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99-451: The Guangxu Emperor (14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908), also known by his temple name Emperor Dezong of Qing , personal name Zaitian , was the eleventh emperor of the Qing dynasty , and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China proper , from 1875 to 1908. His reign was largely dominated by his maternal aunt Empress Dowager Cixi , who was his regent for much of his nominal rule except in

198-755: A Hakka leader of a syncretic Christian sect, defeated local forces sent to disperse his followers. Hong then proclaimed the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and the rebellion spread to several provinces with amazing speed. The following year, the Nian Rebellion started in North China . Unlike the Christian-influenced Taiping rebels, the Nian movement lacked a clear political program, but they became

297-625: A British diplomat, Sir Harry Parkes , was taken hostage by Chinese forces during negotiations on 18 September. Anglo-French forces clashed with Sengge Rinchen's Mongol cavalry on 18 September near Zhangjiawan before proceeding toward the outskirts of Beijing for a decisive battle in Tongzhou District, Beijing . On 21 September, at the Battle of Palikao , Sengge Rinchen's 10,000 troops, including his elite Mongol cavalrymen, were completely annihilated after several doomed frontal charges against

396-515: A Taiwanese history professor, proposes an alternative view: that the Guangxu Emperor might have been led into a trap by the reformists led by Kang Youwei , who in turn was in Lei's opinion tricked by British missionary Timothy Richard and former Japanese prime minister Itō Hirobumi into agreeing to appoint Itō as one of many foreign advisors. British ambassador Claude MacDonald claimed that

495-467: A childhood fascination, some say in an effort to pass the time until Cixi's death. He also read widely and spent time learning English from Cixi's Western-educated lady-in-waiting, Yu Deling . His relationship with Empress Longyu , Cixi's niece (and the Emperor's own first cousin), also improved to some extent. The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908, a day before Cixi's death, at the age of 37. For

594-593: A coup with Prince Gong that ousted the eight regents. Empress Dowager Cixi then effectively ruled China over the subsequent 47 years as a regent. The Xianfeng Emperor was interred in the Eastern Qing Tombs , 125 kilometres/75 miles east of Beijing , in the Ding (定; lit. "Quietude") mausoleum complex. The Qing dynasty continued to decline during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor. Rebellions in

693-587: A dinner for the diplomatic corps. On 7 February 1887, the emperor was officially old enough to begin to rule in his own right, but the regency of Empress Dowager Cixi continued beyond that, and the foreign diplomats were not informed of either fact. The French minister requested an audience with the emperor twice, in November 1887 and in the spring of 1888, but this was denied both times. In 1886, several courtiers, including Prince Chun and Weng Tonghe, had petitioned Empress Dowager Cixi to postpone her retirement from

792-554: A generation after that of the previous emperor, candidates were considered from the generation of Tongzhi. The reason for this is that the empress dowagers wanted the candidate to take the place of the Tongzhi Emperor as the successor to the Xianfeng Emperor , whose only son had been Tongzhi. The other proposed candidates besides Zaitian were the two sons of Prince Gong , Zaicheng and Zaiying , but they were of

891-526: A high dose at one time. The Guangxu Emperor was succeeded by Cixi's choice as heir, his nephew Puyi , who took the regnal name "Xuantong". In January 1912, the Guangxu Emperor's consort, who had become Empress Dowager Longyu , placed her seal on the abdication decree , ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. Longyu died childless in 1913. After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912,

990-400: A long time, there were several theories about the emperor's death, none of which was accepted fully by historians. Most were inclined to believe that Cixi, herself very ill, poisoned the Guangxu Emperor because she was afraid he would reverse her policies after her death. China Daily quoted a historian, Dai Yi , who speculated that Cixi might have known of her imminent death and worried that

1089-466: A memorial to the throne signed by young metropolitan officials and jinshi graduates that urged him to not trust his ministers and deal with the foreign powers on his own. In early June 1898 the grand councilor Weng Tonghe introduced the Guangxu Emperor to the reformist official Kang Youwei , and the emperor was impressed him, especially after reading Kang's two books about the reforms in Russia by Peter

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1188-552: A monarch should be honored as "祖" ( zǔ ; "progenitor") or "宗" ( zōng ; "ancestor"), a principle was strictly adhered to: "祖" was to be given to accomplished rulers while "宗" was to be assigned to virtuous rulers. However, this principle was effectively abandoned during the Sixteen Kingdoms era with the ubiquitous usage of "祖" by various non- Han regimes. Temple names became widespread from the Tang dynasty onwards. Apart from

1287-628: A naval squadron under command of the brother of Emperor Wilhelm II , the admiral Prince Heinrich , who was later received by the Qing monarch at the Summer Palace in May 1898. Germany's example was followed by demands from Russia, Britain, France, and Japan. China's relatively weak forces were not in a position to challenge them, and the United States, which was opposed to European concessions ,

