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104-504: Land use change is "the change from one land-use category to another". Land-use change, together with use of fossil fuels , are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas . Human activity is the most significant cause of land cover change, and humans are also directly impacted by the environmental consequences of these changes. For example, deforestation (the systematic and permanent conversion of previously forested land for other uses) has historically been

208-655: A just transition and create policy that addresses the societal burdens created by the stranded assets of the fossil fuel industry. International policy, in the form of United Nations ' sustainable development goals for affordable and clean energy and climate action , as well as the Paris Climate Agreement , is designed to facilitate this transition at a global level. In 2021, the International Energy Agency concluded that no new fossil fuel extraction projects could be opened if

312-410: A complex mixture of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which yield synthetic crude oil when heated ( pyrolyzed ). With additional processing, they can be employed instead of other established fossil fuels. During the 2010s and 2020s there was disinvestment from exploitation of such resources due to their high carbon cost relative to more easily-processed reserves. Prior to the latter half of

416-516: A considerable portion old-growth forest deforestation is the result of small-scale migrant farming. As forest cover is removed, forest resources become exhausted and increasing populations lead to scarcity, which prompts people to move again to previously undisturbed forest, restarting the process of deforestation. There are several reasons behind this continued migration: poverty-driven lack of available farmland and high costs may lead to an increase in farming intensity on existing farmland. This leads to

520-477: A consistent, long-term record to quantify change variability over time. Through observing patterns in land cover changes, scientists can determine the consequences of these changes, predict the impact of future changes, and use this information to inform strategic land management . Modeling risk and vulnerability is also one of land change science's practical applications. Accurate predictions of how human activity will influence land cover change over time, as well as

624-570: A decade or so, and nitrous oxides last about 100 years. The graph gives some indication of which regions have contributed most to human-induced climate change. When these numbers are calculated per capita cumulative emissions based on then-current population the situation is shown even more clearly. The ratio in per capita emissions between industrialized countries and developing countries was estimated at more than 10 to 1. Non- OECD countries accounted for 42% of cumulative energy-related CO 2 emissions between 1890 and 2007. Over this time period,

728-517: A lack of comparability, which is problematic when monitoring progress towards targets. There are arguments for the adoption of a common measurement tool, or at least the development of communication between different tools. Emissions may be tracked over long time periods, known as historical or cumulative emissions measurements. Cumulative emissions provide some indicators of what is responsible for greenhouse gas atmospheric concentration build-up. The national accounts balance tracks emissions based on

832-425: A lesser extent oil and its derivatives, contributes to atmospheric particulate matter , smog and acid rain . Air pollution from fossil fuels in 2018 has been estimated to cost US$ 2.9 trillion, or 3.3% of the global gross domestic product (GDP). Climate change is largely driven by the release of greenhouse gases like CO 2 , and the burning of fossil fuels is the main source of these emissions. In most parts of

936-547: A parcel of land". The same report groups land use into the following categories: forest land , cropland ( agricultural land ), grassland , wetlands , settlements and other lands . Another definition is that of the United Nations ' Food and Agriculture Organization : "Land use concerns the products and/or benefits obtained from use of the land as well as the land management actions (activities) carried out by humans to produce those products and benefits." As of

1040-862: A particular base year. Choosing between base years of 1750, 1900, 1950, and 1990 has a significant effect for most countries. Within the G8 group of countries, it is most significant for the UK, France and Germany. These countries have a long history of CO 2 emissions (see the section on Cumulative and historical emissions ). The Global Carbon Project continuously releases data about CO 2 emissions, budget and concentration. and industry (excluding cement carbonation) Gt C change Gt C Gt C Gt CO 2 (projection) Distribution of global greenhouse gas emissions based on type of greenhouse gas, without land-use change, using 100 year global warming potential (data from 2020). Total: 49.8 GtCO 2 e Carbon dioxide (CO 2 )

1144-400: A primary facilitator of land use and land cover change. The study of land change relies on the synthesis of a wide range of data and a diverse range of data collection methods. These include land cover monitoring and assessments, modeling risk and vulnerability, and land change modeling . The IPCC defines the term land use as the "total of arrangements, activities and inputs applied to

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1248-761: A process known as catagenesis . Despite these heat-driven transformations, the energy released in combustion is still photosynthetic in origin. Terrestrial plants tended to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history . Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen , a source of natural gas. Although fossil fuels are continually formed by natural processes, they are classified as non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form and known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are generated. Fossil fuels have been important to human development because they can be readily burned in

