section" of the American Naturalist . Natural history observations have contributed to scientific questioning and theory formation. In recent times such observations contribute to how conservation priorities are determined. Mental health benefits can ensue, as well, from regular and active observation of chosen components of nature, and these reach beyond the benefits derived from passively walking through natural areas. Lymph node A lymph node , or lymph gland ,
5537-575: The Academie for financial assistance. Lamarck was buried in a common grave of the Montparnasse cemetery for just five years, according to the grant obtained from relatives. Later, the body was dug up along with other remains and was lost. Lamarck's books and the contents of his home were sold at auction, and his body was buried in a temporary lime pit. After his death, Cuvier used the form of a eulogy to denigrate Lamarck: [Cuvier's] éloge of Lamarck
5650-452: The DNA sequence, have caused debate about whether a "neolamarckist" view of inheritance could be correct: Lamarck was not in a position to give a molecular explanation for his theory. Eva Jablonka and Marion Lamb , for example, call themselves neolamarckists. Reviewing the evidence, David Haig argued that any such mechanisms must themselves have evolved through natural selection. Darwin allowed
5763-670: The Natural History Institute (Prescott, Arizona): Natural history – a practice of intentional focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy – is the oldest continuous human endeavor. In the evolutionary past of our species, the practice of natural history was essential for our survival, imparting critical information on habits and chronologies of plants and animals that we could eat or that could eat us. Natural history continues to be critical to human survival and thriving. It contributes to our fundamental understanding of how
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#17327758955375876-585: The Paris Basin, he grew convinced that transmutation or change in the nature of a species occurred over time. He set out to develop an explanation, and on 11 May 1800 (the 21st day of Floreal , Year VIII, in the revolutionary timescale used in France at the time), he presented a lecture at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in which he first outlined his newly developing ideas about evolution. In 1801, he published Système des Animaux sans Vertèbres ,
5989-473: The Royal Garden, and also other objects of natural history, such as minerals and ores, that were not found in French museums. On 7 January 1786, his second son, Antoine, was born, and Lamarck chose Antoine Laurent de Jussieu , Bernard de Jussieu's nephew, as the boy's godfather. On 21 April the following year, Charles René, Lamarck's third son, was born. René Louiche Desfontaines , a professor of botany at
6102-402: The Royal Garden, was the boy's godfather, and Lamarck's elder sister, Marie Charlotte Pelagie De Monet, was the godmother. In 1788, Buffon's successor at the position of Intendant of the Royal Garden, Charles-Claude Flahaut de la Billaderie, comte d'Angiviller , created a position for Lamarck, with a yearly salary of 1,000 francs, as the keeper of the herbarium of the Royal Garden. In 1790, at
6215-556: The Sorby Natural History Society, Sheffield , founded in 1918. The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered. Many civil servants took an interest in their new surroundings, sending specimens back to museums in the Britain . (See also: Indian natural history ) Societies in other countries include
6328-505: The adult. Some lymph nodes can be felt when enlarged (and occasionally when not), such as the axillary lymph nodes under the arm, the cervical lymph nodes of the head and neck and the inguinal lymph nodes near the groin crease. Most lymph nodes lie within the trunk adjacent to other major structures in the body - such as the paraaortic lymph nodes and the tracheobronchial lymph nodes . The lymphatic drainage patterns are different from person to person and even asymmetrical on each side of
6441-400: The antigen and present it to follicular helper T cells on the B and T cell zone interface. If a cognate FTh cell is found it will upregulate CD40L and promote somatic hypermutation and isotype class switching of the B cell, increasing its antigen binding affinity and changing its effector function. Proliferation of cells within a lymph node will make the node expand. Lymph is present throughout
6554-527: The ark clams ( Arcidae ), the sea hares ( Aplysiidae ), and the cockles ( Cardiidae ). The International Plant Names Index gives 58 records, including a number of well-known genera such as the mosquito fern ( Azolla ). The honeybee subspecies Apis mellifera lamarckii is named after Lamarck, as well as the bluefire jellyfish ( Cyaneia lamarckii ). A number of plants have also been named after him, including Amelanchier lamarckii (juneberry), Digitalis lamarckii , and Aconitum lamarckii , as well as