1386-428: A navy of 21 battleships . The emperor also required court bureaucrats to read the writings of the earlier reformist official Feng Guifen and present a report on his suggestions in ten days, encouraged imperial princes to study abroad, and tried to streamline the government by firing 5,000 state employees. One of the early stumbling blocks for this effort happened on 15 June, when the Guangxu Emperor suddenly dismissed

1485-544: A self-disciplinarian early on. In 1876 he told Weng Tonghe that he considered frugality to be more important than the accumulation of wealth, and in another instance in 1878, he insisted on walking through snow and told his servants not to clear it out of his way. He also said that he considered the Tao to be more important than his own views. But, Weng noted that the emperor sometimes had extreme mood swings and did not want to participate in their daily lessons. Weng also instilled in

1584-570: A serious threat to the Qing capital, Beijing , with the mobility of their cavalry-based armies. The Qing imperial forces suffered repeated defeats at the hands of both rebel movements. In 1853, the Taiping rebels captured Nanjing and for a while it seemed that Beijing would fall next; but the Taiping northern expedition was defeated and the situation stabilized. The Xianfeng Emperor dispatched several prominent mandarins , such as Zeng Guofan and

1683-510: A way that would intimidate other officials, which undermined his own call for unity on the project. Overall, there was no coherent structure to the Hundred Days' Reform, and the Guangxu Emperor was frantically trying to begin as many changes as he could with his edicts, causing the bureaucracy to be overwhelmed by the large number of documents being written. Although the decrees between June and August were largely accepted and were creating

1782-700: A younger sister of Empress Dowager Cixi . He was the nephew of Cixi and the grandson of the Daoguang Emperor . On 12 January 1875, Zaitian's cousin, the Tongzhi Emperor , died without a son to succeed him. On that same day an imperial conference was held by the co-regents of the former emperor, the Empress Dowager Ci'an and the Empress Dowager Cixi. Breaking the imperial convention that a new emperor must always be of

1881-470: Is either "祖" or "宗": Xianfeng Emperor The Xianfeng Emperor (17 July 1831 – 22 August 1861), also known by his temple name Emperor Wenzong of Qing , personal name Yizhu , was the ninth emperor of the Qing dynasty , and the seventh Qing emperor to rule over China proper . During his reign, the Qing dynasty experienced several wars and rebellions including the Taiping Rebellion ,

1980-439: Is rare among emperors. Although historians do not deny the failures and limitations during his reign, he is still regarded as a relatively progressive and enlightened monarch of the dynasty. His image in historical research and literary works is also mostly positive. The Guangxu Emperor was born on 14 August 1871, receiving the name Zaitian, and was the second son of Yixuan (Prince Chun) , and his primary spouse Yehenara Wanzhen ,

2079-563: The Boxer Rebellion . He was examined by a physician at the French Legation and diagnosed with chronic nephritis ; he was also discovered to be impotent at the time. During the Boxer Rebellion , Emperor Guangxu fiercely opposed the idea of using usurpers as a means to counter foreign invasion. His letter to then United States president Theodore Roosevelt is still preserved in U.S. government archives. On 14 August 1900,

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2178-606: The Chinese Republic funded the construction of the Guangxu Emperor's mausoleum in the Western Qing Tombs . The tomb was robbed during the Chinese Civil War and the underground palace (burial chamber) is now open to the public. In 1912, Sun Yat-sen praised the Guangxu Emperor for his educational reform package that allowed China to learn more about Western culture . After the establishment of

2277-660: The Lý , Trần , and Later Lê dynasties (with the Hồ and Later Trần dynasties as exceptions). Numerous individuals who did not rule as monarch during their lifetime were posthumously elevated to the position of monarch by their descendants and honored with temple names. For example, Cao Cao was posthumously honored as an emperor and given the temple name Taizu by Cao Pi of the Cao Wei dynasty . Meanwhile, several individuals who were initially assigned temple names had their titles revoked, as

2376-609: The Nian Rebellion , and the Second Opium War . He was the last Chinese emperor to exercise sole power. The fourth son of the Daoguang Emperor , he assumed the throne in 1850 and inherited an empire in crisis. A few months after his ascension, the Taiping Rebellion broke out in southern China and rapidly spread, culminating in the fall of Nanjing in 1853. Contemporaneously, the Nian Rebellion began in

2475-512: The Second Opium War . The British and French, after engaging in a number of minor military confrontations on the coast near Tianjin , attempted to start negotiations with the Qing government. The Xianfeng Emperor believed in Chinese superiority and would not agree to any demands from the European powers. He delegated Prince Gong for several negotiations but relations broke down completely when

