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91-493: The Lincoln Continental is a series of mid-sized and full-sized luxury cars produced between 1939 and 2020 by Lincoln , a division of the American automaker Ford Motor Company . The model line was introduced following the construction of a personal vehicle for Edsel Ford , who commissioned a coachbuilt 1939 Lincoln-Zephyr convertible, developed as a vacation vehicle to attract potential Lincoln buyers. In what would give

182-500: A 131-inch wheelbase, the 1958 Continentals are the longest-wheelbase sedans ever built by Ford Motor Company. Longer than a Ford Excursion, the 1958–1960 Continentals are the longest sedans ever produced by Ford without 5-mph bumpers . The 1958 Continental Mark III convertible is the longest convertible ever mass-produced in the United States, with the sole exception of the rare 1934–1937 Cadillac V16 convertibles. In line with

273-464: A 3-speed automatic transmission. New for 1966 was Ford's C6 automatic, designed for use in big block, high-horsepower V8 engines. Mid-size car Mid-size —also known as intermediate —is a vehicle size class which originated in the United States and is used for cars larger than compact cars and smaller than full-size cars . "Large family car" is a UK term and a part of the D-segment in

364-427: A barrel is worn and needs to be replaced. The end of the chamber, freebore and leade (the unrifled portion of the barrel just forward of the chamber), as well as the first few centimeters or few inches of rifling, in rifles are subject to very high temperatures—as the energy content of rifle propellants can exceed 3500 kJ/kg—and pressures that can exceed 380 MPa (55,114 psi). The propellant gases act similarly as

455-475: A bath surface tension less than 35 dyn/cm is necessary to prevent plating solution from becoming airborne when bubbles rise to the surface and pop. This requires a frequent cycle of treating the bath with a wetting agent fume suppressant and confirming the effect on surface tension. Usually, surface tension is measured with a stalagmometer or tensiometer . This method is, however, tedious and suffers from inaccuracy (errors up to 22 dyn/cm have been reported), and

546-552: A broader set of conditions (such as oxidation resistance), and bulking material for worn parts to restore their original dimensions. It is very hard, measuring between 65 and 69 HRC (also based on the base metal's hardness). Hard chrome tends to be thicker than decorative chrome, with standard thicknesses in non-salvage applications ranging from 20 to 40 μm, but it can be an order of magnitude thicker for extreme wear resistance requirements, in such cases 100 μm or thicker provides optimal results. Unfortunately, such thicknesses emphasize

637-553: A bronze medal by the Industrial Design Institute (IDI) of New York. It also won Car Life's 1961 Engineering Excellence Award. The fourth-generation Lincoln Continental was styled by Ford design vice president Elwood Engel . In mid-1958, Lincoln was struggling against Cadillac, with its lack of profitability putting the future of the division at risk. In 1958, Engel developed a proposal for the 1961 Ford Thunderbird with staffers Howard Payne and John Orfe. While

728-551: A common chassis and much of the exterior of the Lincoln Premiere, Continental production shifted to the then-new Wixom Assembly plant . To set itself apart from a Lincoln, along with a division-specific grille, all versions of the Continental (including convertibles) were styled with a reverse-slant roofline, fitted with a retractable " breezeway " rear window. First introduced on the 1957 Mercury Turnpike Cruiser ,

819-606: A complementary color. In the last years of the Korean War , the US contemplated banning chrome in favor of several cheaper processes (such as plating with zinc and then coating with shiny plastic). In 2007, a Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) was issued banning several toxic substances for use in the automotive industry in Europe, including hexavalent chromium , which is used in chrome plating. However, chrome plating

910-567: A consequence of the nearly hand-built construction, Ford estimated it lost nearly $ 1000 on every Continental Mark II produced. After 1957, the Mark II was discontinued; the Continental Division was re-branded as a competitor to Imperial and Cadillac rather than Rolls-Royce and Bentley. To build a better business case for its flagship and the division that marketed the vehicle, the Continental model line underwent extensive changes for

1001-574: A minor restyling, with the elimination of Dagmars from the front bumpers and side sculpting becoming much less deeply drawn. Coinciding with the end of the Continental Division, "Continental III" fender badging is replaced by separate "Continental" and "Mark IV" badging. The grille is restyled slightly, with the headlight clusters now integrated into the egg-crate grille. For 1960, the Continental Mark V saw another styling update, with flatter front bumpers (with Dagmars). The Continental badging