6667-413: The assembly of professors for the museum for a period of one year. In 1797, Charlotte died, and he married Julie Mallet the following year; she died in 1819. In his first six years as professor, Lamarck published only one paper, in 1798, on the influence of the moon on the Earth's atmosphere. Lamarck began as an essentialist who believed species were unchanging; however, after working on the molluscs of
6780-512: The body called antigen-presenting cells , such as dendritic cells. These antigen presenting cells enter the lymph system and then lymph nodes. They present the antigen to T cells and, if there is a T cell with the appropriate T cell receptor, it will be activated. B cells acquire antigen directly from the afferent lymph. If a B cell binds its cognate antigen it will be activated. Some B cells will immediately develop into antibody secreting plasma cells, and secrete IgM. Other B cells will internalize
6893-423: The body can cause lymph nodes to enlarge because of tumorous cells that have metastasised into the node. Lymph node involvement is often a key part in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, acting as " sentinels " of local disease, incorporated into TNM staging and other cancer staging systems. As part of the investigations or workup for cancer, lymph nodes may be imaged or even surgically removed. If removed,
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#17327758955377006-403: The body, and circulates through lymphatic vessels . These drain into and from lymph nodes – afferent vessels drain into nodes, and efferent vessels from nodes. When lymph fluid enters a node, it drains into the node just beneath the capsule in a space called the subcapsular sinus. The subcapsular sinus drains into trabecular sinuses and finally into medullary sinuses. The sinus space
7119-462: The body. Primary cancers of lymph tissue are called lymphomas and include Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma . Cancer of lymph nodes can cause a wide range of symptoms from painless long-term slowly growing swelling to sudden, rapid enlargement over days or weeks, with symptoms depending on the grade of the tumour. Most lymphomas are tumours of B-cells. Lymphoma is managed by haematologists and oncologists . Local cancer in many parts of
7232-416: The cause, swelling may be painful, particularly if the expansion is rapid and due to an infection or inflammation. Lymph node enlargement may be localized to an area, which might suggest a local source of infection or a tumour in that area that has spread to the lymph node. It may also be generalized, which might suggest infection, connective tissue or autoimmune disease, or a malignancy of blood cells such as
7345-423: The center of the node, for about one-third or one-fourth of the space between the circumference and the center of the node. In some animals they are sufficiently well-marked to divide the peripheral or cortical portion of the node into a number of compartments (nodules), but in humans this arrangement is not obvious. The larger trabeculae springing from the capsule break up into finer bands, and these interlace to form
7458-443: The classical four elements . During Lamarck's lifetime, he became controversial, attacking the more enlightened chemistry proposed by Lavoisier . He also came into conflict with the widely respected palaeontologist Georges Cuvier , who was not a supporter of evolution. According to Peter J. Bowler , Cuvier "ridiculed Lamarck's theory of transformation and defended the fixity of species." According to Martin J. S. Rudwick : Cuvier
7571-441: The common knowledge of his day and from his own belief in the chemistry before Lavoisier . He used these mechanisms to explain the two forces he saw as constituting evolution: force driving animals from simple to complex forms and a force adapting animals to their local environments and differentiating them from each other. He believed that these forces must be explained as a necessary consequence of basic physical principles, favoring
7684-411: The dendritic cells, macrophages and lymphocytes. It also allows exchange of material with blood through the high endothelial venules and provides the growth and regulatory factors necessary for activation and maturation of immune cells. Lymph enters the convex side of a lymph node through multiple afferent lymphatic vessels, which form a network of lymphatic vessels ( Latin : plexus ) and flows into
7797-455: The diversity of the natural world. Natural history was understood by Pliny the Elder to cover anything that could be found in the world, including living things, geology, astronomy, technology, art, and humanity. De Materia Medica was written between 50 and 70 AD by Pedanius Dioscorides , a Roman physician of Greek origin. It was widely read for more than 1,500 years until supplanted in
7910-498: The economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits. Modern definitions of natural history come from a variety of fields and sources, and many of the modern definitions emphasize a particular aspect of the field, creating a plurality of definitions with a number of common themes among them. For example, while natural history