2574-724: The Stanovoy Range and the Amur River was ceded to Russia, and in 1860, according to the Treaty of Beijing , the same thing happened also to the area east of the Ussuri River. After that treaty, the Russians founded the city of Vladivostok in the area they had annexed. While negotiations with British, French and Russian officials were being held, the Xianfeng Emperor and his imperial entourage fled to Jehol province in

2673-556: The Summer Palace starting from 1891, but he never became capable of skillfully managing imperial court politics. The decisions that he made and the administrative process continued to be overseen by the empress dowager. Weng Tonghe reportedly observed that while the emperor attended to day-to-day state affairs, in more difficult cases the emperor and the Grand Council sought Cixi's advice. She also decided on appointments to

2772-741: The Yehe Nara clan . The Xianfeng Emperor died on 22 August 1861, from a short life of overindulgence, at the Chengde Mountain Resort , 230 kilometres northeast of Beijing . His successor was his surviving five-year-old son, Zaichun . A day before his death, the Xianfeng Emperor had summoned Sushun and his supporters to his bedside and gave them an imperial edict that dictated the power structure during his son's minority. The edict appointed eight men – Zaiyuan , Duanhua , Jingshou , Sushun , Muyin , Kuang Yuan, Du Han and Jiao Youying – as an eight-member regency council to aid Zaichun, who

2871-763: The Zhou dynasty were given posthumous names but not temple names. During the Qin dynasty , the practices both of assigning temple names and posthumous names was abandoned. The Han dynasty reintroduced both titles, although temple names were assigned sporadically and remained more exclusive than posthumous names. It was also during the Han era that other adjectives aside from the four listed above began appearing in temple names. Numerous Han emperors had their temple names removed by Emperor Xian of Han, Liu Xie, in AD 190. Initially, in deciding whether

2970-553: The civil examination system . Other edicts were for the construction of the Lu-Han railway, a system of budgets similar to that of Western governments, the replacement of the Green Standard Army with a Western-style national army based on conscription, and the creation of a naval academy. Among the lesser known measures that the Guangxu Emperor wanted to take was his naval armament program, which called for China to have

3069-460: The 21st the Guangxu Emperor was detained and met with Empress Dowager Cixi. The following day, he issued a decree that asked Cixi to take control of the government, who proceeded to remove the reform-minded officials and replaced them with conservative loyalists. An edict on 26 September undid some of the more radical changes the emperor had made, while keeping in place those reforms that did not go directly against Qing tradition. Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖),

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3168-861: The Gaungxu Emperor became more frequent after that. He received the new Austro-Hungarian minister in a special audience in October 1891, the British minister in December 1892, and the German and Belgian ministers in 1893. The Guangxu Emperor followed his principle of frugality in early 1892, when he tried to implement a series of draconian measures to reduce expenditures by the Imperial Household Department , which proved to be one of his few administrative successes. This dispute over

3267-539: The Grand Council and the Six Ministries . In December 1890 the emperor issued a decree stating that he wanted to have an immediate audience with the foreign diplomatic corps in Beijing and to make this an annual occurrence going forward. They presented a list of conditions for the protocol at the ceremony, and it was accepted by the Qing. The audience took place on 5 March 1891, with the Guangxu Emperor receiving

3366-696: The Great and in Japan by the Meiji Emperor . He personally met with Kang on 14 June, and started issuing reform decrees on 11 June. The first order, the edict of 11 June 1898, declared the intent of the Qing emperor to pursue reform as response to calls from certain officials since the war with Japan, and asked every one of his subjects to contribute to strengthening China, a project that was going to be based on "Western learning" while maintaining respect for traditional morals. Guangxu also received Cixi's approval for

3465-474: The Guangxu Emperor a duty of filial piety toward the Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci'an, which, aside from being a Chinese tradition, was also because Weng owed much of his successful career to the patronage of Cixi. In 1881, when the Guangxu Emperor was nine, Empress Dowager Ci'an died unexpectedly, leaving Empress Dowager Cixi as sole regent for the boy. In Weng's diaries during those days, Guangxu

3564-400: The Guangxu Emperor married, Cixi retired from the regency on 4 March 1889. Even after the Guangxu Emperor began formal rule he found that the power structure of the Qing court still depended on Empress Dowager Cixi, and he did not know how far his own authority extended. The emperor tried to take a leading role in the government, especially after she began spending several months of the year at

3663-569: The Guangxu Emperor was taught by Weng Tonghe , who had also been involved in the disastrous upbringing of the Tongzhi Emperor yet somehow managed to be exonerated of all possible charges, and his education was also overseen by his father, Prince Chun. The emperor was taught calligraphy , the Chinese classics (including the Four Books ), and the Chinese, Mongolian, and Manchu languages. Starting in 1881 he began reading historical works, including

