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74-594: Li Hongzhang, Marquess Suyi ( Chinese : 李鴻章 ; also Li Hung-chang ; 15 February 1823 – 7 November 1901) was a Chinese statesman, general and diplomat of the late Qing dynasty . He quelled several major rebellions and served in important positions in the Qing imperial court, including the Viceroy of Zhili , Huguang and Liangguang . Although he was best known in the West for his generally pro-modern stance and importance as

148-565: A jinshi ( 進士 ) position at the young age of 24, and was admitted to the Hanlin Academy as a shujishi ( 庶吉士 ). At the same time, he also continued taking classes under Zeng Guofan to improve his knowledge. Three years later, he took the sanguan ( 散館 ) examination in the academy and earned the position of a bianxiu ( 編修 ; an editor). In January 1851, the God Worshipping Society led by Hong Xiuquan started

222-509: A certain extent in South Korea , remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters . Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from

296-726: A coup which placed the Guangxu Emperor on the throne under the regency of the Empress Dowagers Ci'an and Cixi . In 1879, Li was awarded the honorary appointment Crown Prince's Grand Tutor ( 太子太傅 ). In 1886, on the conclusion of the Sino-French War , Li arranged a treaty with the French. Li was impressed with the necessity of strengthening the Qing Empire, and while he was Viceroy of Zhili, he raised

370-716: A large well-drilled and well-armed force, and spent vast sums both in fortifying Port Arthur and the Dagu forts and in strengthening the navy. For years, he had watched the successful reforms effected in Japan and had a well-founded dread of coming into conflict with the Japanese. In 1885, Li founded the Tianjin Military Academy ( 天津武備學堂 ) to train Chinese military officers as part of his military reforms. The move

444-851: A major diplomatic role in negotiating a settlement with the Eight-Nation Alliance forces which had invaded Beijing to put down the Boxer Rebellion . His early position was that the Qing Empire was making a mistake by supporting the Boxers against the foreign powers. During the Siege of the International Legations , Sheng Xuanhuai and other provincial officials suggested that the Qing imperial court give Li full diplomatic power to negotiate with foreign powers. Li telegraphed back to Sheng Xuanhuai on 25 June, describing

518-748: A negotiator, Li antagonised the British with his support of Russia as a foil against Japanese expansionism in Manchuria and fell from favour with the Chinese after their defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War . His image in China remains controversial, with criticism on one hand for political and military defeats and praise on the other for his success against the Taiping Rebellion , his diplomatic skills defending Chinese interests in

592-455: A relative, Li Xinzhuang ( 李心莊 ). Xu Shen and his descendants had taken Li ( 李 ) to be their family name since then. Li's father, Li Wen'an (李文安; 1801–1855), obtained a jinshi degree in the imperial examination in 1838 – the same year as Zeng Guofan . Li Wen'an also served as a langzhong ( 郎中 ) in the Ministry of Justice . Li had one elder brother and four younger brothers; he was

666-549: A researcher in his own right following the rediscovery of his manuscripts. Li left a word as his self-evaluation: "To know me and judge me is a task for the next millennium" ( 知我罪我，付之千載 ). Li was regarded favourably in the United States, owing to his reputation for welcoming foreign influence and his 1896 visit to the country. He was wrongly credited with inventing the American Chinese dish chop suey during

740-518: A son of his sixth brother Li Zhaoqing. Li Jingfang served as the Qing Empire's Ambassador to Japan and a Left Vice Secretary ( 左侍郎 ) in the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications ( 郵傳部 ). Li's brother Li Hanzhang ( 李瀚章 ) had a daughter named Li Peisheng ( 李佩生 ). His grandson, Li Shiu Tong , would become a sexologist known for his work and relationship with his mentor and romantic partner Magnus Hirschfeld , and would posthumously be recognized as

814-478: A son, Li Jingyu ( 李經毓 ), who died prematurely. Lady Zhou died of illness in 1861. Li's second primary spouse, Zhao Xiaolian ( 趙小蓮 ), bore him another son, Li Jingshu ( 李經述 ). Li Jingshu inherited his father's peerage as Marquis Suyi ( 肅毅侯 ), but died early. Li Jingshu's son, Li Guojie ( 李國傑 ; 1881–1939), inherited the Marquis Suyi peerage and served in a number of official positions in the final years of