8023-410: The ecosystem, and stresses identification, life history, distribution, abundance, and inter-relationships. It often and appropriately includes an esthetic component", and T. Fleischner, who defines the field even more broadly, as "A practice of intentional, focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy". These definitions explicitly include the arts in
8136-478: The emergence of distinct organs. The fluids themselves, now more elaborate, will become more complex, engendering a greater variety of secretions and substances composing the organs. He argued that organisms thus moved from simple to complex in a steady, predictable way based on the fundamental physical principles of alchemy. In this view, simple organisms never disappeared because they were constantly being created by spontaneous generation in what has been described as
8249-710: The emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs. Particularly in the 19th century, scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own morphological research. The term "natural history" alone, or sometimes together with archaeology, forms the name of many national, regional, and local natural history societies that maintain records for animals (including birds (ornithology), insects ( entomology ) and mammals (mammalogy)), fungi ( mycology ), plants (botany), and other organisms. They may also have geological and microscopical sections. Examples of these societies in Britain include
8362-609: The field of transgenerational epigenetics mean that Lamarck was to an extent correct, or not. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was born in Bazentin , Picardy , northern France, as the 11th child in an impoverished aristocratic family. Male members of the Lamarck family had traditionally served in the French army. Lamarck's eldest brother was killed in combat at the Siege of Bergen op Zoom , and two other brothers were still in service when Lamarck
8475-411: The field of botany, be it as authors, collectors, or illustrators. In modern Europe, professional disciplines such as botany, geology, mycology , palaeontology , physiology , and zoology were formed. Natural history , formerly the main subject taught by college science professors, was increasingly scorned by scientists of a more specialized manner and relegated to an "amateur" activity, rather than
8588-638: The field of natural history, and are aligned with the broad definition outlined by B. Lopez, who defines the field as the "Patient interrogation of a landscape" while referring to the natural history knowledge of the Eskimo ( Inuit ). A slightly different framework for natural history, covering a similar range of themes, is also implied in the scope of work encompassed by many leading natural history museums , which often include elements of anthropology, geology, paleontology, and astronomy along with botany and zoology, or include both cultural and natural components of
8701-511: The first theoretical frameworks of organic evolution . While this theory was generally rejected during his lifetime, Stephen Jay Gould argues that Lamarck was the "primary evolutionary theorist", in that his ideas, and the way in which he structured his theory, set the tone for much of the subsequent thinking in evolutionary biology, through to the present day. Developments in epigenetics , the study of cellular and physiological traits that are heritable by daughter cells and not caused by changes in
8814-406: The first to use the term biology in its modern sense . In Hydrogéologie , Lamarck advocated a steady-state geology based on a strict uniformitarianism . He argued that global currents tended to flow from east to west, and continents eroded on their eastern borders, with the material carried across to be deposited on the western borders. Thus, the Earth's continents marched steadily westward around
8927-484: The first to use the term " biology " in its modern sense. Lamarck continued his work as a premier authority on invertebrate zoology . He is remembered, at least in malacology , as a taxonomist of considerable stature. The modern era generally remembers Lamarck for a theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics , called Lamarckism (inaccurately named after him), soft inheritance, or use/disuse theory, which he described in his 1809 Philosophie zoologique . However,
9040-416: The globe. That year, he also published Recherches sur l'Organisation des Corps Vivants , in which he drew out his theory on evolution. He believed that all life was organized in a vertical chain, with gradation between the lowest forms and the highest forms of life, thus demonstrating a path to progressive developments in nature. In his own work, Lamarck had favored the then-more traditional theory based on