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1092-426: A model-specific formal rear roofline with a padded vinyl roof and smaller rear window for privacy. The Limousine featured a retractable partition between the front and rear seats with a rear seat radio on the back of the front seat. The wheelbase remained the same 131 inches on the limousine as the other Continental models and the rear seating was also the same dimensions. Priced at $ 10,230 for the limousine and $ 9207 for

1183-463: A new grille. For 1947, walnut wood trim was added to the interior. Following the death of Edsel Ford in 1943, Ford Motor Company re-organized its corporate management structure, which led to the 1946 departure of the Continental's designer Bob Gregorie. 1948 would become the last year for the Continental, as the division sought to redevelop its new 1949 model line as an upgraded version of the Mercury;

1274-424: A part typically includes some or all of these steps: There are many variations to this process, depending on the type of substrate being plated. Different substrates need different etching solutions, such as hydrochloric , hydrofluoric , and sulfuric acids . Ferric chloride is also popular for the etching of nimonic alloys. Sometimes the component enters the chrome plating vat while electrically live. Sometimes

1365-402: A personal vehicle for Ford Motor Company President Edsel Ford . In 1938, Ford commissioned a one-off design he wanted ready for his March 1939 vacation from company Chief Stylist Eugene T. "Bob" Gregorie . Using the blueprints of the streamlined Lincoln-Zephyr as a starting point, Gregorie sketched a design for a convertible with a redesigned body; allegedly, the initial sketch for the design

1456-430: A rare number of coupes. These were extensively hand-built; the two dozen 1939 models and 400 1940-built examples were built with hand-hammered body panels; dies for machine-pressing were not constructed until 1941. The limited number of 1939 models produced are commonly referred to as '1940 Continentals'. The modified body gave the Continental new proportions over its Zephyr counterpart; with the hoodline sitting lower over

1547-415: A rounded trunk bulge that suggested the appearance of an externally rear-mounted spare tire. Aftermarket kits that relocate the spare tire behind the trunk, popular on Fifties cars even today, remain known as Continental kits due to the design's continued association with the famous Continental model line. At the time work had begun on the first Continental coupe, Lincoln had announced the cancellation of

1638-530: A standard Lincoln. Along with the massive decrease in height, the running boards were deleted entirely. In contrast to the Zephyr (and in a massive change from the K-Series Lincoln), the hood sat nearly level with the fenders taking advantage of the fact that the engine type and configuration did not need the clearance afforded by the height of the standard Lincoln hood line. To focus on the styling of

1729-414: A toxic mist of water and hexavalent chromium is released from the bath. Wet scrubbers are used to control these emissions. The liquid from the wet scrubbers is treated to precipitate the chromium and remove it from the wastewater before it is discharged. Additional toxic waste created from hexavalent chromium baths include lead chromates , which form in the bath because lead anodes are used. Barium

1820-403: Is hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), and the role of chromate is to scavenge H ions in a reaction that competes with H 2 evolution: The shine of plated chrome depends on whether microscopic cracks in the plating are visible on the surface. The dull appearance of some chrome layers is due to continuous cracks that propagate through the whole plated metal layer, while bright deposits appear in

1911-460: Is also dependent on the current density, because a higher current density requires a higher temperature. Finally, the whole bath is agitated to keep the temperature steady and achieve a uniform deposition. One functional disadvantage of hexavalent chromium plating is low cathode efficiency, which results in bad throwing power . This means it leaves a non-uniform coating, with more on edges and less in inside corners and holes. To overcome this problem

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2002-497: Is also used to control the sulfate concentration, which leads to the formation of barium sulfate (BaSO 4 ). Trivalent chromium is intrinsically less toxic than hexavalent chromium. Because of the lower toxicity it is not regulated as strictly, which reduces overhead costs . Other health advantages include higher cathode efficiencies, which lead to less chromium air emissions; lower concentration levels, resulting in less chromium waste and anodes that do not decompose. Maintaining

2093-678: Is dependent on the user's experience and capabilities. While they are effective for the control of toxic airborne chromium, many widely used wetting agent fume suppressants are toxic themselves because they contain perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are hazardous chemicals that can cause long-term health effects. This makes electroplating one of the jobs with the highest risk of occupational exposure to PFAS, but not as high as firefighters using fluorinated aqueous film forming foams . In addition to their detrimental effects on human health, PFAS are persistent pollutants that cause significant bioaccumulation and biomagnification , putting animals at