1352-697: A process that occurs within geological formations . Reservoirs of such compound mixtures , such as coal , petroleum and natural gas , can be extracted and burnt as a fuel for human consumption to provide energy for direct use (such as for cooking , heating or lighting ), to power heat engines (such as steam or internal combustion engines ) that can propel vehicles , or to generate electricity via steam turbine generators. Some fossil fuels are further refined into derivatives such as kerosene , gasoline and diesel , or converted into petrochemicals such as polyolefins ( plastics ), aromatics and synthetic resins . The origin of fossil fuels

1456-406: A result of anaerobic decomposition . Over geological time this organic matter , mixed with mud , became buried under further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting high temperature and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter , first into a waxy material known as kerogen , which is found in oil shales , and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in

1560-483: A result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use. According to head of a fertilizers commodity price agency, "50% of the world's food relies on fertilisers." The burning of fossil fuels has a number of negative externalities  – harmful environmental impacts where the effects extend beyond the people using the fuel. These effects vary between different fuels. All fossil fuels release CO 2 when they burn, thus accelerating climate change . Burning coal, and to

1664-483: A significant contributor to warming. Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming, though the two processes are sometimes confused in the media. In 2016, negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at

1768-461: A significant margin, Asia's and the world's largest emitter: it emits nearly 10 billion tonnes each year, more than one-quarter of global emissions. Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea , Iran, and Australia (which apart from the oil rich Persian Gulf states, now has the highest per capita emission rate in the world). On the other hand, annual per capita emissions of the EU-15 and

1872-421: Is 9.1 M km but the total used here refers only to the contiguous 48 states, without Alaska etc. Land use change is "the change from one land-use category to another". Land-use change, together with use of fossil fuels , are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas . Human activity is the most significant cause of land cover change, and humans are also directly impacted by

1976-450: Is a framework of methods to measure and track how much greenhouse gas an organization emits. Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO 2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming , and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change. In particular, CO 2 stays in the atmosphere for at least 150 years and up to 1000 years, whilst methane disappears within

2080-521: Is a net increase of many billion tonnes of atmospheric CO 2 per year. Although methane leaks are significant, the burning of fossil fuels is the main source of greenhouse gas emissions causing global warming and ocean acidification . Additionally, most air pollution deaths are due to fossil fuel particulates and noxious gases, and it is estimated that this costs over 3% of the global gross domestic product and that fossil fuel phase-out will save millions of lives each year. Recognition of

2184-507: Is an attempt to reduce climate change by exerting social, political, and economic pressure for the institutional divestment of assets including stocks, bonds, and other financial instruments connected to companies involved in extracting fossil fuels . Fossil fuel divestment campaigns emerged on college and university campuses in the United States in 2011 with students urging their administrations to turn endowment investments in

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2288-420: Is an example of large-scale land use change. The deforestation of temperate regions since 1750 has had a major effect on land cover . The reshaping of landscapes to serve human needs, such as the deforestation for farmland , can have long-term effects on earth systems and exacerbate the causes of climate change. Although the burning of fossil fuels is the primary driver of present-day climate change, prior to

2392-421: Is exported. In comparison, methane has not increased appreciably, and N 2 O by 0.25% y . Using different base years for measuring emissions has an effect on estimates of national contributions to global warming. This can be calculated by dividing a country's highest contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year, by that country's minimum contribution to global warming starting from

2496-555: Is important to land use and land cover change for a variety of reasons. In particular, urbanization affects land change elsewhere through the shifting of urban-rural linkages, or the ecological footprint of the transfer of goods and services between urban and rural areas. Increases in urbanization lead to increases in consumption, which puts increased pressure on surrounding rural lands. The outward spread of urban areas can also take over adjacent land formerly used for crop cultivation. Urbanization additionally affects land cover through

2600-404: Is now considered a very valuable resource. Natural gas deposits are also the main source of helium . Heavy crude oil , which is much more viscous than conventional crude oil, and oil sands , where bitumen is found mixed with sand and clay, began to become more important as sources of fossil fuel in the early 2000s. Oil shale and similar materials are sedimentary rocks containing kerogen ,

2704-443: Is one form of land-use regulation. For example, Portland, Oregon is required to have an urban growth boundary which contains at least 20,000 acres (81 km) of vacant land. Additionally, Oregon restricts the development of farmland. The regulations are controversial, but an economic analysis concluded that farmland appreciated similarly to the other land. In colonial America, few regulations were originally put into place regarding

2808-558: Is one of the most important factors in causing climate change. The largest emitters are China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita . The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies . Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases . Emissions in

