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51-816: During the nineteenth century, it was revived, first in the Vatican and later in the nation of Italy. Thus the Pontifical Academy of Science , founded in 1847, claims this heritage as the Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei ( "Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes" ) , descending from the first two incarnations of the Academy. Similarly, a lynx-eyed academy of the 1870s became the national academy of Italy, encompassing both literature and science among its concerns. The first Accademia dei Lincei

102-528: A " mollis et effeminata requies" (i.e. a soft and feminine rest) which would pose an "obstacle to a life of research". Membership was banned to monks . Members were ordered to "penetrate into the interior of things in order to know the causes and operations of nature, as it is said the lynx does, which sees not only what is outside, but what is hidden within." Galileo was inducted to the exclusive Academy on April 25, 1611, and became its intellectual centre. Galileo clearly felt honoured by his association with

153-506: A Nardo Antonio Reccho in volumen digesta (Rome: Vital Mascardi, 1648). Some of Hernández' original manuscripts are housed in the library of the Escorial , but many were lost in the fire of July 17, 1671. In the winter of 1565 through 1576, Hernández made a copy of his work, due to numerous commands by King Philip II. This would later be considered the second version of Natural History due to Hernández's meticulous revisions and edits per

204-402: A Nobel Prize Laureate and was the first Protestant to hold the position. The list of all current and past presidents of the Academy is below: Francisco Hern%C3%A1ndez de Toledo Francisco Hernández de Toledo (c. 1515 – 28 January 1587) was a naturalist and court physician to Philip II of Spain . He was among the first wave of Spanish Renaissance physicians practicing according to

255-490: A lynx and an eagle ; animals with, or reputed to have, keen sight (in classical and medieval bestiaries the lynx was reputed to be able to see through rock and "new walls"). The academy's motto, chosen by Cesi, was: "Take care of small things if you want to obtain the greatest results" ( minima cura si maxima vis ). According to T. O'Conor Sloane , their other motto was Sagacius ista . When Cesi visited Naples , he met with many scientists in fields of interest to him including

306-580: A personal physician to King Philip II . In 1570, Hernández was ordered to embark on the first scientific mission in the New World, a study of the region's medicinal plants and animals. Accompanied by his son Juan, he traveled for 7 years collecting and classifying specimens. Hernández collected an estimated 3,000 species on this expedition. Along the way, he also interviewed the indigenous people through translators and conducted medical studies in Mexico . He

357-726: A prominent Italian scientist, was interested in Hernández's work and played a pivotal role in developing European botanical studies. The first text of Hernández's work, Index medicamentorum , was published in Mexico City. It is an index that lists Mexican plants according to therapeutic use and their traditional uses; the index was arranged according to body part, and it was ordered from head to toe. It appeared in Juan Barrios's Spanish translation as an appendix to his medical treaties in 1607. In 1615, Nardo Antonio Recchi published

408-437: A research methodology based upon observation, experimentation, and the inductive method. He thus called his academy "dei lincei" because its members had "eyes as sharp as lynxes ," scrutinizing nature at both microscopic and macroscopic levels. The leader of the first academy was the scientist Galileo Galilei . Academy of Lynxes was dissolved after the death of its founder, but was re-created by Pope Pius IX in 1847 and given

459-622: Is a scientific academy of the Vatican City , established in 1936 by Pope Pius XI . Its aim is to promote the progress of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences and the study of related epistemological problems. The Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei ("Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes") was founded in 1847 as a more closely supervised successor to the Accademia dei Lincei ("Academy of Lynxes") established in Rome in 1603 by

510-687: The Italian fascist period, the Lincean Academy was effectively replaced by the new Accademia d'Italia, the Italian Academy , but was not fully absorbed by that institution until 1939. In 1949, after the fall of the fascist regime, at the suggestion of Benedetto Croce , the Lincean Academy recovered its independence. A brief history of this period of the Accademia, as well as the complete inventory of publications and documents produced in

561-732: The Royal National Lincean Academy . This incarnation broadened its scope to include moral and humanistic sciences, and regained the high prestige associated with the original Lincean Academy. After the unification of Italy, the Piedmontese Quintino Sella infused new life into the Nuovi Lincei , reaffirming its ideals of secular science, but broadening its scope to include humanistic studies: history, philology, archaeology, philosophy, economics and law, in two classes of Soci (Fellows). During