2184-425: Is designed to be aesthetically pleasing and durable. Thicknesses range from 2 to 20 μin (0.05 to 0.5 μm), however, they are usually between 5 and 10 μin (0.13 and 0.25 μm). The chromium plating is usually applied over bright nickel plating . Typical base materials include steel , aluminium , plastic , copper alloys, and zinc alloys. Decorative chrome plating is also very corrosion resistant and

2275-563: Is done from liquids comprising Cr species. Such solutions were avoided prior to ca. 2020, because of air-sensitivity and hydrogen evolution from aqueous Cr solutions. In the 2020s, it was discovered that chromous chloride has ca. 4.0 M solubility in water at room temperature (i.e. with H 2 O:Cr molar ratio around 14:1), and such liquids behave like supersaturated electrolytes with a reduced propensity toward hydrogen evolution. The best quality bright deposits are produced at relatively high current density of 20 mA/cm . Decorative chrome

2366-472: Is metal and contains no hexavalent chromium after it is rinsed, so chrome plating is not banned. Chrome-lining protects the barrel or chamber of arms from corrosion and makes these parts also easier to clean, but this is not the main purpose for lining a barrel or chamber. Chrome-lining was introduced in machine guns to increase the wear resistance and service life of highly stressed arms parts like barrels and chambers, allowing more rounds to be fired before

2457-413: Is more robust than hexavalent chromium because it can withstand current interruptions. One of the disadvantages when the process was first introduced was that decorative customers disapproved of the color differences. Companies now use additives to adjust the color. In hard coating applications, the corrosion resistance of thicker coatings is not quite as good as it is with hexavalent chromium. The cost of

2548-415: Is often used on car parts, tools and kitchen utensils. Thin dense chrome (TDC) differs from decorative chrome. While decorative chrome is applied primarily for aesthetic purposes with thin layers that provide a shiny finish, TDC, such as Armoloy , focuses on enhancing surface performance. It delivers wear resistance, corrosion protection, and hardness without adding significant thickness. TDC also avoids

2639-533: Is subject to different types of quality requirements depending on the application; for instance, the plating on hydraulic piston rods are tested for corrosion resistance with a salt spray test . Most bright decorative items affixed to cars are referred to as "chrome", meaning steel that has undergone several plating processes to protect it from weathering and moisture but the term passed on to cover any similar-looking shiny decorative auto parts, including silver plastic trim pieces in casual terminology. Triple plating

2730-616: Is the final American vehicle line with a factory-produced V12 engine (1948), the final four-door convertible (1967), and the final model line to undergo downsizing (for the 1980 model year). American production of the Continental and MKZ, its only two sedans, ended in 2020 thereby making Lincoln a crossover / SUV -only brand in the USA. After it was discontinued in Lincoln's home market, Ford indicated that it planned to move Continental production to China . The Lincoln Continental began life as

2821-418: Is the most expensive and durable process, which involves plating the steel first with copper and then nickel before the chromium plating is applied. Prior to the application of chrome in the 1920s, nickel electroplating was used. In the short production run prior to the US entry into World War II , the government banned plating to save chromium and automobile manufacturers painted the decorative pieces in

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2912-730: Is wasted when grinding the piece back to desired dimensions. Modern engineered coatings do not suffer such drawbacks, which often price hard chrome out due to labor costs alone. Hard chrome replacement technologies outperform hard chrome in wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and cost. Hardness up to 80 HRC is not extraordinary for such materials. Modern engineered coatings applied using spray deposition can form layers of uniform thickness that often require no further polishing or machining. These coatings are often composites of polymers , metals, and ceramic powders or fibers as proprietary formulas protected by patents or as trade secrets, and thus are usually known by brand names. Hard chromium plating

3003-519: The Lincoln K-series coupes, sedans, and limousines, which cut the lineup down to the very limited-production Lincoln Custom limousine and the smaller, higher-volume Lincoln-Zephyr coupes and sedans (with Lincoln-Zephyr technically a sub-marque of Lincoln). This pared-down model range came about at roughly the same time Ford Motor Company first introduced the Mercury brand in 1938. With

3094-431: The attack on Pearl Harbor led to the suspension of production of automobiles for civilian use. After World War II, the Lincoln division of Ford returned the Continental to production as a 1946 model; Lincoln dropped the Zephyr nomenclature following the war, so the postwar Continental was derived from the standard Lincoln (internally H-Series). To attract buyers, the design was refreshed with updated trim, distinguished by