2912-633: Is responsible for around 73% of emissions. Deforestation and other changes in land use also emit carbon dioxide and methane . The largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions is agriculture , closely followed by gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil-fuel industry . The largest agricultural methane source is livestock . Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide partly due to fertilizers . Similarly, fluorinated gases from refrigerants play an outsized role in total human emissions. The current CO 2 -equivalent emission rates averaging 6.6 tonnes per person per year, are well over twice

3016-501: Is sometimes transported by diesel-powered locomotives, while crude oil is typically transported by tanker ships, requiring the combustion of additional fossil fuels. A variety of mitigating efforts have arisen to counter the negative effects of fossil fuels. This includes a movement to use alternative energy sources, such as renewable energy . Environmental regulation uses a variety of approaches to limit these emissions; for example, rules against releasing waste products like fly ash into

3120-528: Is the anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, whose organic molecules were produced by photosynthetic carbon fixation and sequestered / biomagnified by the food web , creating an underground carbon sink . The conversion from these organic materials to high-carbon fossil fuels typically requires a geological process of millions of years. Due to the length of time it takes nature to form them, fossil fuels are considered non-renewable resources . In 2022, over 80% of primary energy consumption in

3224-454: Is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas, while methane ( CH 4 ) emissions almost have the same short-term impact. Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) and fluorinated gases (F-gases) play a lesser role in comparison. Greenhouse gas emissions are measured in CO 2 equivalents determined by their global warming potential (GWP), which depends on their lifetime in the atmosphere. Estimations largely depend on

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3328-563: Is the first major source of greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, followed by aircraft and maritime. Waterborne transportation is still the least carbon-intensive mode of transportation on average, and it is an essential link in sustainable multimodal freight supply chains . Buildings, like industry, are directly responsible for around one-fifth of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from space heating and hot water consumption. When combined with power consumption within buildings, this figure climbs to more than one-third. Within

3432-449: Is the main greenhouse gas resulting from human activities. It accounts for more than half of warming. Methane (CH 4 ) emissions have almost the same short-term impact. Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) and fluorinated gases (F-gases) play a lesser role in comparison. Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in 2023 were all higher than ever before. Electricity generation , heat and transport are major emitters; overall energy

3536-523: Is used in the construction of roads . The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon -fueled irrigation . The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth ; it has been estimated that almost half of the Earth's population are currently fed as

3640-665: Is very complex, and is affected by how carbon sinks are allocated between regions and the dynamics of the climate system . The graphic shows the logarithm of 1850–2019 fossil fuel CO 2 emissions; natural log on left, actual value of Gigatons per year on right. Although emissions increased during the 170-year period by about 3% per year overall, intervals of distinctly different growth rates (broken at 1913, 1945, and 1973) can be detected. The regression lines suggest that emissions can rapidly shift from one growth regime to another and then persist for long periods of time. The most recent drop in emissions growth – by almost 3 percentage points –

3744-651: Is waging war on nature. This is suicidal. Nature always strikes back – and it is already doing so with growing force and fury." He also claimed there is still cause for hope, anticipating the US plan to join other large emitters like China and the EU in adopting targets to reach net zero emissions by 2050. Fossilflation is a term that describes the impact of fossil fuels on inflation . According to Vox in August 2022 , "Economists have pointed to energy prices as

3848-459: The Amazon and Central America . Moreover, the underlying drivers of economic development are often linked to global economic engagement, ranging from increased exports to a foreign debt . Broadly, urbanization is the increasing number of people who live in urban areas. Urbanization refers to both urban population growth and the physical growth of urban areas. According to the United Nations ,

3952-576: The Aral Sea is an example how local-scale land use and land change can have compounded impacts on regional climate systems, particularly when human activities heavily disrupt natural climatic cycles, how land change science can be used to map and study such changes. In 1960, the Aral Sea, located in Central Asia, was the world's fourth largest lake. However, a water diversion project, undertaken by

4056-503: The Industrial Revolution , deforestation and irrigation were the largest sources of human-driven greenhouse gas emissions . Even today, 35% of anthropogenic carbon dioxide contributions can be attributed to land use or land cover changes. Currently, almost 50% of Earth’s non-ice land surface has been transformed by human activities, with approximately 40% of that land used for agriculture , surpassing natural systems as

4160-581: The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (today embodied in 16 U.S.C. 461 et seq.) and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.). Fossil fuel A fossil fuel is a carbon compound - or hydrocarbon -containing material formed naturally in the Earth's crust from the buried remains of prehistoric organisms ( animals , plants or planktons ),