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612-750: The University of Alcalá and received a bachelor's degree in 1536. After graduation, Hernández served as physician to the Duke of Maqueda in Toledo and later practiced medicine in Seville where he married Juana Díaz with whom he had two children, Juan Hernández and María of Sotomayor. From 1556 to 1560 Hernández served as a physician at the Hospital y Monasterio de Guadalupe in Extremadura, where he managed

663-598: The Academy for he adopted Galileo Galilei Linceo as his signature. The Academy published his works and supported him during his disputes with the Roman Inquisition . Among the Academy's early publications in the fields of astronomy, physics and botany were Galileo's " Letters on Sunspots " and " The Assayer ", and the Tesoro Messicano describing the flora, fauna and drugs of the New World, which took decades of labour, down to 1651. With this publication,

714-546: The Colegio Imperial de los Jesuitas de Madrid was entitled Francisci Hernandi, medici atque historici Philippi II, hispan et indiar. Regis, et totius novi orbis archiatri. Opera, cum edita, tum medita, ad autobiographi fidem et jusu regio. (1790). Nardo Antonio Recchi edited, reconstructed, and published the second edition of Hernández's work. Recchi had been appointed by King Philip II to teaching botany to physicians in 1580. King Philip II may have chosen to delegate

765-490: The French regime and secularizing the country. The name "Lincei" 'the lynx -like (i. e., lynx-eyed, sharp-eyed) ones' came from Giambattista della Porta 's book Magia Naturalis , which had an illustration of the fabled cat on the cover and the words "[...] with lynx-like eyes, examining those things which manifest themselves, so that having observed them, he may zealously use them". Accademia dei Lincei 's symbols were both

816-462: The Lincei for astronomical and mathematical work, but were also used for new experimentations in anatomy, as this was the time of the rise of mechanistic anatomy, and the theories of atomism. Experimentation proliferated across the board. Cesi's own intense activity was cut short by his sudden death in 1630 at forty-five. The Linceans produced an important collection of micrographs or drawings made with

867-503: The Pius XI Medal is awarded by the Academy every two years to a young scientist who is under the age of 45 and shows exceptional promise. A few of the winners have also become members of the Academy. The goals and hopes of the Academy were expressed by Pope Pius XI in the motu proprio "In multis solaciis" which brought about its re-foundation in 1936: Forty years later (10 November 1979), John Paul II once again emphasized

918-623: The Roman Pontiff. The Academy is governed by a President, appointed from its members by the Pope, who is helped by a scientific Council and by the Chancellor. Initially made up of 80 Academicians, 70 who were appointed for life. In 1986 John Paul II raised the number of members for life to 80, side by side with a limited number of Honorary Academicians chosen because they are highly qualified figures, and others who are Academicians because of

969-679: The acquisition of a collection of material describing Aztec plants and animals written by Francisco Hernández de Toledo . This collection of material would eventually become the Tesoro Messicano ( Mexican Treasury ). The goal was nothing less than the assembly of modern science reflected on the method of observation: the church of knowledge. The Academy was to possess in each quarter of the global communes with adequate endowments to retain membership. These communes were complete with libraries , laboratories , museums , printing presses , and botanical gardens . Members frequently wrote letters about their observations. The Lyncæis denounced marriage as

1020-598: The botanical garden and took part in the anatomical dissections with Francisco Miró. In 1560 he moved to Toledo and for a short time practiced medicine at the Hospital de la Santa Cruz . While in Toledo, he travelled frequently to the royal court in Madrid where he became acquainted with the noted anatomist, Andreas Vesalius . During this time, Hernández also became a prolific writer, penning commentaries on Galen and Hippocrates , and undertaking an ambitious translation of Pliny's Natural History . In 1567 Hernández became

1071-711: The botanist, Fabio Colonna, the natural history writer, Ferrante Imperato, and the polymath della Porta. Della Porta was impressed with Cesi, and dedicated three works to the Linceans including a treatise on distillation called De Distillatione , a book on curvilinear geometry called Elementa Curvilinea , and The Transformations of the Atmosphere . Della Porta encouraged Cesi to continue with his endeavours. Giambattista della Porta joined Cesi's academy in 1610. While in Naples, Cesi also met with Nardo Antonio Recchi to negotiate