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888-558: A standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages . In Taiwan , the set of traditional characters is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters . These forms were predominant in written Chinese until the middle of the 20th century, when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of

962-817: Is 産 (also the accepted form in Japan and Korea), while in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan the accepted form is 產 (also the accepted form in Vietnamese chữ Nôm ). The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers;

1036-579: Is my duty, as Your Majesty's subject, [to point out the failures of my colleague.] I do not dare to let this pass just because of Weng Tonghe 's fame and prestige." Although Li earned Zeng Guofan's praise for drafting the memorial, he also caused Weng Tonghe (Weng Tongshu's brother) to bear a grudge against him for what he wrote. While serving under Zeng Guofan, he was put in charge of Yanjianshao Circuit ( 延建邵道 ) in Fujian Province but did not take up his appointment and remained with Zeng. In 1860, Li

1110-599: Is the only thing that matters to us here." Li was shocked and he improved his behaviour after that. In the same year, Weng Tongshu  [ zh ; ja ] ( 翁同書 ), the xunfu of Anhui, abandoned his post when he came under attack by the Taiping rebels. Zeng Guofan drew from Li's draft when he wrote a memorial to the imperial court to accuse Weng Tongshu of failing in his duty. The lines from Li's draft that were included in Zeng Guofan's actual memorial included: "It

1184-493: The Chinese Commercial News , World News , and United Daily News all use traditional characters, as do some Hong Kong–based magazines such as Yazhou Zhoukan . The Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified characters. DVDs are usually subtitled using traditional characters, influenced by media from Taiwan as well as by the two countries sharing the same DVD region , 3. With most having immigrated to

1258-580: The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (renewed in 1892). In a famous interview published by The New York Times on September 3, 1896, Li was asked whether he favored the introduction of the newspaper into China as developed in the U.S. or in Europe. Li's answer was stunningly honest: "There are newspapers in China, but the Chinese editors, unfortunately, do not tell the truth. They do not, as your papers, tell 'the truth, whole truth, and nothing but

1332-540: The First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. In fact, it was mostly the armies that he established and controlled that did the fighting, whereas other Chinese troops led by his political rivals did not come to their aid. Rampant corruption further weakened the Chinese military. For instance, one official misappropriated ammunition funds for personal use. As a result, shells ran out during battle, forcing one navy captain, Deng Shichang , to resort to ordering his ship to ram an enemy ship. The defeat of Li's modernised armed forces by

1406-516: The Kensiu language . Grand coordinator and provincial governor Under both dynasties, the xunfu was subordinate in military affairs to the multi-provincial zongdu ( 總督 ), usually translated as "supreme commander" under the Ming and "governor-general" or " viceroy " under the Qing. The Nguyễn dynasty of Vietnam also established the position (known as tuần phủ or tuần vũ 巡撫) based on

1480-681: The Left Vice Secretary of Works , to travel to Anhui Province and recruit civilians to form militias to counter the rebels. Lü Xianji knew that Li was familiar with the local situation in Anhui Province so he secured permission from the imperial court to bring Li along with him as an adviser and assistant. Li was later ordered to remain in Anhui to oversee the militia. In late 1853, the Taiping rebels defeated imperial forces and captured Shucheng County ; Lü Xianji committed suicide. In

1554-602: The Qing dynasty . He became an official and industrialist in the Republic of China later. Li Guojie also married the daughter of Natong ( 那桐 ; 1857–1925), who served in the Grand Secretariat and Grand Council . Li's secondary spouse, Lady Mo ( 莫氏 ), bore him three sons: Li Jingyuan ( 李經遠 ), Li Jingmai ( 李經邁 ; 1876–1938) and Li Jingjin ( 李經進 ). Among the three, only Li Jingmai survived into adulthood. He served as

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1628-640: The Shanghainese -language character U+20C8E 𠲎 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-20C8E —a composition of 伐 with the ⼝   'MOUTH' radical—used instead of the Standard Chinese 嗎 ; 吗 . Typefaces often use the initialism TC to signify the use of traditional Chinese characters, as well as SC for simplified Chinese characters . In addition, the Noto, Italy family of typefaces, for example, also provides separate fonts for