3762-548: The Guangxu Emperor would continue his reforms after her death. Another theory is that the Guangxu Emperor was poisoned by Yuan Shikai , who knew that if the emperor were to come to power again, Yuan would likely be executed for treason. There were no reliable sources to prove who murdered the Guangxu Emperor. The medical records kept by the Guangxu Emperor's physician show the emperor suffered from "spells of violent stomachaches" and that his face had turned blue, typical symptoms of arsenic poisoning. To dispel persistent rumours that

3861-530: The Guangxu Emperor, along with Cixi, Empress Longyu and some other court officials, fled from Beijing as the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance marched on the capital to relieve the legations that had been besieged during the Boxer Rebellion . Returning to the capital on 7 January 1902, after the withdrawal of the foreign powers, the Guangxu Emperor spent the next few years working in his isolated palace with watches and clocks , which had been

3960-527: The Imperial Family was preparing to leave the Forbidden City due to the occupation of Beijing by the Eight-Nation Alliance in 1900. Like his predecessor, the Tongzhi Emperor , the Guangxu Emperor died without issue. After his death in 1908, Empress Dowager Longyu ruled in cooperation with Zaifeng . Empress Imperial Noble Consort Enthroned in 1626 as Khan , Hong Taiji changed

4059-693: The Mongol general Sengge Rinchen , to crush the rebellions, but they only obtained limited success. The biggest revolt of the Miao people against Chinese rule in history started in 1854, and ravaged the region until finally put down in 1873. In 1856, an attempt to regain Nanjing was defeated and the Panthay Rebellion broke out in Yunnan . Meanwhile, an initially minor incident on the coasts triggered

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4158-597: The People's Republic of China in 1949, historian Fan Wenlan (范文瀾) called the Guangxu Emperor "a Manchu noble who could accept Western ideas". Some historians believe that the Guangxu Emperor was the first Chinese leader to implement modernizing reforms and capitalism. Imperial power in the Qing dynasty saw its nadir under Guangxu, and he was the only Qing emperor to have been put under house arrest during his own reign. Domestic honours Foreign honours The Guangxu Emperor had one empress and two consorts in total. The emperor

4257-407: The Qing dynasty as the only way to make up for his perceived failure. Already in December 1897 the emperor wrote an edict that asked bureaucrats with military knowledge to recommend reforms that could be made. Following the war and the scramble for concessions, there was growing support for reform in China among the gentry and the nobility in the spring of 1898. In April the emperor was presented with

4356-833: The Qing government. Yizhu was born in 1831 at the Old Summer Palace , eight kilometres northwest of Beijing . He was from the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan, and was the fourth son of the Daoguang Emperor . His mother was the Noble Consort Quan , of the Manchu Niohuru clan, who was made Empress in 1834, and is known posthumously as Empress Xiaoquancheng . Yizhu was reputed to have an ability in literature and administration which surpassed most of his brothers, which impressed his father, who therefore decided to make him his successor. Yizhu succeeded

4455-488: The age of 30 and was succeeded by his six-year-old son, who assumed the throne as the Tongzhi Emperor . On his deathbed, the Xianfeng Emperor appointed eight men to a regency council to assist his young successor. A few months later, Empress Dowager Cixi and Empress Dowager Ci'an along with Prince Gong instigated the Xinyou Coup and ousted the regents. Cixi ultimately rose to sole power and consolidated control over

4554-520: The basis for reform, starting in September they began targeting the positions of the Manchu nobility and the gentry. These were not only too sudden for a China still under significant neo-Confucian influence and other elements of traditional culture , but later came into conflict with Cixi, who held real power. Many officials, deemed useless and dismissed by the Guangxu Emperor, begged her for help. But

4653-422: The budget continued until early 1894. But its other effects were humiliating and alienating senior Manchu officials in the bureaucracy, who remained in contact with Cixi, and reducing his potential allies at the imperial court. The Guangxu Emperor inherited the system of the Qing dynasty that had emerged in 1861, at the start of the Tongzhi Emperor's reign. The source of authority were the two empresses dowager, while

4752-621: The cession of much of Manchuria to the Russian Empire . Negotiations broke down and hostilities resumed soon after, and in 1860 Anglo-French forces entered Beijing and burned the Old Summer Palace . The Xianfeng Emperor was forced to flee for the imperial estate at Jehol , and the Convention of Peking was negotiated in his absence. His health was already in rapid decline in the face of mounting Qing losses. He died in 1861 in Jehol at

4851-480: The concentrated firepower of the Anglo-French forces, which entered Beijing on 6 October. On 18 October 1860, British and French forces sacked and burnt Old Summer Palace . Upon learning about this news, the Xianfeng Emperor's health quickly deteriorated. During the Xianfeng Emperor's reign, China lost part of Manchuria to the Russian Empire . In 1858, according to the Treaty of Aigun , the territory between