4264-642: The Soviet Union to irrigate arid plains in what is now Kazakhstan , Uzbekistan , and Turkmenistan , resulted in the Aral Sea losing 85% of its land cover and 90% of its volume. The loss of the Aral Sea has had a significant effect on human-environment interactions in the region, including the decimation of the sea's fishing industry and the salinization of agricultural lands by the wind-spread of dried sea salt beds. Additionally, scientists have been able to use technology such as NASA 's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) to track changes to

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4368-459: The climate crisis , pollution and other negative impacts caused by fossil fuels has led to a widespread policy transition and activist movement focused on ending their use in favor of renewable and sustainable energy . Because the fossil-fuel industry is so heavily integrated in the global economy and heavily subsidized , this transition is expected to have significant economic impacts. Many stakeholders argue that this change needs to be

4472-416: The contiguous 48 states in 2017 were as follows: Special use areas in the table above include national parks (29 M acres) and state parks (15 M), wildlife areas (64.4 M), highways (21 M), railroads (3M), military bases (25 M), airports (3M) and a few others. Miscellaneous includes cemeteries, golf courses, marshes, deserts, and other areas of "low economic value". The total land area of the United States

4576-603: The fossil fuel industry into investments in clean energy and communities most impacted by climate change . In 2012, Unity College in Maine became the first institution of higher learning to divest its endowment from fossil fuels. By 2015, fossil fuel divestment was reportedly the fastest growing divestment movement in history. As of July 2023, more than 1593 institutions with assets totalling more than $ 40.5  trillion in assets worldwide had begun or committed some form of divestment of fossil fuels. In 2019, Saudi Aramco

4680-407: The health risks of air pollution , and would greatly reduce global carbon emissions thus helping to limit climate change . As of 2021 , policy researchers estimate that substantially more money is spent on fossil fuel subsidies than on environmentally harmful agricultural subsidies or environmentally harmful water subsidies . The International Energy Agency says: "High fossil fuel prices hit

4784-406: The internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the demand for gasoline and diesel oil , both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation, railways and aircraft, also require fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil fuels is in generating electricity and as feedstock for the petrochemical industry . Tar , a leftover of petroleum extraction,

4888-416: The urban heat island effect. Heat islands occur when, due to high concentrations of structures, such as buildings and roads, that absorb and re-emit solar radiation, and low concentrations of vegetative cover, urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas. The high temperatures associated with heat islands can compromise human health, particularly in low-income areas. The rapid decline of

4992-424: The 18th century, windmills and watermills provided the energy needed for work such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping water, while burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The wide-scale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, in steam engines enabled the Industrial Revolution . At the same time, gas lights using natural gas or coal gas were coming into wide use. The invention of

5096-473: The 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before. Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 GtC (2575 GtCO 2 ), of which 484±20 GtC (1773±73 GtCO 2 ) from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 GtC (802±220 GtCO 2 ) from land use change . Land-use change , such as deforestation , caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 )

5200-520: The 2030 Paris Agreement increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial levels. While cities are sometimes considered to be disproportionate contributors to emissions, per-capita emissions tend to be lower for cities than the averages in their countries. A 2017 survey of corporations responsible for global emissions found that 100 companies were responsible for 71% of global direct and indirect emissions , and that state-owned companies were responsible for 59% of their emissions. China is, by

5304-418: The 21st century. Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric and nitric acids , which fall to Earth as acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the built environment. Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate . Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium , which are released into

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5408-484: The Aral Sea and its surrounding climate over time. This use of modeling and satellite imagery to track human-caused land cover change is characteristic of the scope of land change science. Commonly, political jurisdictions will undertake land-use planning and regulate the use of land in an attempt to avoid land-use conflicts . Land use plans are implemented through land division and use ordinances and regulations, such as zoning regulations . The urban growth boundary

5512-587: The Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association (APPEA), has significant influence in Canberra and helps to maintain favorable policy settings for Oil and Gas. Greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect . This contributes to climate change . Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), from burning fossil fuels such as coal , oil , and natural gas ,

5616-564: The COVID-19 pandemic, some argued for the possibility of a base effect phenomenon due to cheaper than normal prices, such as for oil, at the onset of the pandemic, followed by above-average prices which exacerbated the perceived inflation. While not expected to provide much short-term relief, the Inflation Reduction Act seeks to make the United States less dependent on fossil fuels and their ability to cause inflation in

5720-450: The EU, the agricultural sector presently accounts for roughly 10% of total greenhouse gas emissions, with methane from livestock accounting for slightly more than half of 10%. Estimates of total CO 2 emissions do include biotic carbon emissions, mainly from deforestation. Including biotic emissions brings about the same controversy mentioned earlier regarding carbon sinks and land-use change. The actual calculation of net emissions