1702-596: The Taiping Rebellion in Guangxi Province . Within about two years, the rebels had conquered many territories in southern China and established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with Nanjing as their capital. In 1853, the rebels, advancing from Wuhan , captured Anqing and killed Jiang Wenqing  [ zh ; ja ] ( 蔣文慶 ), the xunfu of Anhui Province . The Xianfeng Emperor commissioned Lü Xianji  [ d ] ( 呂賢基 ),

1776-549: The Taiping Rebellion in 1864, Li assumed a civil office as the xunfu of Jiangsu Province for about two years. However, on the outbreak of the Nian Rebellion in Henan and Shandong provinces in 1866, he was ordered to lead troops into battle again. After some misadventures, Li managed to suppress the movement. In recognition of his contributions, he was appointed as Assistant Grand Secretary ( 協辦大學士 ). In 1867, Li

1850-678: The Tianjin Convention with Japan, and directed Chinese foreign policy in Korea. Among Li's projects to open China to the world on Chinese terms was support for the Chinese Educational Mission , which sent Chinese boys to the United States for education, starting in 1872. The mission was aborted in 1881. On the death of the Tongzhi Emperor in 1875, Li introduced a large army into the capital and effected

1924-710: The Yangtze River in British steamboats – the rebels did not attack because Britain was a neutral party – and arrived in Shanghai, where they were commissioned as the Huai Army . Zeng Guofan recommended Li to serve as the xunfu of Jiangsu Province. After gaining ground in Jiangsu, Li focused on enhancing the Huai Army's capabilities, including equipping them with Western firearms and artillery. Within two years,

1998-601: The Chinese defeat in the war, Li was disgraced and stripped of his peacock feather. The Qing imperial court initially wanted to send Zhang Yinhuan ( 張蔭桓 ) and Shao Youlian  [ zh ; ja ; ko ] ( 邵友濂 ) as their representatives to negotiate with the Japanese, but the Japanese rejected them. Li was selected to take on this mission and was given back his peacock feather. On 24 March 1895, while negotiating with Japan's Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi and Foreign Affairs Minister Mutsu Munemitsu in Shimonoseki , Li

2072-661: The First Class ( 一等肅毅候 ). This peerage was inherited by Li Guojie, who was assassinated in Shanghai on 21   February 1939, allegedly as a result of his support for the Nanking Reformed Government . Li's ancestral family name was actually Xǔ ( 許 ). His ancestors had migrated from Hukou , Jiangxi Province to Hefei , Anhui Province . Li's eighth-great-grandfather, Xu Yingxi ( 許迎溪 ), had given up his second son, Xu Shen ( 許慎 ), for adoption by

2146-553: The Huai Army's strength increased from 6,000 to about 60–70,000 men. Li's Huai Army combined forces later with Zeng Guofan's Xiang Army and Charles George Gordon 's Ever Victorious Army and prepared to attack the Taiping rebels. From 1863 to 1864, Li led the Huai Army to attack and recapture Suzhou , Changzhou and other rebel-controlled territories. For his contributions, Li was awarded the honorary appointment Crown Prince's Grand Protector ( 太子太保 ) and an imperial yellow jacket . After retaking Changzhou, and capturing and executing

2220-487: The Japanese undermined his political standing, as well as the wider cause of the Self-Strengthening Movement . Li had received the privilege of wearing a three-eyed peacock feather in his hat – a rare exception because three-eyed peacock feathers had previously been restricted to only members of the imperial clan – during Empress Dowager Cixi 's 60th birthday celebrations in 1894. However, after

2294-722: The Penghu Islands. On 17 April 1895, Li signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki with the Japanese, thus ending the First Sino-Japanese War. In 1896, Li attended the coronation of Nicholas II of the Russian Empire on behalf of the Qing Empire and toured Europe, Canada and the United States, where he advocated reform of the American immigration policies that had greatly restricted Chinese immigration after

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2368-555: The People's Republic of China, traditional Chinese characters are standardised according to the Table of Comparison between Standard, Traditional and Variant Chinese Characters . Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. There are differences between the accepted traditional forms in mainland China and elsewhere, for example the accepted traditional form of 产 in mainland China

2442-726: The Provincial administration commission ( buzheng si 布政司), the Provincial surveillance commission ( ancha si 按察司), and the Regional military commissioner ( du si 都司). Because grand coordinators were also high-ranking members of the Censorate , they had impeachment powers and direct access to the throne, which considered them to be "provincial-level surrogate[s] of the emperor". Although they were civil officials, they also received military titles when they had to supervise important military matters. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) kept

