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66-465: A lessor can be both legal entity and individual. Nevertheless, the term “leasing company” sometimes is used as a synonym to the term “lessor”. The Seller of the property and the lessor can be one and the same person. The process of interaction of the lessor with other participants of the Leasing Contract is as follows: For the whole time period of the Leasing Contract the property is in

132-456: A legal fiction not to be contracts due to the absence of promises of future action. A minor may not disavow such a trade. Generally, the courts base their determination on whether the minor, after reaching the age of majority, has had ample opportunity to consider the nature of the contractual obligations he or she entered into as a minor and the extent to which the adult party to the contract has performed. As one court put it, "the purpose of

198-405: A legal person is any person or legal entity that can do the things a human person is usually able to do in law – such as enter into contracts , sue and be sued, own property , and so on. The reason for the term " legal person" is that some legal persons are not people: companies and corporations (i.e., business entities ) are persons legally speaking (they can legally do most of

264-404: A business entity becomes insolvent , an administrator , receiver, or other similar legal functionary may be appointed to determine whether the entity shall continue to trade or be sold so that the creditors may receive all or a proportion of the money owing to them. During this time, the capacity of the entity is limited so that its liabilities are not increased unreasonably and to the detriment of

330-494: A care home or whether to have major surgery. As an aspect of the social contract between a state and its citizens , the state adopts a role of protector to the weaker and more vulnerable members of society. In public policy terms, this is the policy of parens patriae . Similarly, the state has a direct social and economic interest in promoting trade, so it will define the forms of business enterprise that may operate within its territory, and lay down rules that will allow both

396-433: A company limited by shares, its shareholders ). They may sue and be sued , enter into contracts, incur debt , and own property . Entities with legal personality may also be subjected to certain legal obligations, such as the payment of taxes. An entity with legal personality may shield its members from personal liability . In some common law jurisdictions a distinction is drawn between corporation aggregate (such as

462-550: A company, which is composed of a number of members) and a corporation sole , which is a public office of legal personality separated from the individual holding the office (these entities have separate legal personality). Historically most corporations sole were ecclesiastical in nature (for example, the office of the Archbishop of Canterbury is a corporation sole), but a number of other public offices are now formed as corporations sole. The concept of juridical personality

528-404: A disturbance in the functioning of, the mind or brain". Where an individual lacks capacity on grounds of mental illness or senility, a relative or other responsible person may obtain a lasting power of attorney to make decisions concerning the "personal welfare" of the person lacking capacity, the "property and [financial] affairs" of the person, or both. Questions as to whether an individual has

594-479: A law restricting the free speech of a corporation or a political action group or dictating the coverage of a local newspaper, and because of the Due Process Clause , a state government may not take the property of a corporation without using due process of law and providing just compensation. These protections apply to all legal entities, not just corporations. A prominent component of relevant case law

660-434: A passport whether or however they may travel. In this way, a person will not gain or lose capacity depending on the accident of the local laws, e.g. if A does not have capacity to marry her cousin under her personal law (a rule of consanguinity ), she cannot evade that law by travelling to a state that does permit such a marriage (see nullity ). In Saskatchewan Canada, an exception to this law allows married persons to become

726-529: A potentially penal status on the individuals affected. During times of war or civil strife, a state will limit the ability of its citizens to offer help or assistance in any form to those who are acting against the interests of the state. Hence, all commercial and other contracts with the "enemy", including terrorists, would be considered void or suspended until a cessation of hostilities is agreed. Loss of mental capacity occurs in individuals may have an inherent physical condition that prevents them from achieving

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792-764: A situation where they can no longer pay their debts, they lose their status as credit-worthy and become bankrupt. States differ on the means whereby their outstanding liabilities can be treated as discharged and on the precise extent of the limits that are placed on their capacities during this time but, after discharge, they are returned to full capacity. In the United States, some states have spendthrift laws under which an irresponsible spender may be deemed to lack capacity to enter into contracts (in Europe, these are termed prodigality laws) and both sets of laws may be denied extraterritorial effect under public policy as imposing