9153-412: The grass genus Lamarckia . The International Plant Names Index gives 116 records of plant species named after Lamarck. Among the marine species, no fewer than 103 species or genera carry the epithet " lamarcki ", " lamarckii " or " lamarckiana ", but many have since become synonyms. Marine species with valid names include: On invertebrate classification : Naturalist Natural history
9266-479: The height of the French Revolution , Lamarck changed the name of the Royal Garden from Jardin du Roi to Jardin des Plantes , a name that did not imply such a close association with King Louis XVI . Lamarck had worked as the keeper of the herbarium for five years before he was appointed curator and professor of invertebrate zoology at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in 1793. During his time at
9379-405: The herbarium, Lamarck's wife gave birth to three more children before dying on 27 September 1792. With the official title of "Professeur d'Histoire naturelle des Insectes et des Vers", Lamarck received a salary of nearly 2,500 francs per year. The following year, on 9 October, he married Charlotte Reverdy, who was 30 years his junior. On 26 September 1794 Lamarck was appointed to serve as secretary of
9492-509: The highest forms of life, was but the result of natural processes." Lamarck is known largely for his views on evolution, which have been dismissed in favour of developments in Darwinism . His theory of evolution only achieved fame after the publication of Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (1859), which spurred critics of Darwin's new theory to fall back on Lamarckian evolution as
9605-565: The idea of soft inheritance long antedates him, formed only a small element of his theory of evolution, and was in his time accepted by many natural historians. Lamarck's contribution to evolutionary theory consisted of the first truly cohesive theory of biological evolution, in which an alchemical complexifying force drove organisms up a ladder of complexity, and a second environmental force adapted them to local environments through use and disuse of characteristics, differentiating them from other organisms. Scientists have debated whether advances in
9718-409: The lieutenancy. Lamarck's company was left exposed to the direct artillery fire of their enemies, and was quickly reduced to just 14 men—with no officers. One of the men suggested that the puny, 17-year-old volunteer should assume command and order a withdrawal from the field; although Lamarck accepted command, he insisted they remain where they had been posted until relieved. When their colonel reached
9831-504: The lifetime of an individual. This has led to calls for biology to reconsider Lamarckian processes in evolution in light of modern advances in molecular biology. In his book Philosophie zoologique , Lamarck referred to God as the "sublime author of nature". Lamarck's religious views are examined in the book Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution (1901) by Alpheus Packard . According to Packard from Lamarck's writings, he may be regarded as
9944-417: The lymph node will be stained and examined under a microscope by a pathologist to determine if there is evidence of cells that appear cancerous (i.e. have metastasized into the node). The staging of the cancer, and therefore the treatment approach and prognosis, is predicated on the presence of node metastases. Lymphedema is the condition of swelling ( edema ) of tissue relating to insufficient clearance by
10057-436: The lymphatic system, a lymph node is a secondary lymphoid organ . A lymph node is enclosed in a fibrous capsule and is made up of an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Lymph nodes become inflamed or enlarged in various diseases, which may range from trivial throat infections to life-threatening cancers . The condition of lymph nodes is very important in cancer staging , which decides the treatment to be used and determines
10170-489: The lymphatic system. It can be congenital as a result usually of undeveloped or absent lymph nodes, and is known as primary lymphedema. Lymphedema most commonly arises in the arms or legs, but can also occur in the chest wall, genitals, neck, and abdomen. Secondary lymphedema usually results from the removal of lymph nodes during breast cancer surgery or from other damaging treatments such as radiation . It can also be caused by some parasitic infections. Affected tissues are at
10283-519: The meaning of the related term "nature" has widened (see also History below). In antiquity , "natural history" covered essentially anything connected with nature , or used materials drawn from nature, such as Pliny the Elder 's encyclopedia of this title , published c. 77 to 79 AD , which covers astronomy , geography , humans and their technology , medicine , and superstition , as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two main divisions:
10396-495: The medulla. The medullary cords are cords of lymphatic tissue, and include plasma cells , macrophages, and B cells. In the lymphatic system a lymph node is a secondary lymphoid organ . Lymph nodes contain lymphocytes , a type of white blood cell , and are primarily made up of B cells and T cells . B cells are mainly found in the outer cortex where they are clustered together as follicular B cells in lymphoid follicles, and T cells and dendritic cells are mainly found in
