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94-414: Major land uses in the watershed of Leonard Creek include forested land and agricultural land. The creek is one of the more significant tributaries of Bowman Creek. Leonard Creek has at times been impacted by flooding. A number of mills historically existed along the creek and a number of bridges have been constructed across it. The creek's watershed is classified as a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and

188-455: A forge , fulling stocks in a fulling mill and so on. However, in corn mills rotation about a vertical axis was required to drive its stones. The horizontal rotation was converted into the vertical rotation by means of gearing, which also enabled the runner stones to turn faster than the waterwheel. The usual arrangement in British and American corn mills has been for the waterwheel to turn

282-405: A gear mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further subdivided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and pitchback (backshot or reverse shot) waterwheel mills. Another way to classify water mills is by an essential trait about their location: tide mills use the movement of

376-416: A sawmill on the creek approximately 0.5 miles (0.80 km) downstream of Kunkle in around 1840. A steel girder and floorbeam system bridge carrying T-337 over Leonard Creek was built in 1914 0.5 miles (0.80 km) west of Beaumont and is 65.9 feet (20.1 m) long. A prestressed box beam or girders bridge carrying State Route 2018 over the creek was built in 1934 and was repaired in 2007. This bridge

470-499: A Migratory Fishery. One of its unnamed tributaries is designated as Class A Wild Trout Waters . Leonard Creek begins in Dallas Township, Luzerne County. It flows in an east-southeasterly direction for more than a mile, flowing through a valley and passing several ponds. The creek then turns east-northeast for several tenths of a mile, receiving two unnamed tributaries from the right . At this point, it turns north for roughly

564-470: A Migratory Fishery. Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its upper reaches downstream to its mouth. An unnamed tributary of it in the vicinity of Beaumont is classified by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission as Class A Wild Trout Waters for brook trout and brown trout from its headwaters downstream to its mouth. In 2014, Leonard Creek was stocked with rainbow trout by

658-519: A considerable portion old-growth forest deforestation is the result of small-scale migrant farming. As forest cover is removed, forest resources become exhausted and increasing populations lead to scarcity, which prompts people to move again to previously undisturbed forest, restarting the process of deforestation. There are several reasons behind this continued migration: poverty-driven lack of available farmland and high costs may lead to an increase in farming intensity on existing farmland. This leads to

752-478: A consistent, long-term record to quantify change variability over time. Through observing patterns in land cover changes, scientists can determine the consequences of these changes, predict the impact of future changes, and use this information to inform strategic land management . Modeling risk and vulnerability is also one of land change science's practical applications. Accurate predictions of how human activity will influence land cover change over time, as well as

846-437: A dam on the river above the mill and a more elaborate millpond, sluice gate, mill race and spillway or tailrace. An inherent problem in the overshot mill is that it reverses the rotation of the wheel. If a miller wishes to convert a breastshot mill to an overshot wheel all the machinery in the mill has to be rebuilt to take account of the change in rotation. An alternative solution was the pitchback or backshot wheel. A launder

940-745: A day. By 610 or 670 AD, the watermill was introduced to Japan via Korean Peninsula . It also became known in Tibet by at least 641 AD. According to Greek historical tradition, India received water-mills from the Roman Empire in the early 4th century AD when a certain Metrodoros introduced "water-mills and baths, unknown among them [the Brahmans] till then". Engineers under the Caliphates adopted watermill technology from former provinces of

1034-452: A horizontal shaft on which is also mounted a large pit wheel . This meshes with the wallower , mounted on a vertical shaft, which turns the (larger) great spur wheel (mounted on the same shaft). This large face wheel , set with pegs, in turn, turned a smaller wheel (such as a lantern gear ) known as a stone nut, which was attached to the shaft that drove the runner stone. The number of runner stones that could be turned depended directly upon

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1128-427: A horizontal water wheel on a vertical axle, and the other with a vertical wheel on a horizontal axle. The oldest of these were horizontal mills in which the force of the water, striking a simple paddle wheel set horizontally in line with the flow turned a runner stone balanced on the rynd which is atop a shaft leading directly up from the wheel. The bedstone does not turn. The problem with this type of mill arose from