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1122-789: The death of Frederico's father, he had enough money to allow the academy to flourish. The academy, hosted in Palazzo Cesi-Armellini near Saint Peter, replaced the first scientific community ever, Giambattista della Porta 's Academia Secretorum Naturae in Naples that had been closed by the Inquisition . Cesi founded the Accademia dei Lincei with three friends: the Dutch physician Johannes van Heeck (Italianized to Giovanni Ecchio) and two fellow Umbrians, mathematician Francesco Stelluti and polymath Anastasio de Filiis . At

1173-428: The disciplines of physics and related disciplines; astronomy; chemistry; the earth and environmental sciences; the life sciences (botany, agronomy, zoology, genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, the neurosciences, surgery); mathematics; the applied sciences; and the philosophy and history of sciences. Principal among the many publications produced by the Academy are: With the goal of promoting scientific research,

1224-516: The dissection of a chameleon. Hernández also described plants and animals in detail and analyzed Nahua traditions and practices including their geography, climate, and anthropological considerations in his writings. Hernández's work was published in 22 books in Latin, and was in the process of being translated to Spanish and probably Nahuatl. To the king, Hernández had transmitted 16 volumes, bounded in blue leather embellished with gold and silver. Near

1275-560: The end of the 16th century, various editions of Hernández's work were distributed due to the interests of scientists from several European countries. Fabio Colonna, a member of the Accademia de Lincei (Latin for "Academy of the Lynx-eyed"), was the first to publish the work of Hernández. Other notable Italian scientists who made translations of his work include: Peter Martyr, Fernández de Oviedo, Cieza de León, Francisco López de Gomara, Agustín de Zárate, and José Acosta . Ulisse Aldrovandi ,

1326-452: The epidemic (referred to as cocoliztli , Nahuatl for "pest") with clinical accuracy. Hernández's describes over 3,000 Mexican plants, a feat that was significant because classical texts did not amass so much plant biodiversity. His dedication to helping generate an early taxonomy for New World plants allowed for European use. Since the pre-existing botanical terminology was so limited, he used native names (mostly Nahuatl) when classifying

1377-432: The first edition of Francisco Hernández's extensive descriptions of his findings in a translated collection entitled Plantas y Animales de la Nueva Espana, y sus virtudes por Francisco Hernández, y de Latin en Romance por Fr. Francisco Ximenez also cited as Cuatro libros de la naturaleza y virtudes de las plantas y animales que están recibidos en uso de medicina en la Nueva España published by Francisco Jiménez. Eventually,

1428-618: The first, most famous phase of the Lincei was concluded. The new usage of microscopy, with "references to magnification tools can be found in the works of Galileo and several Lincei, Harvey, Gassendi, Marco Aurelio Severino—who was probably also in contact with the Lincie—and Nathanial Highmore." Domenico Bertoloni Meli, in Mechanism, Experiment, Disease: Marcello Malpighi and Seventeenth-Century Anatomy (Johns Hopkins University Press: 2011; p. 41). Microscopes were not just by

1479-662: The help of the newly invented microscope . After Cesi's death, the Accademia dei Lincei closed and the drawings were collected by Cassiano dal Pozzo , a Roman antiquarian, whose heirs sold them. The majority of the collection was procured by George III of the United Kingdom , in 1763. The drawings were discovered in Windsor Castle in 1986, by art historian David Freedberg. They are being published as part of The Paper Museum of Cassiano dal Pozzo . In 1801, Abbot Feliciano Scarpellini and Gioacchino Pessuti , with

1530-496: The images that Hernández included were "tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum I.), the mamey or Hitian zaptote ( Lucma domingenis Gaertner), the quauhchchioalli or breast tree ( Rhus terebinthifolia Schlecht and Ham.), the tozcuitlapilxochitl or cana de cuentas ( C. anna indica C.), the armadillo ( Dasypus novemcuinctus ), the coyote ( Canis latrans ), and the bird of paradise ( Paradisa apoda )." A new compilation by physician Casimiro Gómez Ortega, based on additional material found in