858-411: A younger age. There are instances in which a person may be able to gain capacity earlier than the prescribed time through a process of emancipation . Conversely, many states allow the inexperience of childhood to be an excusing condition to criminal liability and set the age of criminal responsibility to match the local experience of emerging behavioral problems (see doli incapax ). For sexual crimes,

924-413: Is a minor, are voidable by the minor. For a minor to undergo medical procedure , consent is determined by the minor's parent(s) or legal guardian (s). The right to vote in the United States is currently set at 18 years, while the right to buy and consume alcohol is often set at 21 years by U.S. state law . Some laws, such as marriage laws, may differentiate between the sexes and allow women to marry at

990-459: Is a special type of lessor. This is the official supplier of specialized machinery, transport and equipment directly to the final consumer or through a leasing company. Official leasing operator cooperates with manufacturers (subsidiary offices) of prime machinery under the operator (dealer) agreement. For the leasing company the official leasing operator acts as: For consumers, the official leasing operator acts as: Rights and obligations of

1056-531: Is a specific function of the Court of Protection , and all matters concerning persons who have lost, or expect soon to lose, mental capacity are regulated under the Mental Capacity Act 2005 . This makes provision for lasting powers of attorney under which decisions about the health, welfare, and financial assets of a person who has lost capacity may be dealt with in that person's interests. In Ireland,

1122-460: Is also found in virtually every other legal system. Some examples of juridical persons include: Not all organizations have legal personality. For example, the board of directors of a corporation, legislature, or governmental agency typically are not legal persons in that they have no ability to exercise legal rights independent of the corporation or political body which they are a part of. The concept of legal personhood for organizations of people

1188-459: Is at least as old as Ancient Rome : a variety of collegial institutions enjoyed the benefit under Roman law . The doctrine has been attributed to Pope Innocent IV , who seems at least to have helped spread the idea of persona ficta as it is called in Latin . In canon law , the doctrine of persona ficta allowed monasteries to have a legal existence that was apart from the monks, simplifying

1254-601: Is for this reason that they are sometimes called "artificial" persons. In the most common case ( incorporating a business), legal personality is usually acquired by registration with a government agency set up for the purpose. In other cases it may be by primary legislation: an example is the Charity Commission in the UK. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 advocates for the provision of legal identity for all, including birth registration by 2030 as part of

1320-484: Is not absolute. " Piercing the corporate veil " refers to looking at the individual natural persons acting as agents involved in a company action or decision; this may result in a legal decision in which the rights or duties of a corporation or public limited company are treated as the rights or liabilities of that corporation's members or directors . The concept of a juridical person is now central to Western law in both common-law and civil-law countries, but it

1386-431: Is often necessary to petition a court, such as a probate court , that the afflicted person lacks legal capacity and allow a legal guardian to take over their financial and personal affairs. Procedures and court review have been established, dependent on the area of jurisdiction, to prevent exploitation of the incapacitated person by the guardian. The guardian periodically provides a financial accounting for court review. In

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1452-412: Is pertinent to the philosophy of law , as it is essential to laws affecting a corporation ( corporations law ). Juridical personhood allows one or more natural persons ( universitas personarum ) to act as a single entity ( body corporate ) for legal purposes. In many jurisdictions , artificial personality allows that entity to be considered under law separately from its individual members (for example in

1518-654: Is the Supreme Court decision Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission , which ruled unconstitutional certain restrictions on corporate campaign spending during elections. Other United States points of law include: In Act II, Scene 1 of Gilbert and Sullivan 's 1889 opera, The Gondoliers , Giuseppe Palmieri (who serves, jointly with his brother Marco, as King of Barataria) requests that he and his brother be also recognized individually so that they might each receive individual portions of food as they have "two independent appetites". He is, however, turned down by