1222-429: A major impact on natural resources including water , soil , nutrients , plants and animals . Land use change is "the change from one land-use category to another". Land-use change, together with use of fossil fuels , are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas . Human activity is the most significant cause of land cover change, and humans are also directly impacted by

1316-439: A mile, crossing Pennsylvania Route 309 and leaving Dallas Township and Luzerne County. Upon exiting Luzerne County, Leonard Creek enters Monroe Township, Wyoming County. It flows north-northwest for a few miles alongside Pennsylvania Route 309, receiving two unnamed tributaries from the right and one unnamed tributary from the left . The creek then turns northwest for several tenths of a mile, receiving one unnamed tributary from

1410-608: A mostly rural work process, than the ancient urban-centered literary class had been. By Carolingian times, references to watermills had become "innumerable" in Frankish records. The Domesday Book , compiled in 1086, records 5,624 watermills in England alone. Later research estimates a less conservative number of 6,082 that should be considered a minimum as the northern reaches of England were never properly recorded. In 1300, this number had risen to between 10,000 and 15,000. By

1504-600: A parcel of land. It concerns the benefits derived from using the land, and also the land management actions that humans carry out there. The following categories are used for land use: forest land , cropland ( agricultural land ), grassland , wetlands , settlements and other lands. The way humans use land, and how land use is changing, has many impacts on the environment . Effects of land use choices and changes by humans include for example urban sprawl , soil erosion , soil degradation , land degradation and desertification . Land use and land management practices have

1598-511: A sand and gravel pit are present. The watershed of Leonard Creek has an area of 17.1 square miles (44 km). The creek passes through both the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Noxen and the quadrangle of Center Moreland. Leonard Creek is one of the major tributaries of Bowman Creek. The main land use in the watershed of Leonard Creek is forested land. However, agricultural land comprises

1692-463: A shaft with a horizontal axis to one with a vertical axis. Although to date only a few dozen Roman mills are archaeologically traced, the widespread use of aqueducts in the period suggests that many remain to be discovered. Recent excavations in Roman London, for example, have uncovered what appears to be a tide mill together with a possible sequence of mills worked by an aqueduct running along

1786-504: A significant minority of the land in the creek's watershed. There are no drilled wells in the watershed of Leonard Creek. However, is a pipeline for natural gas in vicinity of the creek. Some residential and/or commercial land infringes upon the 100-year floodplain of it and its tributaries. The village of Kunkle is situated along the creek. Flooding once caused significant damage to two bridges and channel improvements on Leonard Creek in Dallas Township, Luzerne County. However,

1880-420: A single waterwheel driving more than one set of stones was drawn by Henry Beighton in 1723 and published in 1744 by J. T. Desaguliers . The overshot wheel was a later innovation in waterwheels and was around two and a half times more efficient than the undershot. The undershot wheel, in which the main water wheel is simply set into the flow of the mill race, suffers from an inherent inefficiency stemming from

1974-477: A source of water, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Fulling mills, and steel mills may have spread from Al-Andalus to Christian Spain in the 12th century. Industrial watermills were also employed in large factory complexes built in al-Andalus between the 11th and 13th centuries. The engineers of the Islamic world used several solutions to achieve the maximum output from

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2068-408: A vertical-waterwheel via a gear mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal-waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further divided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and reverse shot waterwheel mills. The Greeks invented the two main components of watermills, the waterwheel and toothed gearing, and used, along with

2162-581: A water-powered grain-mill to have existed near the palace of king Mithradates VI Eupator at Cabira , Asia Minor , before 71 BC. The Roman engineer Vitruvius has the first technical description of a watermill, dated to 40/10 BC; the device is fitted with an undershot wheel and power is transmitted via a gearing mechanism . He also seems to indicate the existence of water-powered kneading machines. The Greek epigrammatist Antipater of Thessalonica tells of an advanced overshot wheel mill around 20 BC/10 AD. He praised for its use in grinding grain and

2256-499: A watermill. One solution was to mount them to piers of bridges to take advantage of the increased flow. Another solution was the ship mill, a type of watermill powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of ships moored in midstream . This technique was employed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in 10th-century Iraq , where large ship mills made of teak and iron could produce 10 tons of flour from corn every day for