2516-480: The Qing Empire's Ambassador to Austria-Hungary and a Right Vice Secretary ( 右侍郎 ) in the Ministry of Civil Affairs ( 民政部 ). Li had three daughters. One of them, Li Ju'ou ( 李菊藕 ), married Zhang Peilun (1848–1903) and bore the father of the writer Eileen Chang (1920–1995). The other two daughters married Guo Enhou ( 郭恩垕 ), the magistrate of Weifang County , and Ren Dehe ( 任德和 ), the zhushi ( 主事 ) of Yixing County . Li also adopted Li Jingfang (1855–1934),

2590-399: The Qing government was Wenzhong ( 文忠 ). He was also referred to as Li Zhongtang ( 李中堂 ) and Li Fuxiang ( 李傅相 ); "Zhongtang" and "Fuxiang" referred to his honorary appointments as Grand Secretary and Crown Prince's Grand Tutor respectively. He also held the noble peerage First Class Count Suyi ( 一等肅毅伯 ) and was posthumously honoured as First Class Marquis Suyi ( 一等肅毅侯 ). Li

2664-769: The Russian government to build a three-million rubles "Li Hongzhang Foundation" to make Li and Zhang Yinheng to support the Sino-Russia railway treaty and Lushun-Dalian Rent Treaty , and a payment of 0.5 million rubles was confirmed. Ma Wenzhong questioned whether the Russian account was reliable. [REDACTED]   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Li Hung Chang ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 681–682. Traditional Chinese characters Traditional Chinese characters are

2738-469: The United States during the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Americans have long used traditional characters. When not providing both, US public notices and signs in Chinese are generally written in traditional characters, more often than in simplified characters. In the past, traditional Chinese was most often encoded on computers using the Big5 standard, which favored traditional characters. However,

2812-596: The Western powers and Japan. Liang Qichao 's 1902 biography of Li blamed him for China's woes and set the tone for further castigation. In Liang's view, Li was the chief culprit for the Self-Strengthening Movement, which these nationalists condemned for collaborating with the European imperialists and suppressing the masses. Liang Qichao's son, Liang Sicheng , denounced Li in 1951 for "selling out"

2886-720: The appointment of a daotai (道台; circuit administrator) and the privilege of wearing a single-eyed peacock feather in his hat. Later, he led troops into the Huai River area, but could not get along with his subordinates and was forced to abandon his mission. In the winter of 1858, Li was reassigned to serve in Zeng Guofan 's office, where he was in charge of drafting documents. Li led a carefree life, flouted rules and regulations, and often woke up late. Zeng Guofan once chided him, "Shaoquan, now that you're working in my office, I only have this piece of advice for you: 'Commitment'

2960-577: The central government were sent to Henan , Shaanxi , and Sichuan on similar assignments. There is also evidence that more "touring pacifiers" were sent to the field between 1425 and 1430, when the position did not yet formally exist. In 1435, grand coordinators were also dispatched to provinces on the northern borders of the Ming empire, from Gansu in the west to Liaodong in the east. Eventually there were grand coordinators in every province. Grand coordinators could also take charge of strategically important regions that were not provinces. In 1547, one

3034-717: The contemporaneous position of Qing China. The "grand coordinator" of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was one of several institutional innovations promoted by the Xuande Emperor (r. 1425–1435). Following precedents set by the Hongwu and Yongle emperors, who had sent officials on temporary civilian and military missions in the provinces, in September 1425 Xuande appointed officials to "tour and pacify" ( xunfu ) two southern provinces. Five years later, three more officials from

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3108-458: The country. History textbooks in the People's Republic of China labelled Li as a " feudalist " and a traitor to the Chinese people. It was not until the 1980s that mainland historians began a serious debate of the sort which had been taking place in Taiwan. Sergei Witte dismissed some rumours during Li's visit to Europe that Li was bribed . However, according to the Russian account, Li had urged

3182-465: The declaration of war a "false edict". This tactic gave the " Southeast Mutual Protection " provincial officials a justification not to follow Empress Dowager Cixi 's declaration of war. Li refused to accept orders from the government for more troops when they were needed to fight against the foreigners, which he had available. Li controlled the Chinese telegraph service, whose despatches asserted falsely that Chinese forces had exterminated all foreigners in