3185-432: The "active Cr " also undergoes within less than 1 second a transition into "inactive Cr ", which is believed to be a polymeric hexa-aqua complex. Some complexes of Cr with ligand other than water can undergo relatively fast electroreduction to metallic chromium, and they are used in chromate-free chromium plating methods. A different school of thought suggests, that the main problem with chromium plating from Cr solution

3276-577: The "big cars of the future." By 1978, General Motors made its intermediate models smaller. New "official" size designations in the U.S. were introduced by the EPA , which defined market segments by passenger and cargo space. Formerly mid-sized cars that were built on the same platform, like the AMC Matador sedan, had a combined passenger and cargo volume of 130 cubic feet (3.68 m ), and were now considered "full-size" automobiles. Cars that defined

3367-599: The $ 10,200 Limousine were produced (equivalent to $ 106,600 in 2023). Nearly 40% lower in price than the Continental Mark II, the Mark III would go on to sell better than the Mark II predecessor. From 1958 to 1960, the Lincoln Division would lose over $ 60 million ($ 617,952,756 in 2023 dollars ); along with the launch of newly developed vehicles in a recession economy, a factor that contributed to

3458-463: The 1942 model year, all Lincoln models were given squared-up fenders, and a revised grille with the Lincoln-Zephyr now gaining the exterior push-button door catch releases. The result was a boxier, more massive appearance in keeping with then-current design trends, but perhaps less graceful in retrospect. 1942 production was shortened, following the entry of the United States into World War II;

3549-432: The 1958 Lincoln model line was too large for a standard-length sedan; consequently, the 1961 Lincoln would have to decrease its exterior footprint. The fourth-generation Lincoln Continental rode on a stretched version of the unibody platform produced for the 1961 Thunderbird, lengthened to a 123-inch wheelbase from market launch to 1963. This was then extended to 126 inches and retained until 1969. The only engine available

3640-504: The 1958 model year. To widen its sales potential, Ford required Continental to reach a $ 6,000 price point ($ 63,363 in 2023 dollars ) (a 40% reduction from the Mark II), allowing the division to better compete against Cadillac Eldorado and Imperial LeBaron . To allow for production at a larger scale, the Continental model line was more closely integrated with Lincoln, differing primarily in roofline, trim, and grille. For 1959, Ford cancelled

3731-667: The 1959 Mark IV, with Don Delarossa (who replaced Najjar as Lincoln Chief Stylist in 1957) developing the 1960 Mark V. As a result of its massive size and the configuration of its headlights , the model line was nicknamed the "slant-eyed monster" in the Ford design studio. The 1958–1960 Continental Mark III–V are built upon the same mechanical components used by the Lincoln Capri and Premiere. For 1958, Lincoln split further from Mercury in body design as part of ongoing efforts to outdo Cadillac, with Lincoln adopting unibody construction for

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3822-458: The 1961 model year the Lincoln range was consolidated into one model. Following the $ 60 million in losses ($ 617,952,756 in 2023 dollars ) to develop the 1958–1960 cars, all models were replaced by a new Lincoln Continental. Making its first appearance since 1948, the fourth-generation was available only as a four-door sedan and convertible until its 1966 model year refresh. The 1961 four-door sedan

3913-530: The Continental as its exclusive model line. The model line has also gone on hiatus three times. From 1949 to 1955, the nameplate was briefly retired. In 1981, the Continental was renamed the Lincoln Town Car to accommodate the 1982 seventh-generation Continental. After 2002, the Continental was retired, largely replaced by the Lincoln MKS in 2009; in 2017, the tenth-generation Continental replaced

4004-431: The Continental division outright, with its model line remaining through the 1960 model year as part of the model cycle. The first all-new unibody design since World War II, this generation of the Continental is one of the largest sedans ever built by Ford Motor Company (or any American automaker). To facilitate continuation of the Continental model line, the division was forced to abandon hand-built construction. Sharing

4095-603: The Continental nameplate was the namesake of the short-lived Continental Division, marketing the 1956–1957 Continental Mark II as the worldwide flagship of Ford Motor Company; as a second successor, Ford introduced the Continental Mark series in 1969, produced over six generations to 1998. Along with the creation of the personal luxury car segment, the Lincoln Continental marked the zenith of several designs in American automotive history. The Continental