2350-548: Is 44.0 feet (13.4 m) long and is situated in Monroe Township, Wyoming County. In 1940, a concrete tee beam bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 309 over Leonard Creek was built in Dallas Township, Luzerne County. It is 32.2 feet (9.8 m) long. A concrete tee beam bridge carrying State Route 2026/Kunkle Road was built across the creek in the same year in Dallas Township and is 37.1 feet (11.3 m) long. A two-span concrete culvert bridge carrying State Route 2002

2444-422: Is an example of large-scale land use change. The deforestation of temperate regions since 1750 has had a major effect on land cover . The reshaping of landscapes to serve human needs, such as the deforestation for farmland , can have long-term effects on earth systems and exacerbate the causes of climate change. Although the burning of fossil fuels is the primary driver of present-day climate change, prior to

2538-803: Is carried out in the UK at Daniels Mill , Little Salkeld Mill and Redbournbury Mill . This was boosted to overcome flour shortages during the Covid pandemic. Some old mills are being upgraded with modern hydropower technology, such as those worked on by the South Somerset Hydropower Group in the UK. In some developing countries, watermills are still widely used for processing grain. For example, there are thought to be 25,000 operating in Nepal, and 200,000 in India. Many of these are still of

2632-558: Is important to land use and land cover change for a variety of reasons. In particular, urbanization affects land change elsewhere through the shifting of urban-rural linkages, or the ecological footprint of the transfer of goods and services between urban and rural areas. Increases in urbanization lead to increases in consumption, which puts increased pressure on surrounding rural lands. The outward spread of urban areas can also take over adjacent land formerly used for crop cultivation. Urbanization additionally affects land cover through

2726-662: Is not designated as an impaired waterbody. The elevation near the mouth of Leonard Creek is 837 feet (255 m) above sea level . The elevation of the creek's source is between 1,200 and 1,220 feet (366 and 372 m) above sea level. The surficial geology along a significant portion of the length of Leonard Creek consists of alluvium . In the lower reaches of the creek, this is bordered by alluvial terrace , Wisconsinan Till , Wisconsinan Ice-Contact Stratified Drift, bedrock consisting of sandstone and shale , and fill . Further upstream, all of these types of surficial geology are present. However, patches of alluvial fan and

2820-445: Is one form of land-use regulation. For example, Portland, Oregon is required to have an urban growth boundary which contains at least 20,000 acres (81 km ) of vacant land. Additionally, Oregon restricts the development of farmland. The regulations are controversial, but an economic analysis concluded that farmland appreciated similarly to the other land. In colonial America, few regulations were originally put into place regarding

2914-428: Is the tide mill . This mill might be of any kind, undershot, overshot or horizontal but it does not employ a river for its power source. Instead a mole or causeway is built across the mouth of a small bay. At low tide, gates in the mole are opened allowing the bay to fill with the incoming tide. At high tide the gates are closed, trapping the water inside. At a certain point a sluice gate in the mole can be opened allowing

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3008-502: Is the preeminent role of France in the introduction of new innovative uses of waterpower. However, he has drawn attention to the dearth of studies of the subject in several other countries. The waterwheel was found in China from 30 AD onwards, when it was used to power trip hammers , the bellows in smelting iron , and in one case, to mechanically rotate an armillary sphere for astronomical observation (see Zhang Heng ). Although

3102-525: The Amazon and Central America . Moreover, the underlying drivers of economic development are often linked to global economic engagement, ranging from increased exports to a foreign debt . Broadly, urbanization is the increasing number of people who live in urban areas. Urbanization refers to both urban population growth and the physical growth of urban areas. According to the United Nations ,

3196-578: The Aral Sea is an example how local-scale land use and land change can have compounded impacts on regional climate systems, particularly when human activities heavily disrupt natural climatic cycles, how land change science can be used to map and study such changes. In 1960, the Aral Sea, located in Central Asia, was the world's fourth largest lake. However, a water diversion project, undertaken by

3290-474: The Aurelian walls in the late 3rd century. A breastshot wheel mill dating to the late 2nd century AD was excavated at Les Martres-de-Veyre , France. The 3rd century AD Hierapolis water-powered stone sawmill is the earliest known machine to incorporate the mechanism of a crank and connecting rod . Further sawmills, also powered by crank and connecting rod mechanisms, are archaeologically attested for