4950-463: The country, which began the first year of his reign, would not be quelled until well into the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor and resulted in millions of deaths. The Xianfeng Emperor also had to deal with the British and French and their ever-growing appetite to expand trade further into China. The Xianfeng Emperor, like his father, the Daoguang Emperor , understood very little about Europeans and their mindset. He viewed non-Chinese as inferior and regarded

5049-434: The death of her husband. However, the Guangxu Emperor detested his wife and spent most of his time with his favourite concubine, Consort Zhen (better known as the "Pearl Consort"). Rumours allege that in 1900, Consort Zhen was drowned by being thrown into a well on Cixi's order after she begged Empress Dowager Cixi to let the Guangxu Emperor stay in Beijing for negotiations with the foreign powers. That incident happened when

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5148-406: The decisive response by Empress Dowager Cixi was caused by the accusation from the official Yang Chongyi that the Guangxu Emperor had committed treason by inviting the former Japanese prime minister Ito Hirobumi to advise him (Ito was in China at the time to meet with the emperor). Yang claimed that Guangxu had done this on the advice of Kang Youwei and the wanted revolutionary Sun Yat-sen . Guangxu

5247-459: The decrees of earlier emperors. Guangxu could work diligently and already knew some of the classics, but he was not always interested in his daily lessons. As part of the emperor's education he was taught that his main obligation as ruler was "keeping the state in order" and "maintaining universal peace," as stated in the Confucian classic Great Learning . The Guangxu Emperor seemed to become

5346-702: The dynastic name to "Great Qing" in 1636 and claimed the title of emperor. In 1644, the Shunzhi Emperor began to rule over China proper , replacing the Ming dynasty . Temple name Modern academia usually refers to the following rulers by their temple names: Chinese monarchs from the Tang to the Yuan dynasties, Korean rulers of the Goryeo (until AD 1274) and Joseon dynasties, and Vietnamese rulers of

5445-425: The early 1880s, though this stopped in 1883 when Cixi recovered from her illness. His reign saw the outbreak of the Sino-French War in 1884 over influence in Vietnam . By the time the war ended in 1885, the French destroyed the Chinese fleet at Fuzhou , patrolled the coast of southern China unobstructed, occupied part of Taiwan, and ended the status of Vietnam as a tributary of China. This prompted Britain to end

5544-400: The edict. Between June and September 1898 the emperor carried out the Hundred Days' Reform , aimed at a series of sweeping political, legal and social changes. The goal was to make China a modern constitutional empire, but still within the traditional framework, as with Japan's Meiji Restoration . The emperor's initial focus was establishing the Imperial University in Beijing and reforming

5643-427: The education system. The last part of his edict of 11 June instructed the Grand Council and the Zongli Yamen , the Qing dynasty's foreign office, to establish the Imperial University right away. The Guangxu Emperor then issued edicts for a massive number of far-reaching modernizing reforms with the help of more progressive officials such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao . Changes ranged from infrastructure to industry and

5742-415: The emperor had been poisoned, the Qing imperial court produced documents and doctors' records suggesting that the Guangxu Emperor died from natural causes, but these did not allay suspicion. On 4 November 2008, forensic tests revealed that the level of arsenic in the emperor's remains was 2,000 times higher than that of ordinary people. Scientists concluded that the poison could only have been administered in

5841-465: The emperor to make his own decisions instead of remaining influenced by the empress dowager. After the Japanese attacked and sank a Chinese warship on 25 July without any declaration of war, the ministers of the Qing emperor advised him to declare war on Japan. In that document, made on 1 August, the Guangxu Emperor accused Japan of sending armies to force the king of Korea to change his system of government and of violating international law. He also used

5940-400: The events in the autumn of 1898. In February 1895, as peace negotiations with the Japanese were underway, the Guangxu Emperor spoke with his top negotiator before he met with the Japanese, Li Hongzhang, and allegedly told him during their conversation that China needed large scale reforms. In April, after the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed but before it was ratified by the Qing government,

6039-419: The execution of generals who were defeated. During the war, even though the Guangxu Emperor was nominally the sovereign ruler of the Qing Empire, officials often ignored him and instead sent their memorials to Cixi for her approval. Eventually, two sets of Grand Council memoranda were created, one for the emperor and the other for the empress dowager, a practice that continued until it was rendered unnecessary by

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6138-556: The final ruler of a dynasty, monarchs who died prematurely, or monarchs who were deposed, most Chinese monarchs were given temple names by their descendants. The practice of honoring rulers with temple names had since been adopted by other dynastic regimes within the East Asian cultural sphere|Sinosphere, including those based on the Korean Peninsula and in Vietnam. Japan, while having adopted both posthumous names and era names from China, did not assign temple names to its monarchs. Most temple names consist of two Chinese characters, unlike