5824-526: The Earth can cool off. The major anthropogenic (human origin) sources of greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), nitrous oxide ( N 2 O ), methane and three groups of fluorinated gases ( sulfur hexafluoride ( SF 6 ), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs, sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6 ), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 )). Though the greenhouse effect is heavily driven by water vapor , human emissions of water vapor are not

5928-670: The US accounted for 28% of emissions; the EU, 23%; Japan, 4%; other OECD countries 5%; Russia, 11%; China, 9%; India, 3%; and the rest of the world, 18%. The European Commission adopted a set of legislative proposals targeting a reduction of the CO 2 emissions by 55% by 2030. Overall, developed countries accounted for 83.8% of industrial CO 2 emissions over this time period, and 67.8% of total CO 2 emissions. Developing countries accounted for industrial CO 2 emissions of 16.2% over this time period, and 32.2% of total CO 2 emissions. However, what becomes clear when we look at emissions across

6032-552: The US are gradually decreasing over time. Emissions in Russia and Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these countries. 2015 was the first year to see both total global economic growth and a reduction of carbon emissions. Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries. Due to China's fast economic development, its annual per capita emissions are quickly approaching

6136-538: The United States production. In addition to the effects that result from burning, the harvesting, processing, and distribution of fossil fuels also have environmental effects. Coal mining methods, particularly mountaintop removal and strip mining , have negative environmental impacts, and offshore oil drilling poses a hazard to aquatic organisms. Fossil fuel wells can contribute to methane release via fugitive gas emissions . Oil refineries also have negative environmental impacts, including air and water pollution. Coal

6240-419: The ability of oceans and land sinks to absorb these gases. Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) including methane, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) , tropospheric ozone and black carbon persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years; whereas carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia. Reducing SLCP emissions can cut the ongoing rate of global warming by almost half and reduce

6344-433: The actions of private developers and individuals. Judicial decisions and enforcement of private land-use arrangements can reinforce public regulation, and achieve forms and levels of control that regulatory zoning cannot. There is growing concern that land use regulation is a direct cause of housing segregation in the United States today. Two major federal laws passed in the 1960s limit the use of land significantly. These are

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6448-465: The atmosphere. In December 2020, the United Nations released a report saying that despite the need to reduce greenhouse emissions, various governments are " doubling down " on fossil fuels, in some cases diverting over 50% of their COVID-19 recovery stimulus funding to fossil fuel production rather than to alternative energy. The UN secretary general António Guterres declared that "Humanity

6552-540: The atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000 tonnes of thorium and 5,000 tonnes of uranium were released worldwide from burning coal. It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island accident . Burning coal also generates large amounts of bottom ash and fly ash . These materials are used in a wide variety of applications (see Fly ash reuse ), utilizing, for example, about 40% of

6656-465: The case of Jupiter , or from its host star as in the case of the Earth . In the case of Earth, the Sun emits shortwave radiation ( sunlight ) that passes through greenhouse gases to heat the Earth's surface. In response, the Earth's surface emits longwave radiation that is mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. The absorption of longwave radiation prevents it from reaching space, reducing the rate at which

6760-667: The concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Emissions have grown rapidly since about 1950 with ongoing expansions in global population and economic activity following World War II. As of 2021, measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide were almost 50% higher than pre-industrial levels. The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity (also called carbon sources ) are: Global greenhouse gas emissions are about 50 Gt per year and for 2019 have been estimated at 57 Gt CO 2 eq including 5 Gt due to land use change. In 2019, approximately 34% [20 GtCO 2 -eq] of total net anthropogenic GHG emissions came from

6864-711: The data show that fossil fuels cause the highest levels of greenhouse gas emissions and are the most dangerous for human health. In contrast, modern renewable energy sources appear to be safer for human health and cleaner. The death rates from accidents and air pollution in the EU are as follows per terawatt-hour (TWh): As the data shows, coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass cause higher death rates and higher levels of greenhouse gas emissions than hydropower, nuclear energy, wind, and solar power. Scientists propose that 1.8 million lives have been saved by replacing fossil fuel sources with nuclear power. Fossil fuel divestment or fossil fuel divestment and investment in climate solutions

6968-413: The difference between a country's exports and imports. For many richer nations, the balance is negative because more goods are imported than they are exported. This result is mostly due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce goods outside of developed countries, leading developed countries to become increasingly dependent on services and not goods. A positive account balance would mean that more production