3384-534: The Byzantine Empire , having been applied for centuries in those provinces prior to the Muslim conquests , including modern-day Syria , Jordan , Israel , Algeria , Tunisia , Morocco , and Spain (see List of ancient watermills ). The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled watermills were both in widespread use by

3478-688: The Federal Emergency Management Agency granted funds to rebuild one bridge and some channel walls. Leonard Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1199032. The creek is also known as Leonards Creek or Leonard's Creek. Historically, there were a number of mills on Leonard Creek. Levi Hoyt constructed

3572-505: The Industrial Revolution , deforestation and irrigation were the largest sources of human-driven greenhouse gas emissions . Even today, 35% of anthropogenic carbon dioxide contributions can be attributed to land use or land cover changes. Currently, almost 50% of Earth’s non-ice land surface has been transformed by human activities, with approximately 40% of that land used for agriculture , surpassing natural systems as

3666-613: The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (today embodied in 16 U.S.C. 461 et seq.) and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.). Watermill A watermill or water mill is a mill that uses hydropower . It is a structure that uses a water wheel or water turbine to drive a mechanical process such as milling (grinding) , rolling , or hammering . Such processes are needed in

3760-473: The Roman Empire . So-called 'Greek Mills' used water wheels with a horizontal wheel (and vertical shaft). A "Roman Mill" features a vertical wheel (on a horizontal shaft). Greek style mills are the older and simpler of the two designs, but only operate well with high water velocities and with small diameter millstones. Roman style mills are more complicated as they require gears to transmit the power from

3854-597: The Romans , undershot, overshot and breastshot waterwheel mills. The earliest evidence of a water-driven wheel appears in the technical treatises Pneumatica and Parasceuastica of the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (ca. 280−220 BC). The British historian of technology M.J.T. Lewis has shown that those portions of Philo of Byzantium's mechanical treatise which describe water wheels and which have been previously regarded as later Arabic interpolations, actually date back to

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3948-645: The Soviet Union to irrigate arid plains in what is now Kazakhstan , Uzbekistan , and Turkmenistan , resulted in the Aral Sea losing 85% of its land cover and 90% of its volume. The loss of the Aral Sea has had a significant effect on human-environment interactions in the region, including the decimation of the sea's fishing industry and the salinization of agricultural lands by the wind-spread of dried sea salt beds. Additionally, scientists have been able to use technology such as NASA 's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) to track changes to

4042-548: The Sui dynasty (581–618 AD) was said to operate hundreds of them by the beginning of the 6th century. A source written in 612 AD mentions Buddhist monks arguing over the revenues gained from watermills. The Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) 'Ordinances of the Department of Waterways' written in 737 AD stated that watermills should not interrupt riverine transport and in some cases were restricted to use in certain seasons of

4136-512: The ancient world ". It featured 16 overshot waterwheels to power an equal number of flour mills. The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for the 12,500 inhabitants occupying the town of Arelate at that time. A similar mill complex existed on the Janiculum hill, whose supply of flour for Rome 's population was judged by emperor Aurelian important enough to be included in

4230-605: The dragonfly genus Stylogomphus , the riffle beetle genus Dubiraphia , and the scud genus Hyalella . In the summer of 2012, the EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) taxa richness was 10 and the Becks Index value was 9. The Hilsenhoff Biotic Index value was 3.582 and the Shannon Wiener Index value was 2.104. Land use Land use is an umbrella term to describe what happens on

4324-632: The granary in Baghdad . More than 300 watermills were at work in Iran till 1960. Now only a few are still working. One of the famous ones is the water mill of Askzar and the water mill of the Yazd city, still producing flour. Typically, water is diverted from a river or impoundment or mill pond to a turbine or water wheel, along a channel or pipe (variously known as a flume , head race, mill race , leat , leet, lade (Scots) or penstock ). The force of

4418-418: The urban heat island effect. Heat islands occur when, due to high concentrations of structures, such as buildings and roads, that absorb and re-emit solar radiation, and low concentrations of vegetative cover, urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas. The high temperatures associated with heat islands can compromise human health, particularly in low-income areas. The rapid decline of

4512-547: The 6th century AD water-powered stone sawmills at Gerasa and Ephesus . Literary references to water-powered marble saws in what is now Germany can be found in Ausonius 4th century AD poem Mosella . They also seem to be indicated about the same time by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia , demonstrating a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the Roman Empire . The earliest turbine mill