3256-499: The district-level examination. Li then travelled to Beijing. Along the way, he wrote ten poems under the collection Entering the Capital ( 入都 ) to express his feelings. In 1844, Li obtained a juren ( 舉人 ) position in the district-level examination, but failed to make it in the metropolitan-level examination. He then started taking classes under Zeng Guofan . In 1847, he sat for the metropolitan-level examination again and obtained

3330-550: The era of unequal treaties , and his role pioneering China's industrial and military modernisation. He was presented the Royal Victorian Order by Queen Victoria . The French newspaper Le Siècle described him as "the yellow Bismarck ." Li Hongzhang was also known by other names. His courtesy names were Zifu ( 子黻 ) and Jianfu ( 漸甫 ). His art names were Shaoquan ( 少荃 ), Yisou ( 儀叟 ) and Shengxin ( 省心 ). The posthumous name awarded to him by

3404-437: The following year, Jiang Zhongyuan ( 江忠源 ), the xunfu of Anhui Province, committed suicide after Lu Prefecture fell to the rebels. Li then became a subordinate of Fu Ji  [ zh ] ( 福濟 ), the new xunfu , who ordered him to lead troops to attack the rebels, with Li often leading them in person. Li recaptured two counties and Lu Prefecture from the rebels within the following year. For his achievements, he earned

3478-493: The inverse is equally true as well. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. In Hong Kong and Macau , traditional characters were retained during the colonial period, while the mainland adopted simplified characters. Simplified characters are contemporaneously used to accommodate immigrants and tourists, often from

3552-725: The mainland. The increasing use of simplified characters has led to concern among residents regarding protecting what they see as their local heritage. Taiwan has never adopted simplified characters. The use of simplified characters in government documents and educational settings is discouraged by the government of Taiwan. Nevertheless, with sufficient context simplified characters are likely to be successfully read by those used to traditional characters, especially given some previous exposure. Many simplified characters were previously variants that had long been in some use, with systematic stroke simplifications used in folk handwriting since antiquity. Traditional characters were recognized as

3626-682: The majority of Chinese text in mainland China are simplified characters , there is no legislation prohibiting the use of traditional Chinese characters, and often traditional Chinese characters remain in use for stylistic and commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertising. Traditional Chinese characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promulgation of the current simplification scheme, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese characters continue to be used for ceremonial, cultural, scholarly/academic research, and artistic/decorative purposes. In

3700-983: The merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets. Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字 ; 正体字 ; zhèngtǐzì ; 'orthodox characters'. This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters . Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters 繁體字 ; 繁体字 ; fántǐzì ; 'complex characters', 老字 ; lǎozì ; 'old characters', or 全體字 ; 全体字 ; quántǐzì ; 'full characters' to distinguish them from simplified characters. Some argue that since traditional characters are often

3774-677: The official script in Singapore until 1969, when the government officially adopted Simplified characters. Traditional characters still are widely used in contexts such as in baby and corporation names, advertisements, decorations, official documents and in newspapers. The Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative in Southeast Asia regarding simplification. Although major public universities teach in simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications such as

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3848-700: The original standard forms, they should not be called 'complex'. Conversely, there is a common objection to the description of traditional characters as 'standard', due to them not being used by a large population of Chinese speakers. Additionally, as the process of Chinese character creation often made many characters more elaborate over time, there is sometimes a hesitation to characterize them as 'traditional'. Some people refer to traditional characters as 'proper characters' ( 正字 ; zhèngzì or 正寫 ; zhèngxiě ) and to simplified characters as 簡筆字 ; 简笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'simplified-stroke characters' or 減筆字 ; 减笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'reduced-stroke characters', as

3922-457: The position of xunfu , but gave it a meaning different enough that scholars have translated the Qing xunfu as "governor" instead of "grand coordinator". In Vietnam under the Nguyễn dynasty the title of Tuần phủ (巡撫), or tuần vũ , existed as a similar office based on the contemporary Qing administrative position. A Tuần phủ typically governed a single province and was below the authority of