7072-486: The dynamics of land use and land-cover. LCMs are a means of understanding ways that humans change the Earth's surface in the past, present, and future. Deforestation is the systematic and permanent conversion of previously forested land for other uses. It has historically been a primary facilitator of land use and land cover change. Forests are a vital part of the global ecosystem and are essential to carbon capture , ecological processes, and biodiversity . However, since

7176-467: The early 1990s, about 13% of the Earth was considered arable land, with 26% in pasture, 32% forests and woodland, and 1.5% urban areas. As of 2015, the total arable land is 10.7% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland. For example, the US Department of Agriculture has identified six major types of land use in the United States. Acreage statistics for each type of land use in

7280-931: The economy. Moody's estimates that by 2030, the bill could reduce the typical American household's spending on energy by more than $ 300 each year, in 2022 dollars. Environmental pollution from fossil fuels impacts humans because particulates and other air pollution from fossil fuel combustion may cause illness and death when inhaled. These health effects include premature death, acute respiratory illness, aggravated asthma, chronic bronchitis and decreased lung function. The poor, undernourished, very young and very old, and people with preexisting respiratory disease and other ill health are more at risk. Global air pollution deaths due to fossil fuels have been estimated at over 8 million people (2018, nearly 1 in 5 deaths worldwide) at 10.2 million (2019), and 5.13 million excess deaths from ambient air pollution from fossil fuel use (2023). While all energy sources inherently have adverse effects,

7384-440: The energy supply sector, 24% [14 GtCO 2 -eq] from industry, 22% [13 GtCO 2 -eq]from agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU), 15% [8.7 GtCO 2 -eq] from transport and 6% [3.3 GtCO 2 -eq] from buildings. Global carbon dioxide emissions by country in 2023: The current CO 2 -equivalent emission rates averaging 6.6 tonnes per person per year, are well over twice the estimated rate 2.3 tons required to stay within

7488-489: The entire life cycle from the production of a good or service along the supply chain to its final consumption. Carbon accounting (or greenhouse gas accounting) is a framework of methods to measure and track how much greenhouse gas an organization emits. The greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases in a planet's atmosphere insulate the planet from losing heat to space, raising its surface temperature. Surface heating can happen from an internal heat source as in

7592-563: The environmental consequences of these changes. Collective land use and land cover changes have fundamentally altered the functioning of key Earth systems . For instance, human changes to land use and land cover have a profound impact climate at a local and regional level, which in turn contributes to climate change . Land use by humans has a long history, first emerging more than 10,000 years ago. Human changes to land surfaces have been documented for centuries as having significant impacts on both earth systems and human well-being. Deforestation

7696-414: The estimated rate 2.3 tons required to stay within the 2030 Paris Agreement increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial levels. Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries. The carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint ) serves as an indicator to compare the amount of greenhouse gases emitted over

7800-414: The extent and timescale of changes, and how changes vary through time. To this end, scientists use a variety of tools, including satellite imagery and other sources of remotely sensed data (e.g., aircraft imagery), field observations, historical accounts, and reconstruction modeling. These tools, particularly satellite imagery, allow land change scientists to accurately monitor land-change rates and create

7904-474: The global economy and society wants to avoid the worst impacts of climate change and meet international goals for climate change mitigation . The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in Earth's crust over millions of years was first introduced by Andreas Libavius "in his 1597 Alchemia [Alchymia]" and later by Mikhail Lomonosov "as early as 1757 and certainly by 1763". The first use of

8008-458: The global urban population has increased rapidly since 1950, from 751 million to 4.2 billion in 2018, and current trends predict this number will continue to grow. Accompanying this population shift are significant changes in economic flow, culture and lifestyle, and spatial population distribution. Although urbanized areas cover just 3% of the Earth's surface, they nevertheless have a significant impact on land use and land cover change. Urbanization

8112-645: The impact that such changes have on the sustainability of ecological and human systems, can inform the creation of policy designed to address these changes. Studying risk and vulnerability entails the development of quantitative , qualitative , and geospatial models, methods, and support tools. The purpose of these tools is to communicate the vulnerability of both human communities and natural ecosystems to hazard events or long-term land change. Modeling risk and vulnerability requires analyses of community sensitivity to hazards, an understanding of geographic distributions of people and infrastructure, and accurate calculation of

8216-465: The importance of energy, transport and chemical industries to local, national and international economies, these lobbies have the capacity and money to attempt to have outsized influence on governmental policy. In particular, the lobbies have been known to obstruct policy related to environmental protection , environmental health and climate action . Lobbies are active in most fossil-fuel intensive economies with democratic governance, with reporting on