4606-614: The 9th century. A variety of industrial watermills were used in the Islamic world, including gristmills , hullers , sawmills , ship mills, stamp mills , steel mills , sugar mills , and tide mills . By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial watermills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia . Muslim and Middle Eastern Christian engineers also used crankshafts and water turbines , gears in watermills and water-raising machines , and dams as

4700-485: The Aral Sea and its surrounding climate over time. This use of modeling and satellite imagery to track human-caused land cover change is characteristic of the scope of land change science. Commonly, political jurisdictions will undertake land-use planning and regulate the use of land in an attempt to avoid land-use conflicts . Land use plans are implemented through land division and use ordinances and regulations, such as zoning regulations . The urban growth boundary

4794-461: The British chemist and sinologist Joseph Needham speculates that the water-powered millstone could have existed in Han China by the 1st century AD, there is no sufficient literary evidence for it until the 5th century AD. In 488 AD, the mathematician and engineer Zu Chongzhi had a watermill erected which was inspected by Emperor Wu of Southern Qi (r. 482–493 AD). The engineer Yang Su of

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4888-539: The Greek 3rd century BC original. The sakia gear is, already fully developed, for the first time attested in a 2nd-century BC Hellenistic wall painting in Ptolemaic Egypt . Lewis assigns the date of the invention of the horizontal-wheeled mill to the Greek colony of Byzantium in the first half of the 3rd century BC, and that of the vertical-wheeled mill to Ptolemaic Alexandria around 240 BC. The Greek geographer Strabo reports in his Geography

4982-742: The Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission from the Luzerne County/Wyoming County line downstream to its mouth. The creek was stocked with brook trout as early as the 1930s. Great blue herons and salamanders have also been observed in the vicinity of the creek. In the summer of 2012, a total of 184 macroinvertebrates from 17 genera and one other family were observed in Leonard Creek. These included five mayfly genera, three stonefly genera, two beetle genera, two caddisfly genera, two cranefly genera,

5076-506: The United States is 9.1 M km but the total used here refers only to the contiguous 48 states, without Alaska etc. Land use change is "the change from one land-use category to another". Land-use change, together with use of fossil fuels , are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas . Human activity is the most significant cause of land cover change, and humans are also directly impacted by

5170-466: The United States. Acreage statistics for each type of land use in the contiguous 48 states in 2017 were as follows: Special use areas in the table above include national parks (29 M acres) and state parks (15 M), wildlife areas (64.4 M), highways (21 M), railroads (3M), military bases (25 M), airports (3M) and a few others. Miscellaneous includes cemeteries, golf courses, marshes, deserts, and other areas of "low economic value". The total land area of

5264-587: The Wyoming County Conservation District received a $ 125,000 grant from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to repair it and four other stream channels in the area. In 2012, a study was carried out on the creek and 17 others to determine the effects of gas drilling on macroinvertebrates in the streams. The drainage basin of Leonard Creek is designated as a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and

5358-434: The actions of private developers and individuals. Judicial decisions and enforcement of private land-use arrangements can reinforce public regulation, and achieve forms and levels of control that regulatory zoning cannot. There is growing concern that land use regulation is a direct cause of housing segregation in the United States today. Two major federal laws passed in the 1960s limit the use of land significantly. These are

5452-416: The buckets fill, the weight of the water starts to turn the wheel. The water spills out of the bucket on the down side into a spillway leading back to river. Since the wheel itself is set above the spillway, the water never impedes the speed of the wheel. The impulse of the water on the wheel is also harnessed in addition to the weight of the water once in the buckets. Overshot wheels require the construction of

5546-454: The date of the earliest tide mills, all of which were discovered on the Irish coast: A 6th century vertical-wheeled tide mill was located at Killoteran near Waterford . A twin flume horizontal-wheeled tide mill dating to c. 630 was excavated on Little Island . Alongside it, another tide mill was found which was powered by a vertical undershot wheel. The Nendrum Monastery mill from 787

5640-600: The draining water to drive a mill wheel or wheels. This is particularly effective in places where the tidal differential is very great, such as the Bay of Fundy in Canada where the tides can rise fifty feet, or the now derelict village of Tide Mills, East Sussex . The last two examples in the United Kingdom which are restored to working conditions can be visited at Eling , Hampshire and at Woodbridge , Suffolk . Run of

