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50-454: The Lever Brothers Factory was a soap factory in the suburb of Balmain in Sydney , Australia , which operated from 1895 until 1988. It employed many people from the local area and its large industrial buildings were a prominent feature of the landscape. Most of the site was demolished in 1996 to make way for an apartment complex, and only three of the original buildings remain. The factory

100-408: A values (and are therefore stronger acids) than alcohols . For example, the p K a value of acetic acid is 4.8, while ethanol has a p K a of 16. Hence acetic acid is a much stronger acid than ethanol. This in turn means that for equimolar solutions of a carboxylic acid or an alcohol in water, the carboxylic acid would have a much lower pH . Carboxylic acid salts with a hydrogen atom in

150-457: A polar aprotic solvent , though there are other effects such as solubility of the ion). Unlike the reduction of ester, the reduction of carboxylate is different, due to the lack of the leaving group and the relatively electron-rich carbon atom (due to the negative charge on the oxygen atoms). With a small amount of acid, the reaction occurs with lithium aluminium hydride by changing the LAH into

200-485: A rheology modifier. Metal soaps can be prepared by neutralizing fatty acids with metal oxides: A cation from an organic base such as ammonium can be used instead of a metal; ammonium nonanoate is an ammonium-based soap that is used as an herbicide. Another class of non-toilet soaps are resin soaps , which are produced in the paper industry by the action of tree rosin with alkaline reagents used to separate cellulose from raw wood. A major component of such soaps

250-487: A soda ash substance called trona . Egyptian documents mention a similar substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving. In the reign of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for a soap-like substance consisted of uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and sesame [seed oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls". True soaps, which we might recognise as soaps today, were different to proto-soaps. They foamed, were made deliberately, and could be produced in

300-540: A domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is technically called a toilet soap, used for household and personal cleaning. Toilet soaps are salts of fatty acids with the general formula ( RCO 2 )M , where M is Na (sodium) or K (potassium). When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. The insoluble oil/fat "dirt" become associated inside micelles , tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on

350-472: A domestic setting, soaps, specifically "toilet soaps", are surfactants usually used for washing , bathing , and other types of housekeeping . In industrial settings, soaps are used as thickeners , components of some lubricants , emulsifiers , and catalysts . Soaps are often produced by mixing fats and oils with a base . Humans have used soap for millennia; evidence exists for the production of soap-like materials in ancient Babylon around 2800 BC. In

400-495: A hard or soft form because of an understanding of lye sources. It is uncertain as to who was the first to invent true soap. Knowledge of how to produce true soap emerged at some point between early mentions of proto-soaps and the first century AD. Alkali was used to clean textiles such as wool for thousands of years but soap only forms when there is enough fat, and experiments show that washing wool does not create visible quantities of soap. Experiments by Sally Pointer show that

450-663: A major cottage industry, with sources in Nablus , Fes , Damascus , and Aleppo . Soapmakers in Naples were members of a guild in the late sixth century (then under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire ), and in the eighth century, soap-making was well known in Italy and Spain. The Carolingian capitulary De Villis , dating to around 800, representing the royal will of Charlemagne , mentions soap as being one of

500-481: A minimum quantity of one imperial ton at each boiling, which placed the process beyond the reach of the average person. The soap trade was boosted and deregulated when the tax was repealed in 1853. Industrially manufactured bar soaps became available in the late 18th century, as advertising campaigns in Europe and America promoted popular awareness of the relationship between cleanliness and health. In modern times,

550-591: A pleasant smell was produced in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age , when soap-making became an established industry. Recipes for soap-making are described by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), who also gave a recipe for producing glycerine from olive oil . In the Middle East, soap was produced from the interaction of fatty oils and fats with alkali . In Syria , soap

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600-422: A proton), because the carboxylate ion is stabilized by resonance . The negative charge that is left after deprotonation of the carboxyl group is delocalized between the two electronegative oxygen atoms in a resonance structure. If the R group is an electron-withdrawing group (such as –CF 3 ), the basicity of the carboxylate will be further weakened. This delocalization of the electron means that both of

650-458: A small soap works in Warrington in 1886 and founded what is still one of the largest soap businesses, formerly called Lever Brothers and now called Unilever . These soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns. Liquid soap was invented in the nineteenth century; in 1865, William Sheppard patented a liquid version of soap. In 1898, B.J. Johnson developed