1581-566: The institution saw a transition from a private association to a municipal institution. Despite efforts from the early 1800s onward, the Accademia underwent a true revival in 1847, when Pope Pius IX re-founded it as the Pontificia Accademia dei Nuovi Lincei , anglicised as the Pontifical Academy of New Lincei . In 1874, Quintino Sella turned it into the Accademia Nazionale Reale dei Lincei , anglicised as

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1632-875: The job to Recchi following Hernández's divergence from his original mission. Benito Montano had claimed, "Hernández had become too friendly with the heathen natives and neglected to instruct and convert them to European ways." However, the primary reason that Recchi was appointed was due to Hernández's rapidly deteriorating health. Recchi's work suffered heavy criticism on his edition, but most prominently for being accused of deforming Hernández's manuscript. The Reception of American Drug in Europe, 1500-1650 , by J. Worth Estes, included topics such as guaiacum, balsams, jalap, sassafras, tobacco, and cacao. Hernandez's scholars, José María López Piñero and his colleague José Pardo Tomás, gave an overview and assessed Hernández's contribution to all European botany and materia medica . Their attention

1683-606: The king's request. This revised version of his manuscript contained 893 pages of text along with 2,071 pages of paintings of plants so as to relay the New World plants back to Europe. This was the version of text that was destroyed in the fire at the Escorial library. Later, several copies of the artwork were found after the fire from the Codex Pomar, which had titles in Nahuatl and various other American Indian languages. Some of

1734-611: The learned Roman Prince, Federico Cesi (1585–1630), who was a young botanist and naturalist, and which claimed Galileo Galilei as its president. The Accademia dei Lincei survives as a wholly separate institution. The Academy of Sciences, one of the Pontifical academies at the Vatican in Rome, is headquartered in the Casina Pio IV in the heart of the Vatican Gardens . Cesi wanted his academicians to adhere to

1785-436: The members of the Accademia de Lincei went to edit and familiarize this text. A heavily redacted compendium in the original Latin was later published as Rerum medicarum Novae Hispaniae thesaurus (Rome, 1628) by collector, Federico Cesi. Another impression was put out by Johannes Schreck and Fabio Colonna as Nova plantarum, animalium et mineralium mexicanorum historia a Francisco Hernández in indis primum compilata, de inde

1836-492: The name Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei ("Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes"). It was later re-founded in 1936 by Pope Pius XI and given its current name. Pope Paul VI in 1976 and Pope John Paul II in 1986 subsequently updated its statutes. Since 1936, the Pontifical Academy of Sciences has been concerned both with investigating specific scientific subjects belonging to individual disciplines and with

1887-997: The natural sciences were re-divided into five categories: mathematics, mechanics and applications; astronomy , geodesy , geophysics and applications; physics, chemistry and applications; geology , paleontology , mineralogy and applications; and biological sciences and applications. At the same time, the moral sciences were divided into seven categories: philology and linguistics ; archaeology ; criticism of art and of poetry ; history, historical geography , and anthropology ; philosophical science ; juridical science ; social and political science . The Accademia regularly awards prestigious prizes to talented researchers and scholars. Notable prizes include: 41°53′36″N 12°28′00″E  /  41.89333°N 12.46667°E  / 41.89333; 12.46667 Pontifical Academy of Science The Pontifical Academy of Sciences ( Italian : Pontificia accademia delle scienze , Latin : Pontificia Academia Scientiarum )

1938-543: The new science called into question. While originally a private association, the Academy became a semi-public establishment during the Napoleonic domination of Rome. This shift allowed the local scientific elite to carve out a place for themselves in larger scientific networks. However, as a semi-public establishment, the Academy's focus was directed by Napoleonic politics. This focus directed the member's efforts towards stimulating industry, turning public opinion in favour of

1989-476: The patronage of Francesco Caetani , founded the Accademia Caetani which took the name of Accademia dei Lincei . The period from 1801 to 1840 has been termed the "Second Renaissance" of the Accademia. Conflicting goals and general shifts in the "geo-political scale" left the Academy in a state of limbo, which ultimately led to its collapse in the 1840s. During the French domination of the Accademia,