1584-415: Is the characteristic of a non-living entity regarded by law as having the status of personhood . A juridical or artificial person ( Latin : persona ficta ; also juristic person ) has a legal name and has certain rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities, and liabilities in law, similar to those of a natural person . The concept of a juridical person is a fundamental legal fiction . It

1650-524: Is the property owned by the deity or idol as a "legal person". Humans appointed to act on behalf of deity are called the "shebait" . A shebait acts as the guardian or custodian of deity to protect the right of deity and fulfill the legal duties of the deity. Shebait is similar to a trustee in case the deity or temple does have a legally registered trust or entity. Under the Hindu Law property gifted or offered as rituals or donations, etc absolutely belongs to

1716-547: The " Animal Welfare Board of India vs Nagaraja" case in 2014 mandated that animals are also entitled to the fundamental right to freedom enshrined in the Article 21 of Constitution of India i.e. right to life, personal liberty and the right to die with dignity ( passive euthanasia ). In another case, a court in Uttarakhand state mandated that animals have the same rights as humans. In another case of cow-smuggling ,

1782-592: The 2030 Agenda . As legal personality is a prerequisite to legal capacity (the ability of any legal person to amend – i.e. enter into, transfer, etc. – rights and obligations ), it is a prerequisite for an international organization to be able to sign international treaties in its own name . The term "legal person" can be ambiguous because it is often used as a synonym of terms that refer only to non-human legal entities, specifically in contradistinction to "natural person". Artificial personality , juridical personality , or juristic personality

1848-463: The Criminal Law , the traditional common law M'Naghten Rules excused all persons from liability if they did not understand what they were doing or if they did, that they did not know it was wrong. The consequences of this excuse were that those accused were detained indefinitely or until the medical authorities certified that it was safe to release them back into the community. This consequence

1914-466: The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 provides: "... the provisions of this Bill of Rights apply, so far as practicable, for the benefit of all legal persons as well as for the benefit of all natural persons." In part based on the principle that legal persons are simply natural persons and their organizations, and in part based on the history of statutory interpretation of the word "person",

1980-507: The Punjab and Haryana High Court mandated that "entire animal kingdom including avian and aquatic" species has a "distinct legal persona with corresponding rights, duties, and liabilities of a living person" and humans are "loco parentis" while laying out the norms for animal welfare, veterinary treatment, fodder and shelter, e.g. animal drawn carriages must not have more than four humans, and load carrying animals must not be loaded beyond

2046-603: The Uttarakhand High Court , mandated that the river Ganges and Yamuna as well as all water bodies are "living entities" i.e. "legal person" and appointed three humans as trustees to protect the rights of rivers against the pollution caused by the humans, e.g. "pilgrims's bathing rituals" . The Supreme Court of India overturned the decision of the High Court of Uttarakhand in July 2017. Section 28 of

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2112-881: The age of consent determines the potential liability of adult accused. As an example of liability in contract, the law in most of Canada provides that an infant is not bound by the contracts he or she enters into except for the purchase of necessaries and for beneficial contracts of service. Infants must pay fair price only for necessary goods and services. However, the British Columbia Infants Act ( RSBC 1996 c.223) declares all contracts, including necessities and beneficial contracts of service, are unenforceable against an infant. Only student loans and other contracts made specifically enforceable by statute will be binding on infants in that province. In contracts between an adult and an infant, adults are bound but infants may escape contracts at their option (i.e.

2178-713: The constitutive documents of incorporation. The general rule is that anything not included in the corporation's capacity, whether expressly or by implication, is ultra vires , i.e. "beyond the power" of the corporation, and so may be unenforceable by the corporation, but the rights and interests of innocent third parties dealing with the corporations are usually protected. In American law, limited liability companies (LLCs) are legal persons. Some legal scholars have argued that they can be used to give legal capacity to software programs , including artificial intelligence . In some states, trade unions have limited capacity unless any contract made relates to union activities. When

2244-475: The right to vote may be withdrawn, etc. As societies have developed more equal treatment based on gender, race and ethnicity, many of the older incapacities have been removed. For example, English law used to treat married women as lacking the capacity to own property or act independently of their husbands (the last of these rules was repealed by the Domicile and Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1973 , which removed