700-402: A soap derived from palm and olive oils; his company, the B.J. Johnson Soap Company , introduced " Palmolive " brand soap that same year. This new brand of soap became popular rapidly, and to such a degree that B.J. Johnson Soap Company changed its name to Palmolive . In the early 1900s, other companies began to develop their own liquid soaps. Such products as Pine-Sol and Tide appeared on

750-499: A soap manufactory. The method of extraction proceeded on a discovery of Keir's. In 1790, Nicolas Leblanc discovered how to make alkali from common salt . Andrew Pears started making a high-quality, transparent soap, Pears soap , in 1807 in London. His son-in-law, Thomas J. Barratt , became the brand manager (the first of its kind) for Pears in 1865. In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become

800-399: A soap-like substance was written on a Sumerian clay tablet around 2500 BC. This was produced by heating a mixture of oil and wood ash , the earliest recorded chemical reaction, and used for washing woolen clothing. The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient Egyptians used a soap-like product as a medicine and created this by combining animal fats or vegetable oils with

850-496: Is lithium stearate . Greases are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil . Many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium , sodium , and mixtures thereof. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil , which would produce calcium soaps. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints formulations as

900-464: Is a curved blade with a handle, all of which is made of metal. The 2nd-century AD physician Galen describes soap-making using lye and prescribes washing to carry away impurities from the body and clothes. The use of soap for personal cleanliness became increasingly common in this period. According to Galen, the best soaps were Germanic, and soaps from Gaul were second best. Zosimos of Panopolis , circa 300 AD, describes soap and soapmaking. In

950-448: Is more skin-friendly than one without extra fat, although it can leave a "greasy" feel. Sometimes, an emollient is added, such as jojoba oil or shea butter . Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The scouring agents serve to remove dead cells from the skin surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation . To make antibacterial soap, compounds such as triclosan or triclocarban can be added. There

1000-498: Is reputed for its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils with a high percentage of olive oil. Proto-soaps, which mixed fat and alkali and were used for cleansing, are mentioned in Sumerian , Babylonian and Egyptian texts. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon. A formula for making

1050-402: Is some concern that use of antibacterial soaps and other products might encourage antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms. The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide , are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived from potassium hydroxide , are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from

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1100-511: Is sometimes left in the soap product as a softening agent, although it is sometimes separated. Handmade soap can differ from industrially made soap in that an excess of fat or coconut oil beyond that needed to consume the alkali is used (in a cold-pour process, this excess fat is called "superfatting"), and the glycerol left in acts as a moisturizing agent. However, the glycerine also makes the soap softer. The addition of glycerol and processing of this soap produces glycerin soap . Superfatted soap

1150-411: Is the sodium salt of abietic acid . Resin soaps are used as emulsifiers. The production of toilet soaps usually entails saponification of triglycerides , which are vegetable or animal oils and fats. An alkaline solution (often lye or sodium hydroxide ) induces saponification whereby the triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into salts of fatty acids. Glycerol (glycerin) is liberated. The glycerin

1200-491: The alpha position next to the carboxylate group can be converted to dianions with strong bases like lithium diisopropylamide . These react with alkyl halides to give derivatives: Carboxylate ions are good nucleophiles . They react with alkyl halides to form esters . The following reaction shows the reaction mechanism. The nucleophilicity of carboxylate ions is much weaker than that of hydroxide and alkoxide ions, but stronger than that of halide anions (in

1250-498: The Balmain plant began to manufacture Sunlight soap and glycerine, and other products followed. Early in 1914, William Lever visited Melbourne as part of a worldwide tour of his company's interests. During the visit, he met with the owners of J.Kitchen & Sons, who were established local soap manufacturers, and offered to amalgamate the two firms. After consideration, it was agreed that Lever Bros would purchase three-quarters of

1300-654: The Colgate-Palmolive Factory, and the many shipyards, boilermakers and docks scattered about the Balmain foreshores, the Lever Brothers Factory became a victim of the ever-increasing property values in the area. 33°51′44″S 151°10′49″E  /  33.862320°S 151.180406°E  / -33.862320; 151.180406 Soap Soap is a salt of a fatty acid (sometimes other carboxylic acids) used for cleaning and lubricating products as well as other applications. In

1350-622: The Mediterranean olive-growing regions. Hard toilet soap was introduced to Europe by Arabs and gradually spread as a luxury item. It was often perfumed. By the 15th century, the manufacture of soap in Christendom often took place on an industrial scale, with sources in Antwerp , Castile , Marseille , Naples and Venice . In France, by the second half of the 16th century, the semi-industrialized professional manufacture of soap