2040-449: The plants. He also used categories of native names, comparison to Old World plants, or a combination of those two instead of the traditional categories of trees, shrubs, and herbs. Some specific plants of the New World he described include: vanilla, the first written account of it; corn ( Zea mays L.), in long and detailed chapters; four varieties of cacao; tobacco; chilis; tomatoes, in four chapters; and cacti, in 14 chapters. Hernández

2091-733: The posts they hold, including the Chancellor of the Academy, the Director of the Vatican Observatory , the Prefect of the Vatican Apostolic Library , and the Prefect of the Vatican Secret Archives . The president of the Academy is appointed from its members by the Pope. The current president is Joachim von Braun , as of 21 June 2017, who assumed the position after Werner Arber , who is

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2142-482: The promotion of interdisciplinary co-operation. It has progressively increased the number of its academicians and the international character of its membership. The Academy is an independent body within the Holy See and enjoys freedom of research. The statutes of 1976 express its goal: "The Pontifical Academy of Sciences has as its goal the promotion of the progress of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, and

2193-481: The revived principles formulated by Hippocrates , Galen and Avicenna . Francisco Hernández was born at La Puebla de Montalbán in the Province of Toledo , probably around 1515. Nothing is known of his parents or other family. His original surname was Fernando which he changed to Hernando in 1570 and then changed again to Hernández, the name he used until his death in 1587. In 1530 he began to study medicine at

2244-452: The role and goals of the Academy, on the 100th anniversary (centenary) of the birth of Albert Einstein : On 8 November 2012 Pope Benedict XVI told members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences: The new members of the Academy are elected by the body of Academicians and chosen from men and women of every race and religion based on the high scientific value of their activities and their high moral profile. They are then officially appointed by

2295-468: The same period, can be found in the book by Cagiano De Azevedo & Gerardi (2005) . In 1986, the Academy was placed under a statute that says it shall be composed of 540 members, of whom 180 are ordinary Italian members, 180 are foreigners, and 180 are Italian corresponding members. The members are divided into two classes: one for mathematical , physical , and natural sciences ; the other for moral , historical , and philological sciences. In 2001,

2346-447: The study of related epistemological questions and issues." Since the Academy and its membership is not influenced by factors of a national, political, or religious character it represents a valuable source of objective scientific information which is made available to the Holy See and to the international scientific community. Today the work of the Academy covers six main areas: The disciplines involved are sub-divided into eight fields:

2397-483: The time of the Accademia's founding Cesi was only 18, and the others were only 8 years older. Cesi and his friends aimed to understand all of the natural sciences . The literary and antiquarian emphasis set the "Lincei" apart from the host of sixteenth and seventeenth-century Italian Academies. Cesi envisioned a program of free experiment that was respectful of tradition, yet unfettered by blind obedience to authority , even that of Aristotle and Ptolemy , whose theories

2448-502: Was a writer who had to cautiously orchestrate two different themes. He had to show respect toward medieval medicine's own mixture of mythical creatures, magical powers, and miraculous events, and mysterious sympathies while fulfilling his professional mission and recording his personal evaluation of native health practices. In the Natural History of Pliny, Hernández points out his own dissections of human cadavers at Guadalupe and

2499-518: Was assisted with his illustrations by three indigenous painters - Baptized Antón, Baltazar Elías, and Pedro Vázquez. During the colonial-period population decline of the Aztecs in 1576, Hernández performed autopsies in the Hospital Real de San José de los Naturales in collaboration with surgeon Alonso López de Hinojosos and physician Juan de la Fuente. Hernández described the gruesome symptoms of

2550-430: Was founded in 1603 by Federico Cesi , an aristocrat from Umbria (the son of Duke of Acquasparta and a member of an important family from Rome ) who was passionately interested in natural history – particularly botany . Cesi's father disapproved of the research career that Federico was pursuing. His mother, Olimpia Orsini , supported him both financially and morally. The Academy struggled due to this disapproval, but after

2601-402: Was on vanilla, tomato, and corn. Another individual who gave a different illustration of the foods described by Hernandez was María José López Terrada. She traced issues, such as the religious symbolism associated with the passion flower or the established myths that surrounded the sunflower. Today, two postscripts, one by David Hayes-Bautista and the other by Simon Varey and Rafael Chabrán, record

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