4186-650: The European car classification. Mid-size cars are manufactured in a variety of body styles, including sedans , coupes , station wagons , hatchbacks , and convertibles . Compact executive cars can also fall under the mid-size category. The automobile that defined this size in the United States was the Rambler Six that was introduced in 1956, although it was called a "compact" car at that time. Much smaller than any standard contemporary full-size cars, it

4277-424: The European influence of the original Continental, Ford assigned the Mark II suffix to the new Continental (also in an effort to distinguish itself from the similar Bentley Continental ). Slotted well above Lincoln-Mercury, Continentals would be marketed and serviced through the Lincoln dealership network. At its 1956 launch, the Continental Mark II was the most expensive automobile sold by a domestic manufacturer in

4368-453: The MKS. As part of its entry into full-scale production, the first-generation Continental was the progenitor of an entirely new automotive segment, the personal luxury car . Following World War II , the segment evolved into coupes and convertibles larger than sports cars and grand touring cars with an emphasis on features, styling, and comfort over performance and handling. From 1956 to 1957,

4459-462: The Mark II was also designed with neither tailfins (then prominent on American sedans) nor pontoon fenders (then current in Europe). Rather than a separate assemblage, the " Continental spare tire " was now integrated into the deck lid stamping, serving to accommodate the vertically mounted spare tire beneath. In total, 2,996 Continental Mark IIs were produced including two prototype convertibles. As

4550-399: The Mark II was assembled with its own body panels and interior; each vehicle was hand-built, with hand-sanding and finishing of body panels. In several elements of its design the Mark II broke from American styling precedent. As with a Rolls-Royce or Mercedes-Benz 300d , the Mark II essentially restricted chrome trim to the window trim, grille, and bumpers. With a nearly flat hood and trunklid,

4641-541: The Mark II, naming it the Continental Mark III , effectively continuing the Mark series . As with the Mark II and the 1958–1960 Continentals, it was sold, marketed, and serviced by Lincoln, though not officially badged as such. As part of the launch, the existence of the 1958 Continental Mark III that shared its name was heavily downplayed; a second nickname to this generation is dubbed the "forgotten Marks" For

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4732-489: The Mark II, the Mark III remained well-equipped, retaining air conditioning as an option which was relocated from the ceiling to the dashboard. The Mark III became the first Ford Motor Company vehicle to offer an FM radio tuner; it was a rarely ordered option. A unique option was "Auto Lube", allowing for the car to lubricate itself as long as an oil reservoir was kept full. For 1959, the Continental Mark IV saw

4823-469: The Town Car, these cars came equipped with every optional accessory offered that year. The air conditioning capacity was increased with the addition of a trunk mounted evaporator to increase rear seat cooling. The 1959–1960 Town Car and Limousine are among the rarest Lincoln vehicles ever sold; only 214 examples of the $ 9,200 (equivalent to $ 96,200 in 2023) Town Car were produced and only 83 examples of

4914-496: The U.S. was generally defined as vehicles with wheelbases between 112 inches (2,845 mm) and 118 inches (2,997 mm). Once again, the cars grew and by 1974 they were "about as large as the full-size cars of a decade or so ago ... best sellers include Ford Torino , Chevrolet Chevelle , AMC Matador , Plymouth Satellite ..." The domestic manufacturers began changing the definition of "medium" as they developed new models for an evolving market place. A turning point occurred in

5005-494: The United States, rivaling the Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud . At $ 10,000 ($ 112,069 in 2023 dollars ) the Mark II cost nearly the same as five Ford Customlines . With a large number of power-equipment features included, the Mark II was offered with only a single option: air conditioning, priced at $ 595. On a unique, low-slung chassis sharing only its 126-inch wheelbase dimension with the Lincoln Capri and Premiere,

5096-455: The V12 engine and the passenger compartment moved rearward, the prototype had more in common with classic era "long-hood, short deck" body configurations versus being a strict adherent of contemporary streamline moderne design trends. This design philosophy quickly became the standard for American vehicles for decades. As a consequence of the smaller trunk space, the spare tire was mounted behind

5187-507: The activation step is done in the chromium bath. The chromium bath is a mixture of chromium trioxide and sulfuric acid , the ratio of which varies greatly between 75:1 to 250:1 by weight. This results in an extremely acidic bath (pH 0). The temperature and current density in the bath affect the brightness and final coverage. For decorative coating the temperature ranges from 35 to 45 °C (100 to 110 °F), but for hard coating it ranges from 50 to 65 °C (120 to 150 °F). Temperature