2310-730: The "legal person" status by the law "have rights and co-relative duties; they can sue and be sued, can possess and transfer property" . Since these non-human entities are "voiceless" they are legally represented "through guardians and representatives" to claim their legal rights and to fulfill their legal duties and responsibilities. Specific non-human entities given the status of "legal person" include " corporate personality , body politic , charitable unions etc," as well as trust estates , deities , temples, churches, mosques, hospitals, universities, colleges, banks, railways, municipalities, and gram panchayats (village councils), rivers, all animals and birds. In court cases regarding corporates,

2376-564: The Assisted Decision-Making (Capacity) Act was passed in 2015. This Act addresses the capacity of people with intellectual disabilities. The general principles are set out in section 8 of the Act. Under Singapore's Mental Capacity Act 2008, "a person lacks capacity in relation to a matter if at the material time the person is unable to make a decision for himself or herself in relation to the matter because of an impairment of, or

2442-657: The Court (made up of fellow Gondolieri) because the joint rule "... is a legal person, and legal person are solemn things." Capacity (law) Legal capacity is a quality denoting either the legal aptitude of a person to have rights and liabilities (in this sense also called transaction capacity ), or altogether the personhood itself in regard to an entity other than a natural person (in this sense also called legal personality ). Capacity covers day-to-day decisions, including: what to wear and what to buy, as well as, life-changing decisions, such as: whether to move into

2508-582: The Minors' Contracts Act 1987 as applicable in Singapore and in England and Wales provides that a contract entered into by a minor is not automatically unenforceable and that a "court may, if it is just and equitable to do so, require the [minor] defendant to transfer to the plaintiff any property acquired by the defendant under the contract, or any property representing it". If individuals find themselves in

2574-471: The U.S. Supreme Court held that for the purposes of the case at hand, a corporation is "capable of being treated as a citizen of [the State which created it], as much as a natural person." Ten years later, they reaffirmed the result of Letson, though on the somewhat different theory that "those who use the corporate name, and exercise the faculties conferred by it," should be presumed conclusively to be citizens of

2640-565: The US Supreme Court has repeatedly held that certain constitutional rights protect legal persons ( such as corporations and other organizations). Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad is sometimes cited for this finding because the court reporter's comments included a statement the Chief Justice made before oral arguments began, telling the attorneys during pre-trial that "the court does not wish to hear argument on

2706-416: The afflicted person has prepared documents beforehand about what to do in such cases, often in a revocable living trust or related documents, then the named legal guardian may be able to take over their financial and other affairs. If the afflicted person owns their property jointly with a spouse or other able person, the able person may be able to take over many of the routine financial affairs. Otherwise, it

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2772-452: The businesses and those that wish to contract with them a fair opportunity to gain value. This system worked well until social and commercial mobility increased. Now persons routinely trade and travel across state boundaries (both physically and electronically), so the need is to provide stability across state lines given that laws differ from one state to the next. Thus, once defined by the personal law, persons take their capacity with them like

2838-811: The capacity to make decisions either generally or with regard to a particular matter or class of matters are generally resolved by a judicial declaration and the court making the declaration may appoint one or more individuals to act as deputies for the person lacking capacity. This sort of problem sometimes arises when people suffer some form of medical problem such as unconsciousness, coma , extensive paralysis , or delirious states, from accidents or illnesses such as strokes , or often when older people become afflicted with some form of medical/mental disability such as Huntington's disease , Alzheimer's disease , Lewy body disease, or similar dementia. Such persons are often unable to consent to medical treatment but otherwise handle their financial and other personal matters. If

2904-418: The common law spouse of other(s) prior to divorcing the first spouse. This law is not honored amongst other Canadian provinces. Standardized classes of person have had their freedom restricted. These limitations are exceptions to the general policy of freedom of contract and the detailed human and civil rights that a person of ordinary capacity might enjoy. For example, freedom of movement may be modified,