6237-464: The foreign ministers to China at an audience in the "Pavilion of Purple Light," in what is now part of Zhongnanhai , something that had also been done by the Tongzhi Emperor in 1873. That summer, under pressure from the foreign legations and in response to revolts in the Yangtze River valley that were targeting Christian missionaries, the emperor issued an edict ordering Christians to be placed under state protection. The audience of foreign diplomats with

6336-523: The grand councilor Weng Tonghe from all of his posts, even though he had been the one to draft his first reform edict. It has been debated by historians what the immediate reason for the action was, but it occurred after Weng had been a voice of caution leading up the summer of 1898, and he may have been seen by the emperor as an obstacle to his plans. The emperor was also impatient and wanted immediate results, so he may have fired him in an emotional moment. On several occasions he also tried to write his edicts in

6435-458: The more elaborate posthumous names. In extremely rare cases, temple names could consist of three characters. The first character is an adjective, chosen to reflect the circumstances of the monarch's reign. The vocabulary may overlap with that of the posthumous names' adjectives; however, for one sovereign, the temple name's adjective character usually does not repeat as one of the many adjective characters in his posthumous name. The last character

6534-406: The name of conducting the annual imperial hunting expedition. As his health worsened, the emperor's ability to govern also deteriorated, and competing ideologies in court led to the formation of two distinct factions — one led by the senior official Sushun and the princes Zaiyuan and Duanhua , and the other led by Noble Consort Yi , who was supported by the general Ronglu and the Bannermen of

6633-534: The nation, leaving the people in misery. Seeing the country's decline, Guangxu allied with intellectuals like Kang Youwei and his disciple Liang Qichao to launch the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, attempting to save and rejuvenate the nation. However, this movement threatened the position of the privileged classes of traditional Chinese society and was soon suppressed by the conservative forces led by Cixi, resulting in his confinement and loss of political power and personal freedom until his untimely death. His tragic fate

6732-416: The north, followed by ethnic uprisings (the Miao Rebellion and the Panthay Rebellion ) in the south. The revolts ravaged large parts of the country, caused millions of deaths and would not be quelled until well into the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor's successor. Qing defeat during the first phase of the Second Opium War led to the Treaty of Tientsin and the Treaty of Aigun , the latter of which resulted in

6831-417: The outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War over influence in Korea. The Guangxu Emperor was reportedly eager for the war against Japan and became associated with the pro-war faction in the imperial court, which believed that China would easily win. This was in contrast to the Empress Dowager Cixi and Viceroy Li Hongzhang , who both wanted to reach a peaceful resolution. The conflict was also an opportunity for

6930-422: The purpose of ancestor worship. The temple name of each monarch was recorded on their respective ancestral tablet placed within the grand temple. Temple names trace their origins to the Shang dynasty of China. In earlier times, temple names were exclusively assigned to competent rulers after their death. The temple name system established during the Shang period utilized only four adjectives: Chinese monarchs of

7029-477: The reformists had actually "much injured" the modernization of China. Lei claims that Cixi learned of the plot and decided to put an end to it to prevent China from coming under foreign control. The Guangxu Emperor's duties after 1898 became rather limited. The emperor was effectively removed from power as emperor (despite keeping the title), but he did retain some status. The emperor was kept informed of state affairs, reading them with Cixi prior to audiences, and

7128-410: The regency. Despite Cixi's agreement to remain as regent, that same year the Guangxu Emperor had begun to write comments on memorials to the throne . In the spring of 1887, he partook in his first field-plowing ceremony, and by the end of the year he had begun to rule under Cixi's supervision. By the mid-1880s the Guangxu Emperor also developed the ideas that he wanted guide his rule, including preserving

7227-603: The repeated requests by the Europeans for the establishment of diplomatic relations as an offence. When the Europeans introduced the long-held concept of an exchanged consular relationship, the Xianfeng Emperor quickly rebuffed the idea. At the time of his death, he had not met with any foreign dignitary. Despite his tumultuous decade of reign, the Xianfeng Emperor was commonly seen as the last Qing emperor to have held paramount authority, ruling in his own right. The reigns of his son and subsequent successors were overseen by regents,

7326-469: The same age group as the Tongzhi Emperor and were seen as having been a negative influence on him, so they were distrusted. Zaitian was younger than both and was the nephew of Cixi. His father, Prince Chun, was also more liked than Prince Gong, and was known for being a scholar and a supporter of patriotic policies. These were the factors that influenced the selection of Zaitian to become emperor. A decree announced on 13 January that Zaitian had been chosen as