5278-401: The cabriolet was listed at US$ 2,778 (equivalent to $ 57,500 in 2023). [REDACTED] Media related to Lincoln Continental (first generation) at Wikimedia Commons After an eight-year hiatus, for the 1956 model year, the Continental nameplate made its return; to launch the vehicle, Ford created a namesake "Continental" division centered around its new flagship vehicle. To again highlight

5369-479: The car, the chrome trim on the car was largely restricted to the grille ; the prototype differed from the eventual production version in that it utilized a somewhat less angular roof line. As with the Lincoln-Zephyr, the prototype utilized a 267 cubic-inch V12 engine, transverse leaf springs front and rear as well as hydraulic drum brakes . The prototype designed by Gregorie was produced on time, making

5460-405: The chemicals is greater, but this is usually offset by greater production rates and lower overhead costs. In general, the process must be controlled more closely than in hexavalent chromium plating, especially with respect to metallic impurities. This means processes that are hard to control, such as barrel plating, are much more difficult using a trivalent chromium bath. Divalent chromium plating

5551-476: The combined passenger and cargo volume, mid-size cars are defined as having an interior volume index of 110–119 cu ft (3.1–3.4 m ). Chrome plating Chromium compounds used in electroplating are toxic . In most countries, their disposal is tightly regulated. Some fume suppressants used to control the emission of airborne chromium from plating baths are also toxic, making disposal even more difficult. The preparation and chrome plating of

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5642-402: The compact Falcon in size and performance as well as too close to the full-sized Ford models in price. It was the introduction of General Motors " senior compacts " that grew the mid-size market segment as the line of cars themselves kept increasing in size. By 1965, these GM "A platform" mid-size models matched the size of 1955 full-size cars. During the 1970s, the intermediate class in

5733-442: The component has a conforming anode made from lead/tin or platinized titanium. A typical hard chrome vat plates at about 0.001 inches (25 μm) per hour. Some common industry specifications governing the chrome plating process are AMS 2460, AMS 2406, and MIL-STD-1501. Hexavalent chromium plating , also known as hex-chrome , Cr , and chrome(VI) plating, uses chromium trioxide (CrO 3 , also known as chromic anhydride) as

5824-537: The deadline to be delivered to Edsel Ford in Florida . Interest from well-off friends was high; Edsel sent a telegram back to Michigan that he could sell a thousand of them. In reference to its European-inspired design, the Lincoln-based prototype received its name: Continental. Immediately, production commenced on the Lincoln Continental, with the majority of production being " Cabriolet " convertibles and

5915-460: The downfall of the Edsel line. Lincoln and Continental were faced with overcoming the expense of developing a vehicle that was shared with neither Ford nor Mercury. In 1961, as Lincoln redesigned its model line, the Continental went from being a flagship marque over Lincoln to the only model line sold by Lincoln for the next 16 years. In the mid-1960s, Ford made a decision to develop a new successor to

6006-404: The end of the chamber, freebore, leade and rifling. Hard chrome-lining protects the chamber, freebore, leade and rifling with a thin coat of wear resistant chrome. This significantly extends barrel life in arms that are fired for prolonged periods in full-auto or sustained rapid fire modes. Some arms manufacturers use Stellite-lining alloy as an alternative to hard chrome-lining to further increase

6097-515: The expensive personal-luxury car no longer had a role at Lincoln. The 1939–1948 Continental is recognized as a "Full Classic" by the Classic Car Club of America , one of the last-built cars to be so recognized. As of 2015, the 1948 Lincoln Continental and 1948 Lincoln were the last cars produced and sold by a major U.S. automaker with a V12 engine. Base retail price for the coupe was listed at US$ 2,727 (equivalent to $ 56,500 in 2023) and

6188-534: The feature allowed for augmented interior ventilation (along with air conditioning). Unlike the Turnpike Cruiser, the reverse slant of the roofline included the rear window, an element that would reappear on Mercury sedans in the next decade. The Continental Mark III was designed by John Najjar , Chief Stylist of Lincoln, assisted by Elwood Engel largely drawing influence from the 1955 Ford La Tosca concept model designed by Alex Tremulis. Engel would style