3996-833: The predominant forms. Simplified characters as codified by the People's Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China , Malaysia, and Singapore. "Traditional" as such is a retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Macau , as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia. As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts . Korean hanja , still used to

4070-426: The prejudices of conservative leaders. He visited the industrial area in Barrow , North West England , and toured Lake Windermere on the steamer Tern operated by the Furness Railway Company . He also witnessed the 1896 Royal Naval Fleet Review at Spithead . It was during his visit to Britain in 1896 that Queen Victoria made him a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order . In 1900, Li once more played

4144-403: The rebel leader Chen Kunshu , Li received a jiduwei peerage in recognition of his achievements. An incident connected with the surrender of Suzhou soured Li's relationship with Gordon. According to an earlier arrangement with Gordon, the rebel leaders agreed to yield Nanjing to imperial forces on the condition that their lives would be spared. However, after the capture of Nanjing, Li ordered

4218-405: The rebel leaders to be executed. This breach of faith infuriated Gordon so much that he grabbed a rifle and wanted to shoot Li, but Li fled. By the end of 1864, the Taiping Rebellion had basically been suppressed by imperial forces. Li was awarded a noble peerage as " First Class Count Suyi " ( 一等肅毅伯 ) and the privilege of wearing a double-eyed peacock feather in his hat. After the suppression of

4292-423: The school. Students also took exams. The Weihaiwei and Shanhaiguan military schools copied the Tianjin Military Academy's curriculum. The maritime defence fund supplied the budget for the Tianjin Military Academy, which was shared with the Tianjin Naval Academy. Because of his prominent role in Chinese diplomacy in Korea and strong political connections in Manchuria , Li found himself directing Chinese forces during

4366-467: The second son in his family. His elder brother, Li Hanzhang  [ zh ; ja ; ko ] ( 李瀚章 ; 1821–1899), served as a xunfu and zongdu in a number of provinces. His third brother, Li Hezhang ( 李鶴章 ; 1825–1880), served as a military officer. His fourth brother was Li Yunzhang ( 李蘊章 ), his fifth brother was Li Fengzhang ( 李鳳章 ), and his sixth brother was Li Zhaoqing ( 李昭慶 ; 1835–1873). Li's first primary spouse, Lady Zhou ( 周氏 ), bore him

4440-511: The siege and convinced many foreign readers. In 1901, Li was the principal Chinese negotiator with the foreign powers which captured Beijing. On 7 September 1901, he signed the Boxer Protocol ending the Boxer Rebellion, and obtained the departure of the Eight-Nation Alliance at the price of huge indemnities for the Chinese. Exhausted from the negotiations, he died from liver inflammation two months later at Xianliang Temple in Beijing. The Guangxu Emperor posthumously honoured Li as Marquis Suyi of

4514-528: The traditional character set used in Taiwan ( TC ) and the set used in Hong Kong ( HK ). Most Chinese-language webpages now use Unicode for their text. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hant to specify webpage content written with traditional characters. In the Japanese writing system , kyujitai are traditional forms, which were simplified to create shinjitai for standardized Japanese use following World War II. Kyūjitai are mostly congruent with

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4588-819: The traditional characters in Chinese, save for minor stylistic variation. Characters that are not included in the jōyō kanji list are generally recommended to be printed in their traditional forms, with a few exceptions. Additionally, there are kokuji , which are kanji wholly created in Japan, rather than originally being borrowed from China. In the Korean writing system , hanja —replaced almost entirely by hangul in South Korea and totally replaced in North Korea —are mostly identical with their traditional counterparts, save minor stylistic variations. As with Japanese, there are autochthonous hanja, known as gukja . Traditional Chinese characters are also used by non-Chinese ethnic groups. The Maniq people living in Thailand and Malaysia use Chinese characters to write

4662-466: The truth.' The editors in China are great economizers of the truth; they tell only a part of it. They do not have, therefore, the great circulations that your papers have. Because this economy of the truth, our papers fail in the mission of a great press, to be one of the means of civilization." While in Britain, he toured parts of the country by train, keeping with his desire to inspire railway development in his own country while constantly fighting against

4736-412: The ubiquitous Unicode standard gives equal weight to simplified and traditional Chinese characters, and has become by far the most popular encoding for Chinese-language text. There are various input method editors (IMEs) available for the input of Chinese characters . Many characters, often dialectical variants, are encoded in Unicode but cannot be inputted using certain IMEs, with one example being