8320-824: The importing country, rather than the exporting, country. A substantial proportion of CO 2 emissions is traded internationally. The net effect of trade was to export emissions from China and other emerging markets to consumers in the US, Japan, and Western Europe. Emission intensity is a ratio between greenhouse gas emissions and another metric, e.g., gross domestic product (GDP) or energy use. The terms "carbon intensity" and " emissions intensity " are also sometimes used. Emission intensities may be calculated using market exchange rates (MER) or purchasing power parity (PPP). Calculations based on MER show large differences in intensities between developed and developing countries, whereas calculations based on PPP show smaller differences. Carbon accounting (or greenhouse gas accounting)

8424-419: The invention of agriculture, global forest cover has diminished by 35%. There is rarely one direct or underlying cause for deforestation. Rather, deforestation is the result of intertwining systemic forces working simultaneously or sequentially to change land cover. Deforestation occurs for many interconnected reasons. For instance, mass deforestation is often viewed as the product of industrial agriculture, yet

8528-474: The lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations. China was responsible for most of global growth in emissions during this period. Localised plummeting emissions associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union have been followed by slow emissions growth in this region due to more efficient energy use , made necessary by the increasing proportion of it that

8632-721: The levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol (i.e., the developed countries excluding the US). Africa and South America are both fairly small emitters, accounting for 3-4% of global emissions each. Both have emissions almost equal to international aviation and shipping. There are several ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions. Some variables that have been reported include: These measures are sometimes used by countries to assert various policy/ethical positions on climate change. The use of different measures leads to

8736-641: The lobbies most prominent in Canada, Australia, the United States and Europe, however the lobbies are present in many parts of the world. Big Oil companies such as ExxonMobil , Shell , BP , TotalEnergies , Chevron Corporation , and ConocoPhillips are among the largest corporations associated with the fossil fuels lobby. The American Petroleum Institute is a powerful industry lobbyist for Big Oil with significant influence in Washington, D.C. In Australia, Australian Energy Producers , formerly known as

8840-500: The main international treaty on climate change (the UNFCCC ), countries report on emissions produced within their borders, e.g., the emissions produced from burning fossil fuels. Under a production-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather than the importing, country. Under a consumption-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to

8944-493: The main reason for high inflation," noting that "energy prices indirectly affect virtually every part of the economy". Sectors that raise prices significantly as a result of higher fossil fuel prices include transportation, food, and shipping. Mark Zandi of Moody's says that fossil fuel prices have driven every big episode of inflation since WWII. The economic impact of the Russian Invasion of Ukraine in 2022

9048-459: The major source of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU . Greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector continue to rise, in contrast to power generation and nearly all other sectors. Since 1990, transportation emissions have increased by 30%. The transportation sector accounts for around 70% of these emissions. The majority of these emissions are caused by passenger vehicles and vans. Road travel

9152-463: The open atmosphere to produce heat. The use of peat as a domestic fuel predates recorded history. Coal was burned in some early furnaces for the smelting of metal ore , while semi-solid hydrocarbons from oil seeps were also burned in ancient times, they were mostly used for waterproofing and embalming . Commercial exploitation of petroleum began in the 19th century. Natural gas, once flared-off as an unneeded byproduct of petroleum production,

9256-484: The overexploitation of farmland, and down the line results in desertification , another land cover change, which renders soil unusable and unprofitable, requiring farmers to seek out untouched and unpopulated old-growth forests. In addition to rural migration and subsistence farming, economic development can also play a substantial role in deforestation. For example, road and railway expansions designed to increase quality of life have resulted in significant deforestation in

9360-408: The poor hardest, but subsidies are rarely well-targeted to protect vulnerable groups and tend to benefit better-off segments of the population." The fossil fuels lobby includes paid representatives of corporations involved in the fossil fuel industry ( oil , gas , coal ), as well as related industries like chemicals , plastics , aviation and other transportation. Because of their wealth and

9464-552: The principal source of nitrogen emissions. Increasing land conversion by humans in future is not inevitable: In a discussion on response options to climate change mitigation and adaptation an IPCC special report stated that "a number of response options such as increased food productivity, dietary choices and food losses, and waste reduction, can reduce demand for land conversion, thereby potentially freeing land and creating opportunities for enhanced implementation of other response options". Land change science relies heavily on

9568-547: The probability of specific disturbances occurring. A key method for studying risk and vulnerability is land change modeling (LCM), which can be used to simulate changes and land use and land cover. LCMs can be used to predict how land use and land cover may change under alternate circumstances, which is useful for risk assessment, in that it allows for the prediction of potential impacts and can be used to inform policy decisions, albeit with some uncertainty. Land change models (LCMs) describe, project, and explain changes in and