6279-624: The first time; the Continental shared a common body with the Premiere with the exception of the reverse-slant roofline. Shared with Lincoln, Mercury, and the Ford Thunderbird , the Continental Mark III–V were fitted with a 430 cubic-inch MEL V8 engine; a 3-speed Turbo-Drive automatic was the sole transmission. In 1958, the engine produced 375 hp, and was detuned to 350 hp in 1959, making 315 hp in 1960. Using

6370-455: The flame from a cutting torch, the gases heating up the metal to red-hot state and the velocity tearing away metal. Under slow fire conditions, the affected areas are able to cool sufficiently in between shots. Under sustained rapid fire or automatic/cyclic fire there is no time for the heat to dissipate. The heat and pressure effects exerted by the hot propellant gasses and friction by the projectile can quickly cause damage by washing away metal at

6461-513: The highest trophic level at the highest risk for toxic effects. It has been known for over a century, that chromium electroplating is relatively easy from (di)chromate solutions, but difficult from Cr solutions. Several theories have been proposed to explain this finding. An earlier view suggested, that an active Cr species (perhaps, with a ligand rather than water) forms initially from electroreduced Cr . This active Cr species can be reduced into metallic chromium relatively easy. However,

6552-442: The last examples of Lincoln K-series completed and sold by 1940 and the new Mercury Eight encroaching on the Lincoln-Zephyr price point, the new Continental provided the luxury brand with an Lincoln Continentals from 1939 to 1941 shared largely the same body design with each other with push-button door catch releases displacing the previous lever type handles for 1941; the Continental received minimal updates from year to year. For

6643-561: The late 1970s, when rising fuel costs and government fuel economy regulations caused all car classes to shrink, and in many cases to blur. Automakers moved previously "full-size" nameplates to smaller platforms such as the Ford LTD II and the Plymouth Fury . A comparison test by Popular Science of four intermediate sedans (the 1976 AMC Matador, Chevrolet Malibu , Ford Torino, and Dodge Coronet ) predicted that these will be

6734-582: The limitations of the process, which are overcome by plating extra thickness then grinding down and lapping to meet requirements, or to improve the overall aesthetics of the chromed piece. Increasing plating thickness amplifies surface defects and roughness in proportional severity, because hard chrome does not have a leveling effect. Pieces that are not ideally shaped in reference to electric field geometries (nearly every piece sent in for plating, except spheres and egg shaped objects) require even thicker plating to compensate for non-uniform deposition, and much of it

6825-433: The main ingredient. Hexavalent chromium plating solution is used for both decorative and hard plating, as well as bright dipping of copper alloys, chromic acid anodizing , and chromate conversion coating . A typical hexavalent chromium plating process is: The activation bath is typically a tank of chromic acid with a reverse current run through it. This etches the work-piece surface and removes any scale . In some cases,

6916-425: The main ingredient. Trivalent chromium plating is an alternative to hexavalent chromium in certain applications and thicknesses (e.g. decorative plating). A trivalent chromium plating process is similar to the hexavalent chromium plating process, except for the bath chemistry and anode composition. There are three main types of trivalent chromium bath configurations: The trivalent chromium-plating process can plate

7007-530: The microcracking associated with decorative chrome, making it ideal for industrial applications where durability and friction reduction are necessary. Thin dense chrome is commonly used in precision tools, aerospace, medical, and food processing equipment. Hard chrome , also known as industrial chrome or engineered chrome , is used to reduce friction, improve durability through abrasion tolerance and wear resistance in general, minimize galling or seizing of parts, expand chemical inertness to include

7098-818: The mid-size market in the 1980s and 1990s included the Chrysler K-Cars ( Dodge Aries and Plymouth Reliant ), the Ford Taurus , and the Toyota Camry , which was upsized into the midsize class in 1991. The Taurus and Camry came to define the mid-size market for decades. Mid-size cars were the most popular category of cars sold in the United States, with 27.4 percent during the first half of 2012, ahead of crossovers at 19 percent. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Fuel Economy Regulations for 1977 and Later Model Year (dated July 1996) includes definitions for classes of automobiles. Based on

7189-407: The model line its name, the exterior was given European "continental" styling elements, including a rear-mounted spare tire . In production for over 55 years across nine different decades, Lincoln has produced ten generations of the Continental. Within the Lincoln model line, the Continental has served several roles ranging from its flagship to its base-trim sedan . From 1961 to 1976, Lincoln sold