1400-541: The Southern Levant , the ashes from barilla plants , such as species of Salsola , saltwort ( Seidlitzia rosmarinus ) and Anabasis , were used to make potash . Traditionally, olive oil was used instead of animal lard throughout the Levant, which was boiled in a copper cauldron for several days. As the boiling progresses, alkali ashes and smaller quantities of quicklime are added and constantly stirred. In

1450-495: The Tudor period that barrels of ashes were imported for the manufacture of soap. Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 17th century, using vegetable oils (such as olive oil ) as opposed to animal fats. Many of these soaps are still produced, both industrially and by small-scale artisans. Castile soap is a popular example of the vegetable-only soaps derived from the oldest "white soap" of Italy. In 1634 Charles I granted

1500-633: The ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard. These are used exclusively in greases . For making toilet soaps, triglycerides (oils and fats) are derived from coconut, olive, or palm oils, as well as tallow . Triglyceride is the chemical name for the triesters of fatty acids and glycerin . Tallow, i.e., rendered fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure olive oil , sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap ,

1550-406: The case of lard, it required constant stirring while kept lukewarm until it began to trace. Once it began to thicken, the brew was poured into a mold and left to cool and harden for two weeks. After hardening, it was cut into smaller cakes. Aromatic herbs were often added to the rendered soap to impart their fragrance, such as yarrow leaves, lavender , germander , etc. A detergent similar to soap

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1600-427: The company changed its name to Lever Rexona and, in 2000, merged with Unilever Foods to form what is now Unilever Australasia. At its prime in 1958, the Balmain factory employed as many as 1,250 workers. The complex contained a glycerine refinery, toilet soap plant, and an oil refining and hardening works, as well as many storage tanks, extensive wharves, and a small fleet of lighters and workboats. The Balmain plant

1650-505: The general formula RCOOR′ (also written as RCO 2 R′ ), where R and R′ are organic groups. Carboxylate ions can be formed by deprotonation of carboxylic acids. Such acids typically have p K a of less than 5, meaning that they can be deprotonated by many bases, such as sodium hydroxide or sodium bicarbonate . Carboxylic acids easily dissociate into a carboxylate anion and a positively charged hydrogen ion (proton), much more readily than alcohols do (into an alkoxide ion and

1700-415: The market, making the process of cleaning things other than skin, such as clothing, floors, and bathrooms, much easier. Liquid soap also works better for more traditional or non-machine washing methods, such as using a washboard . Carboxylate ion Carboxylate salts are salts that have the general formula M(RCOO) n , where M is a metal and n is 1, 2,.... Carboxylate esters have

1750-457: The milder soaps used by the Gauls around 58 BC. Aretaeus of Cappadocia , writing in the 2nd century AD, observes among "Celts, which are men called Gauls, those alkaline substances that are made into balls [...] called soap ". The Romans' preferred method of cleaning the body was to massage oil into the skin and then scrape away both the oil and any dirt with a strigil . The standard design

1800-587: The newly formed Society of Soapmakers a monopoly in soap production who produced certificates from 'foure Countesses, and five Viscountesses, and divers other Ladies and Gentlewomen of great credite and quality, besides common Laundresses and others', testifying that 'the New White Soap washeth whiter and sweeter than the Old Soap'. During the Restoration era (February 1665 – August 1714) a soap tax

1850-708: The outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water, making them soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water. In hand washing , as a surfactant, when lathered with a little water, soap kills microorganisms by disorganizing their membrane lipid bilayer and denaturing their proteins . It also emulsifies oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water. When used in hard water , soap does not lather well but forms soap scum (related to metallic soaps , see below). So-called metallic soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and thickeners. A commercially important example

1900-562: The oxygen atoms are less strongly negatively charged: the positive proton is therefore less strongly attracted back to the carboxylate group once it has left; hence, the carboxylate ion is more stable and less basic as a result of resonance stabilization of the negative charge. In contrast, an alkoxide ion, once formed, would have a strong negative charge localized on its lone oxygen atom, which would strongly attract any nearby protons (indeed, alkoxides are very strong bases). Because of resonance stabilization, carboxylic acids have much lower p K