10509-417: The organism's descendants. This was a reversal from Lamarck's previous view, published in his Memoirs of Physics and Natural History (1797), in which he briefly refers to the immutability of species. Lamarck stressed two main themes in his biological work (neither of them to do with soft inheritance). The first was that the environment gives rise to changes in animals. He cited examples of blindness in moles,
10622-483: The paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn , "Lamarck denied, absolutely, the existence of any 'perfecting tendency' in nature, and regarded evolution as the final necessary effect of surrounding conditions on life." Charles Coulston Gillispie , a historian of science, has written "life is a purely physical phenomenon in Lamarck", and argued that Lamarck's views should not be confused with the vitalist school of thought. The second component of Lamarck's theory of evolution
10735-597: The presence of teeth in mammals and the absence of teeth in birds as evidence of this principle. The second principle was that life was structured in an orderly manner and that many different parts of all bodies make possible the organic movements of animals. Although he was not the first thinker to advocate organic evolution, he was the first to develop a truly coherent evolutionary theory. He outlined his theories regarding evolution first in his Floreal lecture of 1800, and then in three later published works: Lamarck employed several mechanisms as drivers of evolution, drawn from
10848-490: The remains of their company, this display of courage and loyalty impressed him so much that Lamarck was promoted to officer on the spot. However, when one of his comrades playfully lifted him by the head, he sustained an inflammation in the lymphatic glands of the neck, and he was sent to Paris to receive treatment. He was awarded a commission and settled at his post in Monaco . There, he encountered Traité des plantes usuelles ,
10961-516: The same body. There are no lymph nodes in the central nervous system , which is separated from the body by the blood–brain barrier . Lymph from the meningeal lymphatic vessels in the CNS drains to the deep cervical lymph nodes . However, the CNS does innervate lymph node by sympathetic nerves . These regulate lymphocyte proliferation and migration , antibody secretion , blood perfusion , and inflammatory cytokine production . A lymph node
11074-409: The smooth flow of lymph. The endothelium of the subcapsular sinus is continuous with that of the afferent lymph vessel and also with that of the similar sinuses flanking the trabeculae and within the cortex. These vessels are smaller and do not allow the passage of macrophages so that they remain contained to function within a lymph node. In the course of the lymph, lymphocytes may be activated as part of
11187-546: The study of animals and Plants—of organisms. ... I like to think, then, of natural history as the study of life at the level of the individual—of what plants and animals do, how they react to each other and their environment, how they are organized into larger groupings like populations and communities" and this more recent definition by D.S. Wilcove and T. Eisner: "The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior, and their relationships with other species". This focus on organisms in their environment
11300-524: The system of the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus . The British historian of Chinese science Joseph Needham calls Li Shizhen "the 'uncrowned king' of Chinese naturalists", and his Bencao gangmu "undoubtedly the greatest scientific achievement of the Ming". His works translated to many languages direct or influence many scholars and researchers. A significant contribution to English natural history
11413-447: The theory of adaptation or soft inheritance) was rejected by August Weismann in the 1880s when he developed a theory of inheritance in which germ plasm (the sex cells, later redefined as DNA), remained separate and distinct from the soma (the rest of the body); thus, nothing which happens to the soma may be passed on with the germ plasm. This model allegedly underlies the modern understanding of inheritance. Lamarck constructed one of
11526-445: The top French scientists of the day, mentored Lamarck, and helped him gain membership to the French Academy of Sciences in 1779 and a commission as a royal botanist in 1781, in which he traveled to foreign botanical gardens and museums. Lamarck's first son, André, was born on 22 April 1781, and he made his colleague André Thouin the child's godfather. In his two years of travel, Lamarck collected rare plants that were not available in