7280-428: The part may be over-plated and ground to size, or auxiliary anodes may be used around the hard-to-plate areas. Hexavalent chromium is also considerably more toxic than trivalent chromium, rendering it a major health risk both in manufacturing and disposal if not handled with care. Trivalent chromium plating , also known as tri-chrome , Cr , and chrome(III) plating, uses chromium sulfate or chromium chloride as

7371-449: The previous Continental naming tradition, Continental introduced its 1958 model line as the Mark III. In a break from previous practice, the two subsequent model years were marketed as incrementally increased "marks" (Marks IV and V). For 1958, Continental released the Mark III in four body styles, including a 2-door hardtop and convertible, a 4-door pillared sedan, and a four-door hardtop sedan called Landau. Although far less expensive than

7462-503: The proposal was not selected for the Thunderbird, the design interested Ford executives to the point of desiring the vehicle as a four-door Lincoln. At the time of the approval, Ford product planners had come to two conclusions critical to restoring the Lincoln Division to profitability. First, to instill design continuity, Lincoln would adopt a model cycle distinct from Ford or Mercury, moving from three years to eight or nine. Second,

7553-475: The trunk; while disappearing on American cars, the externally mounted, covered spare tire remained a feature on European-produced cars. Though the spare tire itself was relocated into the vehicle for all succeeding models, the styling motif remained a hallmark of most Continental Mark Series cars. With the exception of the 1958–1960 Continental Mark III, IV and V, all generations of the Mark Series featured

7644-723: The wear resistance and service life of highly stressed arms parts. Hexavalent chromium is the most toxic form of chromium. In the U.S., the Environmental Protection Agency regulates it heavily. The EPA lists hexavalent chromium as a hazardous air pollutant because it is a human carcinogen , a "priority pollutant" under the Clean Water Act , and a "hazardous constituent" under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act . Due to its low cathodic efficiency and high solution viscosity ,

7735-412: The workpieces at a similar temperature, rate and hardness, as compared to hexavalent chromium. Plating thickness ranges from 5 to 50 μin (0.13 to 1.27 μm). The functional advantages of trivalent chromium are higher cathode efficiency and better throwing power. Better throwing power means better production rates. Less energy is required because of the lower current densities required. The process

7826-480: Was called a compact to distinguish it from the small imported cars that were being introduced into the marketplace. By the early 1960s, the car was renamed the Rambler Classic and while it retained its basic dimensions, it was now competing with an array of new "intermediate" models from General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler. The introduction of the 1962 Ford Fairlane was viewed by consumers as too close to

7917-501: Was changed from coil spring to leaf springs, the fusebox was placed under the hood for ease of access and cruise control was offered for the first time. Alongside the Mark III, IV, and V, there are two additional models of the third-generation Continental. In 1959, Lincoln added the Limousine and Town Car body styles; the latter marked the first use of the Town Car name by Lincoln. Available only in black, both versions were built with

8008-492: Was completed in an hour. Ford wanted to revive the popularity of the 1929–1932 Lincoln Victoria coupe and convertible but with a more modern approach, reflecting European styling influences for the Continental. By design, the Edsel Ford prototype was essentially a channeled and sectioned Lincoln-Zephyr convertible; although the vehicle wore a conventional windshield profile, the prototype sat nearly 7 inches lower than

8099-503: Was listed at US$ 6,067 ($ 61,859 in 2023 dollars ) and manufactured 22,303 while the convertible was listed at US$ 6,713 ($ 68,446 in 2023 dollars ) and manufactured 2,857. The new generation was nearly 15 inches shorter overall with a 8" shorter wheelbase over its predecessor, though heavier than its Cadillac or Imperial counterparts. Its construction and post-build quality control reflected Ford corporate management's commitment to quality. The 1961 Lincoln Continental and its designers received

8190-510: Was restyled, with "Mark V" badging moved to the rear fenders. On the front fenders, four horizontal chrome spears were added. Using a similar layout as the Mark IV, the Mark V was given a restyled grille. The 1960 Continental features a beautiful one year only restyled dashboard. The rear grille and bumper were also completely restyled setting it apart from the previous two years. The rear suspension

8281-412: Was the 430 cu in (7.0 L) MEL V8 carried over from the Mark V. It was expanded to 462 cubic inches on 1966 models, becoming the largest-displacement engine ever used in a Ford Motor Company passenger car. A new engine, the 460 cu in (7.5 L) 385-series -based V8, took its place by 1969, shared with the Continental Mark III . All versions of the Continental were fitted with

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