2970-418: The contract is voidable). Infants may ratify a contract on reaching age of majority. In the case of executed contracts, when the infant has obtained some benefit under the contract, he/she cannot avoid obligations unless what was obtained was of no value. Upon repudiation of a contract, either party can apply to the court. The court may order restitution, damages, or discharge the contract. All contracts involving

3036-456: The corporation's State of incorporation. Marshall v. Baltimore & Ohio R. Co., 16 How. 314, 329, 14 L.Ed. 953 (1854). These concepts have been codified by statute, as U.S. jurisdictional statutes specifically address the domicile of corporations. Indian law defines two types of "legal person", the human beings as well as certain non-human entities which are given the same legal judicial personality as human beings. The non-human entities given

3102-459: The deity Rama in the specific temple was a "legal entity" entitled to be represented by their own lawyer appointed by the trustees acting on behalf of the deity. Similarly, in 2018 SC decided that the deity Ayyappan is a "legal person" with " the right to privacy " in the court case regarding the entry of women to Sabarimala shrine of Lord Ayyapan. Under the Indian law, the "shebaitship"

3168-435: The deity and not to the shebait. Case example are "Profulla Chrone Requitte vs Satya Chorone Requitte, AIR 1979 SC 1682 (1686): (1979) 3 SCC 409: (1979) 3 SCR 431. (ii)" and "Shambhu Charan Shukla vs Thakur Ladli Radha Chandra Madan Gopalji Maharaj, AIR 1985 SC 905 (909): (1985) 2 SCC 524: (1985) 3 SCR 372" . India and New Zealand both recognised the legal rights of rivers in 2017. In court cases regarding natural entities,

3234-416: The difficulty in balancing the need for such groups to have infrastructure though the monks took vows of personal poverty. Another effect of this was that, as a fictional person, a monastery could not be held guilty of delict due to not having a soul, helping to protect the organization from non- contractual obligations to surrounding communities. This effectively moved such liability to persons acting within

3300-488: The equipment, personal injury of citizens while using the leasing subject, damage which is caused to the property of the Lessee and the third Parties. There are however exceptions from this norm. In case of implementation of a high-priced project the lessor may involve into the transaction additional sources of financial assets (through banks, insurance companies , investment funds , etc.). Official leasing provider (dealer)

3366-510: The infancy doctrine is to protect 'minors from foolishly squandering their wealth through improvident contracts with crafty adults who would take advantage of them in the marketplace. ' " In Singapore , while individuals under the age of 21 are regarded as minors, sections 35 and 36 of the Civil Law Act 1909 provide that certain contracts entered into by minors aged 18 and above are to be treated as though they were adults. Additionally,

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3432-488: The law does not generally allow any defense or excuse to be raised to any actions taken while incapacitated. The most generous states do permit individuals to repudiate agreements as soon as sober, but the conditions to exercising this right are strict. There is a clear division between the approach of states to the definition of partnerships. One group of states treats general and limited partnerships as aggregate. In terms of capacity, this means that they are no more than

3498-1023: The lessor in the Russian Federation are regulated by the contract, under the Federal Law “On financial rent (leasing)”, the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, the Civil Code, and others, in Ukraine – by the Law “On Financial Leasing” and many others, in Uzbekistan – by Chapter 34 of the Civil Code of Uzbekistan and others. International leasing contracts are regulated under the UNIDROIT Convention on International Financial Leasing. Legal entity In law ,

3564-403: The normal levels of performance expected from persons of comparable age, or their inability to match current levels of performance may be caused by contracting an illness. Whatever the cause, if the resulting condition is such that individuals cannot care for themselves, or may act in ways that are against their interests, those persons are vulnerable through dependency and require the protection of

3630-405: The organization while protecting the structure itself, since persons were considered to have a soul and therefore capable of negligence and able to be excommunicated . In the common law tradition, only a person could possess legal rights. To allow them to function, the legal personality of a corporation was established to include five legal rights—the right to a common treasury or chest (including