7425-491: The sole regent. In 1889, Guangxu got married and announced his personal rule. After the failure of the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, he was confined by Cixi in the Yingtai Pavilion of Zhongnanhai , completely losing his ruling power. In November 1908, he died of arsenic poisoning at Yingtai. He reigned for 34 years, ruled directly for nine of those years, and died at the age of 38 without leaving any descendants. He

7524-470: The successor to the Xianfeng Emperor. The same decree also announced that Empress Dowagers Ci'an and Cixi would be his co-regents. He ascended to the throne at the age of four, on 25 February 1875, and adopted "Guangxu" (meaning "continuation of splendor") as his regnal name , therefore he is known as the "Guangxu Emperor". His personal name Zaitian was no longer used after that point. Beginning in March 1876,

7623-484: The system that existed during the regency effectively remained intact. Eventually, in February 1889, in preparation for Cixi's retirement, the Guangxu Emperor was married. Much to the emperor's dislike, Cixi selected her niece, Jingfen, to be empress. She became known as Empress Longyu . She also selected a pair of sisters, who became Consorts Jin and Zhen , to be the emperor's concubines. The following week, with

7722-638: The term "dwarfs" for the Japanese, an ancient Chinese derogatory term, reflecting the widespread contemptuous view of Japan that many Qing officials had. China suffered major defeats at the Battle of Pyongyang and the Battle of the Yalu River within two days in September 1894, largely destroying the Huai Army and the Beiyang Fleet , the Qing dynasty's best military forces. The Guangxu Emperor

7821-421: The throne in 1850, at age 19, and was a relatively young emperor. He inherited a dynasty that faced not only internal but also foreign challenges. Yizhu's reign title , "Xianfeng", which means "universal prosperity", did not reflect the situation. In 1850, the first of a series of popular rebellions began that would nearly destroy the Qing dynasty. The Taiping Rebellion began in December 1850, when Hong Xiuquan ,

7920-465: The time from 1889 to 1898. He initiated the radical Hundred Days' Reform in the summer of 1898 but was abruptly stopped when the Empress Dowager launched a coup on 21 September, after which he was held under virtual house arrest until his death one decade later. Emperor Guangxu was the second son of Yixuan, Prince Chun (a son of the Daoguang Emperor ), and his mother, Yehenara Wanzhen,

8019-433: The treaty required, he was going to lose the "unity of the people." The emperor felt that he was unworthy of his ancestors because he failed as a leader, which was made worse after he was also forced to give concessions to the European powers in 1897–98. Luke Kwong wrote that this was part of what drove the Guangxu Emperor to begin the Hundred Days' Reform in the summer of 1898, because he saw taking radical action to revitalize

8118-499: The treaty's severe terms for China were publicized. Government bureaucrats throughout the empire urged the imperial court to reject it and continue fighting. The emperor did not want to take responsibility for ratifying the treaty, and neither did the Empress Dowager Cixi, who may have wanted to use the defeat against Japan to undermine Guangxu. He tried to shift the responsibility in an edict by asking two officials, Liu Kunyi and Wang Wenshao , to give their opinion on whether to agree to

8217-565: The treaty, because they had told him that the Chinese military was capable of achieving victory. Eventually the Guangxu Emperor ratified it. The emperor and the Qing government faced further humiliation in late 1897 when the German Empire used the murders of two priests in Shandong Province as an excuse to occupy Jiaozhou Bay (including Qingdao ), prompting a "scramble for concessions" by other foreign powers. Germany sent

8316-672: The tributary status of Burma in 1886, which China did not oppose militarily, and encouraged Japan to do the same in Korea . The negotiations with the French were carried out by the Viceroy of Zhili , Li Hongzhang , by other ministers in Beijing, and by the head of Chinese Maritime Customs , Robert Hart . The Guangxu Emperor had not given an audience to foreign diplomats in Beijing up to this point, though in August 1886 his father Prince Chun hosted

8415-664: The wealth of the country and avoiding selfishness or arrogance. Among his predecessors, he considered the Qianlong Emperor to be a model of good governance, and often visited places that the Qianlong Emperor had spent a lot of time at. He felt a sense of responsibility for following the example set by the Qianlong Emperor. Meanwhile, Prince Chun and the Grand Council prepared for the Guangxu Emperor to begin ruling directly by taking measures to make sure that

8514-423: The young emperor had a secondary role, and the princes and ministers were responsible for actually running the machinery of the government. When Empress Dowager Cixi retired, Guangxu had control over the administration of the empire and she did not interfere with his actions, but the princes and ministers advised him to bring back the old system in 1894, at the start of the tensions with Japan. The summer of 1894 saw