1950-504: The poster-girl for Pears soap, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product. William Gossage produced low-priced, good-quality soap from the 1850s. Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing a soap powder in 1837, initially by grinding the soap with a mortar and pestle . American manufacturer Benjamin T. Babbitt introduced marketing innovations that included the sale of bar soap and distribution of product samples . William Hesketh Lever and his brother, James , bought

2000-630: The products the stewards of royal estates are to tally. The lands of Medieval Spain were a leading soapmaker by 800, and soapmaking began in the Kingdom of England about 1200. Soapmaking is mentioned both as "women's work" and as the produce of "good workmen" alongside other necessities, such as the produce of carpenters, blacksmiths, and bakers. In Europe, soap in the 9th century was produced from animal fats and had an unpleasant smell. This changed when olive oil began to be used in soap formulas instead, after which much of Europe's soap production moved to

2050-559: The repeated laundering of materials used in perfume -making lead to noticeable amounts of soap forming. This fits with other evidence from Mesopotamian culture. Pliny the Elder, whose writings chronicle life in the first century AD, describes soap as "an invention of the Gauls". The word sapo , Latin for soap, has connected to a mythical Mount Sapo, a hill near the River Tiber where animals were sacrificed. But in all likelihood,

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2100-571: The shares in J.Kitchen & Sons, in return for cumulative preferred ordinary shares in Levers. Levers later bought all the remaining shares and, by about 1923–24, fully owned both companies. Shortly after, the company became known as Lever & Kitchen. In 1989, the Home and Personal Care businesses of Lever & Kitchen merged with the Australian firm, Rexona , to form L&K: Rexona. In 1993,

2150-527: The use of soap has become commonplace in industrialized nations due to a better understanding of the role of hygiene in reducing the population size of pathogenic microorganisms . Until the Industrial Revolution , soapmaking was conducted on a small scale and the product was rough. In 1780, James Keir established a chemical works at Tipton , for the manufacture of alkali from the sulfates of potash and soda, to which he afterwards added

2200-648: The word was borrowed from an early Germanic language and is cognate with Latin sebum , " tallow ". It first appears in Pliny the Elder 's account, Historia Naturalis , which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes. There he mentions its use in the treatment of scrofulous sores , as well as among the Gauls as a dye to redden hair which the men in Germania were more likely to use than women. The Romans avoided washing with harsh soaps before encountering

2250-403: Was concentrated in a few centers of Provence — Toulon , Hyères , and Marseille —which supplied the rest of France. In Marseilles, by 1525, production was concentrated in at least two factories, and soap production at Marseille tended to eclipse the other Provençal centers. English manufacture tended to concentrate in London. The demand for high-quality hard soap was significant enough during

2300-469: Was introduced in England, which meant that until the mid-1800s, soap was a luxury, used regularly only by the well-to-do. The soap manufacturing process was closely supervised by revenue officials who made sure that soapmakers' equipment was kept under lock and key when not being supervised. Moreover, soap could not be produced by small makers because of a law that stipulated that soap boilers must manufacture

2350-476: Was manufactured in ancient China from the seeds of Gleditsia sinensis . Another traditional detergent is a mixture of pig pancreas and plant ash called zhuyizi ( simplified Chinese : 猪胰子 ; traditional Chinese : 豬胰子 ; pinyin : zhūyízǐ ). Soap made of animal fat did not appear in China until the modern era. Soap-like detergents were not as popular as ointments and creams. Hard toilet soap with

2400-500: Was on a 10-hectare (25-acre) site near Booth Street and Punch Park at the western end of Balmain, adjacent to White Bay . The British company, Lever Brothers , was founded in 1885 by William Hesketh Lever , and Lever Brothers Ltd was incorporated in Australia on 21 June 1894. Soon after this, in 1897, Lever Brothers established a plant at Balmain to extract oil from copra which was shipped back to Liverpool , England . In 1900,

2450-466: Was produced using olive oil together with alkali and lime . Soap was exported from Syria to other parts of the Muslim world and to Europe. A 12th-century document describes the process of soap production. It mentions the key ingredient, alkali , which later became crucial to modern chemistry, derived from al-qaly or "ashes". By the 13th century, the manufacture of soap in the Middle East had become

2500-523: Was wound down in the 1970s, having lost its waterfront and glycerine plant to the container wharf development at White Bay. Production eventually ceased in 1988. Together with the adjoining Ampol site, the area was sold in 1996 for the development of the Watervale, Dockside and Somerset Mews apartment complexes. Like many of the other Balmain industries, such as the former Balmain Power Station ,

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