3696-433: The ownership of the lessor. In case of failure of reimbursements of lease payments under the schedule specified in the contract the lessor has the right to exempt the property from the Lessee. In case of bankruptcy of the lessee the lessor has the priority right for payments. If the lessor contrary to the contract has interfered with the choice of the seller or leasing subject, he bears the responsibility for non-delivery of

3762-612: The question whether the provision in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution , which forbids a State to deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does." Later opinions interpreted these pre-argument comments as part of the legal decision. As a result, because of the First Amendment , Congress may not make

3828-506: The right to own property), the right to a corporate seal (i.e., the right to make and sign contracts), the right to sue and be sued (to enforce contracts), the right to hire agents (employees) and the right to make by-laws (self-governance). Since the 19th century, legal personhood has been further construed to make it a citizen, resident, or domiciliary of a state (usually for purposes of personal jurisdiction ). In Louisville, C. & C.R. Co. v. Letson , 2 How. 497, 558, 11 L.Ed. 353 (1844),

3894-419: The shareholders are not responsible for the company's debts but the company itself being a "legal person" is liable to repay those debts or be sued for the non-repayment of debts. In court cases regarding animals, the animals have the status of "legal person" and humans have the legal duty to act as " loco parentis " towards animals welfare like a parent has towards the minor children. A court while deciding

3960-460: The specified limits and those limits must be halved when animals have to carry the load up a slope. In court cases regarding religious entities, the deity (deity or god is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred) is also a "legal person" who can engage in legal cases through " trustees " or " managing board in charge of the temple" . Supreme Court of India (SC), while deciding Ayodhya case of Ram Janmabhoomi , decided in 2010 that

4026-462: The state against the risks of abuse or exploitation. Hence, any agreements that were made are voidable, and a court may declare that person a ward of the state and grant power of attorney to an appointed legal guardian . The UK's Mental Capacity Act 2005 or MCA sets out a two-stage test of capacity: The MCA states an individual is unable to make their own decision, if they are unable to do at least one of four things: In England and Wales, this

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4092-404: The sum of the natural persons who conduct the business. The other group of states allows partnerships to have a separate legal personality which changes the capacity of the "firm" and those who conduct its business and makes such partnerships more like corporations. The extent of a juridical person 's capacity depends on the law of the place of incorporation and the enabling provisions included in

4158-803: The things an ordinary person can do), but they are not people in a literal sense ( human beings ). There are therefore two kinds of legal entities: human and non-human. In law, a human person is called a natural person (sometimes also a physical person ), and a non-human person is called a juridical person (sometimes also a juridic , juristic , artificial , legal , or fictitious person , Latin : persona ficta ). Juridical persons are entities such as corporations, firms (in some jurisdictions ), and many government agencies . They are treated in law as if they were persons. While natural persons acquire legal personality "naturally", simply by being born, juridical persons must have legal personality conferred on them by some "unnatural", legal process, and it

4224-441: The transfer of real estate are considered valid until ruled otherwise. A minor (typically under 18) can disaffirm a contract made, no matter the case. However, the entire contract must be disaffirmed. Depending on the jurisdiction, the minor may be required to return any of the goods still in his possession. Also, barter transactions such as purchasing a retail item in exchange for a cash payment are generally recognized through

4290-399: The wife's domicile of dependency for those marrying after 1974, so that a husband and wife could have different domiciles). The definition of an infant or minor varies, each state reflecting local culture and prejudices in defining the age of majority , marriageable age , voting age , etc. In many jurisdictions , legal contracts , in which (at least) one of the contracting parties

4356-478: Was felt to be too draconian, and so statutes have introduced new defenses that will limit or reduce the liability of those accused of committing offenses if they were suffering from a mental illness at the relevant time (see the insanity and mental disorder defenses). Although individuals may have consumed a sufficient quantity of intoxicant or drug to reduce or eliminate their ability to understand exactly what they are doing, such conditions are self-induced and so

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