8613-477: Was a decree that was issued by the Guangxu Emperor. But Yuan later said that the schemers could not convince him that it was really from the emperor, and when Yuan met with him on 20 September, Guangxu did not say anything about it to Yuan. He then left the emperor to meet with Ronglu and told him about the plot by the reformers, also telling him the emperor had nothing to do with it. Ronglu then met with Cixi and other ministers and princes, and started taking action. On

8712-569: Was also present at audiences, sitting on a stool to Cixi's left hand while Cixi occupied the main throne. He discharged his ceremonial duties, such as offering sacrifices during ceremonies, but never ruled alone again. In 1898, shortly after the collapse of the Hundred Days' Reform , the Guangxu Emperor's health began to decline, prompting Cixi to name Pujun, a son of the emperor's cousin, the reactionary Prince Duan , as heir presumptive. Pujun and his father were removed from their positions after

8811-526: Was angry and wanted to immediately leave the capital to personally take command of the troops at the front, but he was later talked out of it by his advisors. The emperor met with a German military advisor who had been present at the Battle of the Yalu, Constantin von Hanneken, to learn what exactly happened, suggesting that he may have not trusted his ministers to tell him the truth. He also signed edicts calling for

8910-611: Was buried in the Chongling Mausoleum of the Western Qing Tombs. The emperor's life was turbulent and full of hardships. He was not originally the heir to the throne but was forcibly elevated after Emperor Tongzhi died without an heir. From a young age, he was forced to leave his home and enter the palace, where he was strictly controlled and disciplined by Cixi, enduring many hardships and sorrows. Even after he reached adulthood and began his personal rule, Cixi

9009-627: Was distracted by events in Cuba and the Spanish–American War . In the six months between November 1897 and May 1898 China had received unprecedented demands from foreign powers. After the Qing Empire's defeat to Japan and forced agreement to the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Guangxu Emperor reportedly expressed his wish to abdicate. He wrote that by giving away Taiwan to Japan, as

9108-429: Was forced by Empress Dowager Cixi to marry her niece (his cousin) Jingfen , who was two years his senior. Jingfen's father, Guixiang (Cixi's younger brother), and Cixi selected her to be the Guangxu Emperor's wife in order to strengthen the power of their own family. After the marriage, Jingfen was made empress and was granted the honorific title of "Longyu" ( 隆裕 ; lit.   ' auspicious and prosperous ' ) after

9207-547: Was later amended to Chengzu by the Jiajing Emperor . There were also instances of individuals ruling as the sovereign of a particular realm but being accorded a temple name by another realm, as was the case for Möngke of the Mongol Empire , who was later honored as Xianzong by Emperor Shizu of the Yuan dynasty . The "temple" in "temple name" (廟號) refers to the grand temples (太廟) built by each dynasty for

9306-444: Was later enthroned as the Tongzhi Emperor . Xianfeng gave the eight men the power of regency, but their edicts would have to be endorsed by Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen. By tradition, after the death of an emperor, the emperor's body was to be accompanied to the capital by the regents. Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen , who were now known as Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci'an travelled ahead to Beijing and planned

9405-410: Was reportedly seen with swollen eyes, had poor concentration and was seeking consolation from Weng. Weng too expressed his concern that Cixi was the one who had been suffering from chronic ill health, not Ci'an. During this time, the imperial eunuchs often abused their influence over the boy emperor. The Guangxu Emperor had also reportedly begun to hold some audiences on his own as an act of necessity in

9504-612: Was the case for Emperor Huan , whose temple name, Weizong , was abolished by Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han dynasty . In other cases, numerous individuals were honored with more than one temple name by intentional changes or being accorded different titles by different individuals. For instance, the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty was originally honored as Taizong by the Hongxi Emperor , but his temple name

9603-417: Was the sister of Empress Dowager Cixi . After Emperor Tongzhi 's death in 1874, he was supported by the two Empress Dowagers (Ci'an and Cixi) to succeed the throne, being adopted at the age of three by Emperor Xianfeng and the two Empress Dowagers, thereby inheriting the throne. During the early years of his reign, the two dowagers jointly handled state affairs. As Ci'an died in 1881, Cixi continued to act as

9702-515: Was unable to effectively defend himself to Cixi from Yang's accusation. Both sides began plotting to take action against each other. Some of the reformers around the emperor asked Yuan Shikai to use the Beiyang Army to arrest Cixi and to execute Ronglu , a member of the conservative faction who had been appointed to command the military forces in Zhili earlier. According to one account, this

9801-566: Was unwilling to relinquish her control over state power, making him continue to be a puppet, unable to enjoy the majesty and power of a monarch. During his reign, the Qing dynasty became increasingly impoverished and weak. The Sino-French War , the First Sino-Japanese War , and the Boxer Rebellion followed one after another, causing the dynasty to cede territory and pay indemnities, losing sovereignty and humiliating

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