11639-457: The use and disuse of certain characteristics. The last clause of this law introduces what is now called soft inheritance , the inheritance of acquired characteristics, or simply "Lamarckism", though it forms only a part of Lamarck's thinking. However, in the field of epigenetics , evidence is growing that soft inheritance plays a part in the changing of some organisms' phenotypes; it leaves the genetic material ( DNA ) unaltered (thus not violating
11752-475: The world works by providing the empirical foundation of natural sciences, and it contributes directly and indirectly to human emotional and physical health, thereby fostering healthier human communities. It also serves as the basis for all conservation efforts, with natural history both informing the science and inspiring the values that drive these. As a precursor to Western science , natural history began with Aristotle and other ancient philosophers who analyzed
11865-687: The world's large natural history collections, such as the Natural History Museum, London , and the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC. Three of the greatest English naturalists of the 19th century, Henry Walter Bates , Charles Darwin , and Alfred Russel Wallace —who knew each other—each made natural history travels that took years, collected thousands of specimens, many of them new to science, and by their writings both advanced knowledge of "remote" parts of
11978-564: The world. The plurality of definitions for this field has been recognized as both a weakness and a strength, and a range of definitions has recently been offered by practitioners in a recent collection of views on natural history. Prior to the advent of Western science humans were engaged and highly competent in indigenous ways of understanding the more-than-human world that are now referred to as traditional ecological knowledge . 21st century definitions of natural history are inclusive of this understanding, such as this by Thomas Fleischner of
12091-799: The world—the Amazon basin , the Galápagos Islands , and the Indonesian Archipelago , among others—and in so doing helped to transform biology from a descriptive to a theory-based science. The understanding of "Nature" as "an organism and not as a mechanism" can be traced to the writings of Alexander von Humboldt (Prussia, 1769–1859). Humboldt's copious writings and research were seminal influences for Charles Darwin, Simón Bolívar , Henry David Thoreau , Ernst Haeckel , and John Muir . Natural history museums , which evolved from cabinets of curiosities , played an important role in
12204-801: Was basically static through the Middle Ages in Europe—although in the Arabic and Oriental world, it proceeded at a much brisker pace. From the 13th century, the work of Aristotle was adapted rather rigidly into Christian philosophy , particularly by Thomas Aquinas , forming the basis for natural theology . During the Renaissance, scholars (herbalists and humanists, particularly) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history, and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual monsters . Leonhart Fuchs
12317-479: Was clearly hostile to the materialistic overtones of current transformist theorizing, but it does not necessarily follow that he regarded species origin as supernatural; certainly he was careful to use neutral language to refer to the causes of the origins of new forms of life, and even of man. Lamarck gradually turned blind; he died in Paris on 18 December 1829. When he died, his family was so poor, they had to apply to
12430-580: Was in his teenaged years. Yielding to the wishes of his father, Lamarck enrolled in a Jesuit college in Amiens in the late 1750s. After his father died in 1760, Lamarck bought himself a horse, and rode across the country to join the French army, which was in Germany at the time. Lamarck showed great physical courage on the battlefield in the Seven Years' War with Prussia , and he was even nominated for
12543-402: Was made by parson-naturalists such as Gilbert White , William Kirby , John George Wood , and John Ray , who wrote about plants, animals, and other aspects of nature. Many of these men wrote about nature to make the natural theology argument for the existence or goodness of God. Since early modern times, however, a great number of women made contributions to natural history, particularly in
12656-405: Was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with Otto Brunfels and Hieronymus Bock . Other important contributors to the field were Valerius Cordus , Konrad Gesner ( Historiae animalium ), Frederik Ruysch , and Gaspard Bauhin . The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into taxonomic groups , culminating in
12769-421: Was the adaptation of organisms to their environment. This could move organisms upward from the ladder of progress into new and distinct forms with local adaptations. It could also drive organisms into evolutionary blind alleys, where the organism became so finely adapted that no further change could occur. Lamarck argued that this adaptive force was powered by the interaction of organisms with their environment, by
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