9672-629: The summit of the United Nations Environment Programme reached a legally binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol . The use of CFC-12 (except some essential uses) has been phased out due to its ozone depleting properties. The phasing-out of less active HCFC-compounds will be completed in 2030. Starting about 1750, industrial activity powered by fossil fuels began to significantly increase

9776-460: The synthesis of a wide range of data and a diverse range of data collection methods, some of which are detailed below. A primary function of land change science is to document and model long-term patterns of landscape change, which may result from both human activity and natural processes. In the course of monitoring and assessing land cover and land use changes, scientists look at several factors, including where land-cover and land-use are changing,

9880-695: The term "fossil fuel" occurs in the work of the German chemist Caspar Neumann , in English translation in 1759. The Oxford English Dictionary notes that in the phrase "fossil fuel" the adjective "fossil" means "[o]btained by digging; found buried in the earth", which dates to at least 1652, before the English noun "fossil" came to refer primarily to long-dead organisms in the early 18th century. Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large quantities under anoxic conditions millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural gas as

9984-648: The usage of land. As society shifted from rural to urban, public land regulation became important, especially to city governments trying to control industry, commerce, and housing within their boundaries. The first zoning ordinance was passed in New York City in 1916, and, by the 1930s, most states had adopted zoning laws. In the 1970s, concerns about the environment and historic preservation led to further regulation. Today, federal, state, and local governments regulate growth and development through statutory law . The majority of controls on land, however, stem from

10088-560: The world and over 60% of its electricity supply were from fossil fuels. The large-scale burning of fossil fuels causes serious environmental damage . Over 70% of the greenhouse gas emissions due to human activity in 2022 was carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) released from burning fossil fuels. Natural carbon cycle processes on Earth, mostly absorption by the ocean , can remove only a small part of this, and terrestrial vegetation loss due to deforestation , land degradation and desertification further compounds this deficiency. Therefore, there

10192-502: The world climate change is negatively impacting ecosystems . This includes contributing to the extinction of species and reducing people's ability to produce food, thus adding to the problem of world hunger . Continued rises in global temperatures will lead to further adverse effects on both ecosystems and people; the World Health Organization has said that climate change is the greatest threat to human health in

10296-457: The world today is that the countries with the highest emissions over history are not always the biggest emitters today. For example, in 2017, the UK accounted for just 1% of global emissions. In comparison, humans have emitted more greenhouse gases than the Chicxulub meteorite impact event which caused the extinction of the dinosaurs . Transport, together with electricity generation , is

10400-582: The year 1995). A country's emissions may also be reported as a proportion of global emissions for a particular year. Another measurement is of per capita emissions. This divides a country's total annual emissions by its mid-year population. Per capita emissions may be based on historical or annual emissions. One way of attributing greenhouse gas emissions is to measure the embedded emissions (also referred to as "embodied emissions") of goods that are being consumed. Emissions are usually measured according to production, rather than consumption. For example, in

10504-480: Was a major recent example of fossil fuels causing inflation. Some economists, including Isabel Schnabel , believe that dependence on fossil fuels is the main driver of the 2021-2022 inflation spike . Gernot Wagner argues that commodities are undesirable energy sources because they are susceptible to volatile price swings that technologies like renewable energy are not. He also argues that technologies improve and get relatively cheaper over time. Coming out of

10608-406: Was at about the time of the 1970s energy crisis . Percent changes per year were estimated by piecewise linear regression on the log data and are shown on the plot; the data are from The Integrated Carbon Observation system. The sharp acceleration in CO 2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to

10712-753: Was listed and it reached a US$ 2 trillion valuation on its second day of trading, after the world's largest initial public offering. Fossil fuel subsidies are energy subsidies on fossil fuels, and in 2023 totalled over 1 trillion dollars. They may be tax breaks on consumption , such as a lower sales tax on natural gas for residential heating ; or subsidies on production , such as tax breaks on exploration for oil . Or they may be free or cheap negative externalities ; such as air pollution or climate change due to burning gasoline , diesel and jet fuel . Some fossil fuel subsidies are via electricity generation , such as subsidies for coal-fired power stations . Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would reduce

10816-590: Was occurring within a country, so more operational factories would increase carbon emission levels. Emissions may also be measured across shorter time periods. Emissions changes may, for example, be measured against the base year of 1990. 1990 was used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the base year for emissions, and is also used in the Kyoto Protocol (some gases are also measured from

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