4810-494: The visit. In 1913, William Francis Mannix wrote and published a fabricated Memoirs of Li Hung Chang which received widespread praise before being exposed as a forgery in 1923. His biographer William J. Hail argued that Li "did perhaps all he could for a land where the conservatism of the people, a reactionary officialdom, and unrestrained international rivalry made each step forward a matter of great difficulty," and praised him as "always progressive, yet patient and conciliatory, it

4884-418: The words for simplified and reduced are homophonous in Standard Chinese , both pronounced as jiǎn . The modern shapes of traditional Chinese characters first appeared with the emergence of the clerical script during the Han dynasty c.  200 BCE , with the sets of forms and norms more or less stable since the Southern and Northern dynasties period c.  the 5th century . Although

4958-489: Was also conferred the honorary position of "Grand Secretary of Wenhua Hall" ( 文華殿大學士 ). From the time he became Viceroy of Zhili and Beiyang Trade Minister until his death, with a few intervals of retirement, he shaped the Qing Empire's foreign policy to a large extent. In 1876, he signed the Yantai Treaty with Sir Thomas Wade to end a diplomatic crisis with Britain caused by the murder of Augustus Raymond Margary in Yunnan Province . He also arranged treaties with Peru and

5032-450: Was appointed as the Viceroy of Huguang , where he remained until 1870, when the Tianjin Massacre necessitated his transfer to Tianjin to handle the diplomatic crisis with the French. He was given the concurrent appointments as Viceroy of Zhili Province and Beiyang Trade Minister ( 北洋通商大臣 ) to oversee various issues in Zhili, Shandong and Fengtian provinces, including trade, tariffs, diplomacy, coastal defence, and modernisation . He

5106-409: Was attacked by an assassin, Koyama Toyotarō  [ ja ; ko ; zh ] ( 小山豐太郎 ), who shot him in the left cheek. Koyama was arrested by Japanese police later and he claimed that he desired for the war to continue. Due to the public embarrassment caused by the attack, the Japanese agreed to the immediate ceasefire Li had urged in the days before, though fighting would continue on Taiwan and in

5180-495: Was born in a scholar-gentry family in Qunzhi Village ( 群治村 ), Modian Township ( 磨店鄉 ), 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) northeast of central Hefei , Anhui Province , China. In 1843, he sat for the entry-level imperial examination in Lu Prefecture and obtained a yougong ( 優貢 ; or gongsheng 貢生 ) position. His father, who was serving as an official in the imperial capital Beijing , was eager to see his son succeed, so he encouraged his son to come to Shuntian Prefecture to take

5254-427: Was his fate to bear blame for failures which might have been avoided if he had had his way." The leader of China's New Culture Movement , Hu Shih , was also sympathetic, remarking that if Li had been allowed the opportunity, his achievements for China might have equalled the achievements of his Japanese counterpart, Itō Hirobumi , at the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki . Chinese nationalists criticised Li's relations with

5328-530: Was put in command of the naval forces in Anhui and Jiangsu provinces to counter the Taiping rebels. After Zeng Guofan's Xiang Army recaptured Anqing from the rebels in 1861, Zeng wrote a memorial to the imperial court to praise Li, calling him "a talent with great potential", and sent Li back to Hefei to form a militia. Li managed to recruit enough men to form five battalions in 1862. Zeng Guofan ordered him to bring his troops along with him to Shanghai . Li and his men sailed past rebel-controlled territory along

5402-437: Was sent to curb smuggling and piracy on the coasts of Fujian and Zhejiang. Another one was appointed to Tianjin to protect access to Beijing in 1597 during a large-scale Japanese attack on Korea . Grand coordinators were members of no specific agency and only received ad hoc commissions with no definite tenure. They managed and oversaw provincial government by coordinating the work of the three highest provincial agencies:

5476-525: Was supported by Huai Army commander Zhou Shengchuan  [ zh ; ja ] . The academy was to serve Huai Army and Green Standard Army officers. Various practical military, mathematics and science subjects were taught at the academy. The instructors were German military officers. Another programme was started at the academy for five years in 1887 to train teenagers as new military officers. Mathematics, practical and technical subjects, sciences, foreign languages, Chinese classics and history were taught at

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