5734-541: The dynamics of land use and land-cover. LCMs are a means of understanding ways that humans change the Earth's surface in the past, present, and future. Deforestation is the systematic and permanent conversion of previously forested land for other uses. It has historically been a primary facilitator of land use and land cover change. Forests are a vital part of the global ecosystem and are essential to carbon capture , ecological processes, and biodiversity . However, since

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5828-458: The early 7th century, watermills were also well established in Ireland . A century later they began to spread across the former Roman Rhine and Danube frontier into the other parts of Germany . Ship mills and tide mills , both of which yet unattested for the ancient period, were introduced in the 6th century. In recent years, a number of new archaeological finds has consecutively pushed back

5922-492: The earth, we taste again the golden age . The Roman encyclopedist Pliny mentions in his Naturalis Historia of around 70 AD water-powered trip hammers operating in the greater part of Italy. There is evidence of a fulling mill in 73/74 AD in Antioch , Roman Syria . The 2nd century AD multiple mill complex of Barbegal in southern France has been described as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in

6016-568: The environmental consequences of these changes. Collective land use and land cover changes have fundamentally altered the functioning of key Earth systems . For instance, human changes to land use and land cover have a profound impact climate at a local and regional level, which in turn contributes to climate change . Land use by humans has a long history, first emerging more than 10,000 years ago. Human changes to land surfaces have been documented for centuries as having significant impacts on both earth systems and human well-being. Deforestation

6110-505: The environmental consequences of these changes. For example, deforestation (the systematic and permanent conversion of previously forested land for other uses) has historically been a primary facilitator of land use and land cover change. The study of land change relies on the synthesis of a wide range of data and a diverse range of data collection methods. These include land cover monitoring and assessments, modeling risk and vulnerability, and land change modeling . The IPCC defines

6204-416: The extent and timescale of changes, and how changes vary through time. To this end, scientists use a variety of tools, including satellite imagery and other sources of remotely sensed data (e.g., aircraft imagery), field observations, historical accounts, and reconstruction modeling. These tools, particularly satellite imagery, allow land change scientists to accurately monitor land-change rates and create

6298-421: The fact that the wheel itself, entering the water behind the main thrust of the flow driving the wheel, followed by the lift of the wheel out of the water ahead of the main thrust, actually impedes its own operation. The overshot wheel solves this problem by bringing the water flow to the top of the wheel. The water fills buckets built into the wheel, rather than the simple paddle wheel design of undershot wheels. As

6392-461: The global urban population has increased rapidly since 1950, from 751 million to 4.2 billion in 2018, and current trends predict this number will continue to grow. Accompanying this population shift are significant changes in economic flow, culture and lifestyle, and spatial population distribution. Although urbanized areas cover just 3% of the Earth's surface, they nevertheless have a significant impact on land use and land cover change. Urbanization

6486-647: The impact that such changes have on the sustainability of ecological and human systems, can inform the creation of policy designed to address these changes. Studying risk and vulnerability entails the development of quantitative , qualitative , and geospatial models, methods, and support tools. The purpose of these tools is to communicate the vulnerability of both human communities and natural ecosystems to hazard events or long-term land change. Modeling risk and vulnerability requires analyses of community sensitivity to hazards, an understanding of geographic distributions of people and infrastructure, and accurate calculation of

6580-423: The invention of agriculture, global forest cover has diminished by 35%. There is rarely one direct or underlying cause for deforestation. Rather, deforestation is the result of intertwining systemic forces working simultaneously or sequentially to change land cover. Deforestation occurs for many interconnected reasons. For instance, mass deforestation is often viewed as the product of industrial agriculture, yet

6674-467: The lack of gearing; the speed of the water directly set the maximum speed of the runner stone which, in turn, set the rate of milling. Most watermills in Britain and the United States of America had a vertical waterwheel, one of four kinds: undershot, breast-shot, overshot and pitchback wheels. This vertical produced rotary motion around a horizontal axis, which could be used (with cams) to lift hammers in

6768-590: The land as well as the land management actions (activities) carried out by humans to produce those products and benefits." As of the early 1990s, about 13% of the Earth was considered arable land, with 26% in pasture, 32% forests and woodland, and 1.5% urban areas. As of 2015, the total arable land is 10.7% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland. For example, the US Department of Agriculture has identified six major types of land use in

6862-486: The overexploitation of farmland, and down the line results in desertification , another land cover change, which renders soil unusable and unprofitable, requiring farmers to seek out untouched and unpopulated old-growth forests. In addition to rural migration and subsistence farming, economic development can also play a substantial role in deforestation. For example, road and railway expansions designed to increase quality of life have resulted in significant deforestation in

6956-627: The power available for British grain milling. By the early 20th century, availability of cheap electrical energy made the watermill obsolete in developed countries although some smaller rural mills continued to operate commercially later throughout the century. A few historic mills such as the Water Mill , Newlin Mill and Yates Mill in the US and The Darley Mill Centre in the UK still operate for demonstration purposes. Small-scale commercial production

7050-608: The power from a toothed annular ring that is mounted near the outer edge of the wheel. This drives the machinery using a spur gear mounted on a shaft rather than taking power from the central axle . However, the basic mode of operation remains the same; gravity drives machinery through the motion of flowing water . Toward the end of the 19th century, the invention of the Pelton wheel encouraged some mill owners to replace over- and undershot wheels with Pelton wheel turbines driven through penstocks . A different type of watermill

7144-555: The principal source of nitrogen emissions. Increasing land conversion by humans in future is not inevitable: In a discussion on response options to climate change mitigation and adaptation an IPCC special report stated that "a number of response options such as increased food productivity, dietary choices and food losses, and waste reduction, can reduce demand for land conversion, thereby potentially freeing land and creating opportunities for enhanced implementation of other response options". Land change science relies heavily on

7238-550: The probability of specific disturbances occurring. A key method for studying risk and vulnerability is land change modeling (LCM), which can be used to simulate changes and land use and land cover. LCMs can be used to predict how land use and land cover may change under alternate circumstances, which is useful for risk assessment, in that it allows for the prediction of potential impacts and can be used to inform policy decisions, albeit with some uncertainty. Land change models (LCMs) describe, project, and explain changes in and

7332-419: The production of many material goods, including flour , lumber , paper , textiles , and many metal products. These watermills may comprise gristmills , sawmills , paper mills , textile mills , hammermills , trip hammering mills, rolling mills , and wire drawing mills. One major way to classify watermills is by wheel orientation (vertical or horizontal), one powered by a vertical waterwheel through

7426-465: The reduction of human labour: Hold back your hand from the mill, you grinding girls; even if the cockcrow heralds the dawn, sleep on. For Demeter has imposed the labours of your hands on the nymphs , who leaping down upon the topmost part of the wheel, rotate its axle; with encircling cogs, it turns the hollow weight of the Nisyrian millstones . If we learn to feast toil-free on the fruits of

7520-470: The right and one from the left before turning north-northwest. At this point, its valley becomes considerably deeper and it receives an unnamed tributary from the right. After more than a mile, the creek leaves its valley and turns north, flowing alongside Bowman Creek. After several tenths of a mile, it turns northwest and reaches its confluence with Bowman Creek. Leonard Creek joins Bowman Creek 10.00 miles (16.09 km) upstream of its mouth. Leonard Creek

7614-448: The river schemes do not divert water at all and usually involve undershot wheels the mills are mostly on the banks of sizeable rivers or fast flowing streams. Other watermills were set beneath large bridges where the flow of water between the stanchions was faster. At one point London bridge had so many water wheels beneath it that bargemen complained that passage through the bridge was impaired. In 1870 watermills still produced 2/3 of

7708-633: The side of the River Fleet . In 537 AD, ship mills were ingeniously used by the East Roman general Belisarius , when the besieging Goths cut off the water supply for those mills. These floating mills had a wheel that was attached to a boat moored in a fast flowing river. The surviving evidence for watermills sharply increases with the emergence of documentary genres such as monastic charters , Christian hagiography and Germanic legal codes . These were more inclined to address watermilling,

7802-406: The supply of water available. As waterwheel technology improved mills became more efficient, and by the 19th century, it was common for the great spur wheel to drive several stone nuts, so that a single water wheel could drive as many as four stones. Each step in the process increased the gear ratio which increased the maximum speed of the runner stone. Adjusting the sluice gate and thus the flow of

7896-462: The synthesis of a wide range of data and a diverse range of data collection methods, some of which are detailed below. A primary function of land change science is to document and model long-term patterns of landscape change, which may result from both human activity and natural processes. In the course of monitoring and assessing land cover and land use changes, scientists look at several factors, including where land-cover and land-use are changing,

7990-437: The term land use as the "total of arrangements, activities and inputs applied to a parcel of land". The same report groups land use into the following categories: forest land , cropland ( agricultural land ), grassland , wetlands , settlements and other lands . Another definition is that of the United Nations ' Food and Agriculture Organization : "Land use concerns the products and/or benefits obtained from use of

8084-573: The tide; ship mills are water mills onboard (and constituting) a ship. Watermills impact the river dynamics of the watercourses where they are installed. During the time watermills operate channels tend to sedimentate , particularly backwater . Also in the backwater area, inundation events and sedimentation of adjacent floodplains increase. Over time however these effects are cancelled by river banks becoming higher. Where mills have been removed, river incision increases and channels deepen. There are two basic types of watermills, one powered by

8178-650: The usage of land. As society shifted from rural to urban, public land regulation became important, especially to city governments trying to control industry, commerce, and housing within their boundaries. The first zoning ordinance was passed in New York City in 1916, and, by the 1930s, most states had adopted zoning laws. In the 1970s, concerns about the environment and historic preservation led to further regulation. Today, federal, state, and local governments regulate growth and development through statutory law . The majority of controls on land, however, stem from

8272-486: The water past the main wheel allowed the miller to compensate for seasonal variations in the water supply. Finer speed adjustment was made during the milling process by tentering , that is, adjusting the gap between the stones according to the water flow, the type of grain being milled, and the grade of flour required. In many mills (including the earliest) the great spur wheel turned only one stone, but there might be several mills under one roof. The earliest illustration of

8366-596: The water's movement drives the blades of a wheel or turbine, which in turn rotates an axle that drives the mill's other machinery. Water leaving the wheel or turbine is drained through a tail race, but this channel may also be the head race of yet another wheel, turbine or mill. The passage of water is controlled by sluice gates that allow maintenance and some measure of flood control; large mill complexes may have dozens of sluices controlling complicated interconnected races that feed multiple buildings and industrial processes. Watermills can be divided into two kinds, one with

8460-456: The year. From other Tang-era sources of the 8th century, it is known that these ordinances were taken very seriously, as the government demolished many watermills owned by great families, merchants, and Buddhist abbeys that failed to acknowledge ordinances or meet government regulations. A eunuch serving Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756 AD) owned a watermill by 748 AD which employed five waterwheels that ground 300 bushels of wheat

8554-408: Was constructed across the creek in Monroe Township, Wyoming County in 1969 and is 50.9 feet (15.5 m) long. A two-span concrete culvert bridge carrying T318/Falls Hill Road over Leonard Creek was built 1.2 miles (1.9 km) southeast of Beaumont in 2009 and is 29.9 feet (9.1 m) long. The channel of Leonard Creek experienced significant damage during flooding on January 25, 2010. However,

8648-561: Was found in Chemtou and Testour , Roman North Africa , dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. A possible water-powered furnace has been identified at Marseille , France. Mills were commonly used for grinding grain into flour (attested by Pliny the Elder ), but industrial uses as fulling and sawing marble were also applied. The Romans used both fixed and floating water wheels and introduced water power to other provinces of

8742-436: Was placed at the end of the flume on the headrace, this turned the direction of the water without much loss of energy, and the direction of rotation was maintained. Daniels Mill near Bewdley , Worcestershire is an example of a flour mill that originally used a breastshot wheel, but was converted to use a pitchback wheel. Today it operates as a breastshot mill. Larger water wheels (usually overshot steel wheels) transmit

8836-637: Was situated on an island in Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland . Its millstones are 830 mm in diameter and the horizontal wheel is estimated to have developed 7 ⁄ 8 horsepower (650 W) at its peak. Remains of an earlier mill dated at 619 were also found at the site. In a 2005 survey the scholar Adam Lucas identified the following first appearances of various industrial mill types in Western Europe. Noticeable

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