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53-664: The Lugar Water , or River Lugar , is created by the confluence of the Bellow Water and the Glenmuir Water , just north of Lugar , both of which flow from the hills of the Southern Uplands in East Ayrshire , Scotland . The river flows through the small mining village of Lugar , where at Bellow Mill , William Murdoch , the inventor of gas lighting was born in 1754. A cave where he carried out

106-689: A base metal-free effluent that can be discharged or further treated to reduce sulfate, and a metal sulfide concentrate with possible economic value. As an alternative, several researchers have investigated the precipitation of metals using biogenic sulfide. In this process, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) oxidize organic matter using sulfate as terminal electron acceptor , instead of oxygen . Their metabolic products include bicarbonate produced by organic matter oxidation, which can neutralize water acidity, and hydrogen sulfide , which forms highly insoluble precipitates with many toxic metals. Although promising, this process has been slow in being adopted for

159-630: A confluence is an industrial site, as in Philadelphia or Mannheim . Often a confluence lies in the shared floodplain of the two rivers and nothing is built on it, for example at Manaus , described below. One other way that confluences may be exploited by humans is as sacred places in religions . Rogers suggests that for the ancient peoples of the Iron Age in northwest Europe, watery locations were often sacred, especially sources and confluences. Pre-Christian Slavic peoples chose confluences as

212-549: A gorge of red sandstone with high cliffs on either side. High on one of these cliffs stand the ruins of Ochiltree Castle and beneath this can be found Wallace's Cave , where William Wallace allegedly hid from his pursuers. The Lugar now reaches the end of its journey of some twenty miles. Two miles south of Mauchline the Lugar joins the River Ayr , which carries its waters to the sea. Kingfishers and dippers are two of

265-433: A gradients, cascades and an adequate junction angle which is sympathetic to the direction of the watercourse’s flow to minimise turbulent flow, maximise evacuation velocity and to ultimately maximise hydraulic efficiency. Since rivers often serve as political boundaries, confluences sometimes demarcate three abutting political entities, such as nations, states, or provinces, forming a tripoint . Various examples are found in

318-539: A lime silo, a mixing tank and a settling pond. These systems are far less costly to build, but are also less efficient (longer reaction times are required, and they produce a discharge with higher trace metal concentrations, if present). They would be suitable for relatively small flows or less complex acid mine drainage. A calcium silicate feedstock, made from processed steel slag , can also be used to neutralize active acidity in AMD systems by removing free hydrogen ions from

371-549: A lot of his experiments can still be seen on the riverbank. The river then flows on through the town of Cumnock , under the Woodroad Viaduct , where its water was used in earlier times to power grain mills and where it is joined by Glaisnock Water . West of Cumnock the river continues its journey through Dumfries Estate , formerly owned by the Marquess of Bute . In July 2007 a consortium led by Charles III (then

424-574: A low pH, as is found in the acidic waters produced by pyrite oxidation. In the coal belt around the south Wales valleys in the UK highly acidic nickel-rich discharges from coal stocking sites have proved to be particularly troublesome. Acid mine drainage also affects the wildlife living within the affected body of water. Aquatic macroinvertebrates living in streams or parts of streams affected by acid mine drainage show fewer individuals, less diversity, and lower biomass. Many species of fish also cannot tolerate

477-524: A paper presented in 1991 at a major international conference on this subject was titled: "The Prediction of Acid Rock Drainage – Lessons from the Database". Both AMD and ARD refer to low pH or acidic waters caused by the oxidation of sulfide minerals , though ARD is the more generic name. In cases where drainage from a mine is not acidic and has dissolved metals or metalloids , or was originally acidic, but has been neutralized along its flow path, then it

530-424: A poorly soluble calcium sulfate layer onto the surface of limestone chips, binding the material and preventing further neutralization. Depending on the volume and flowrate of acid effluents to be neutralised and the scale of industrial installations, a commonly but more expensive commercial process for treating acid mine drainage is precipitation with lime in a high-density sludge (HDS) process. In this application,

583-414: A slurry of lime ( CaO – Ca(OH) 2 after hydration) is dispersed into a tank containing acid mine drainage and recycled sludge to increase water pH to about 9. At this pH, most toxic metals become insoluble and precipitate, aided by the presence of recycled sludge. Optionally, air can be injected in the tank to oxidize iron(II) and manganese(II) and assist in their precipitation. The resulting slurry

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636-561: A stable dispersed state – effectively interrupting metal precipitation and reducing vulnerability of the material to armoring (formation of an impervious crust around material grains preventing their dissolution and decreasing their reactivity). Cation exchange processes have previously been investigated as a potential treatment for acid mine drainage. The principle is that an ion-exchange resin can remove potentially toxic metals (cationic resins), or chlorides, sulfates and uranyl sulfate complexes (anionic resins) from mine water . Once

689-441: A stream contaminated with acid mine drainage combines with a stream with near-neutral pH water; these reactions happen very rapidly and influence the subsequent transport of metals downstream of the mixing zone." A natural phenomenon at confluences that is obvious even to casual observers is a difference in color between the two streams; see images in this article for several examples. According to Lynch, "the color of each river

742-743: A variety of technical reasons. Many technologies exist for the treatment of AMD. With the advance of large-scale sequencing strategies , genomes of microorganisms in the acid mine drainage community are directly sequenced from the environment. The nearly full genomic constructs allows new understanding of the community and able to reconstruct their metabolic pathways. Our knowledge of acidophiles in acid mine drainage remains rudimentary: we know of many more species associated with ARD than we can establish roles and functions. Scientists have recently begun to explore acid mine drainage and mine reclamation sites for unique soil bacteria capable of producing new pharmaceutical leads. Soil microbes have long been

795-401: A vast assortment of subjects which concern confluences. In hydraulic civil engineering , where two or more underground culverted / artificially buried watercourses intersect, great attention should be paid to the hydrodynamic aspects of the system to ensure the longevity and efficiency of the structure. Engineers have to design these systems whilst considering a list of factors that ensure

848-577: A yellow-orange solid colloquially known as yellow boy . Other types of iron precipitates are possible, including iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, and sulfates such as jarosite . All these precipitates can discolor water and smother plant and animal life on the streambed, disrupting stream ecosystems (a specific offense under the Fisheries Act in Canada). The process also produces additional hydrogen ions, which can further decrease pH. In some cases,

901-438: Is an unprocessed raw material available in large quantities and the least expensive neutralisation agent, it can suffer from a number of disadvantages possibly limiting its applications. Indeed, small calcium carbonate grains of crushed limestone can be prone to the formation of a coating of gypsum ( CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O ) surrounded by a thin impermeable and protective film of less soluble Fe-Al hydroxysulfate. This coating

954-481: Is considered a serious long-term environmental problem associated with mining. The chemistry of oxidation of pyrites, the production of ferrous ions and subsequently ferric ions, is very complex, and this complexity has considerably inhibited the design of effective treatment options. Although a host of chemical processes contribute to acid mine drainage, pyrite oxidation is by far the greatest contributor. A general equation for this process is: The oxidation of

1007-663: Is described as "neutral mine drainage", "mining-influenced water" or otherwise. None of these other names have gained general acceptance. Sub-surface mining often progresses below the water table , so water must be constantly pumped out of the mine in order to prevent flooding. When a mine is abandoned, the pumping ceases, and water floods the mine. This introduction of water is the initial step in most acid rock drainage situations. Tailings piles or ponds, mine waste rock dumps , and coal spoils are also an important source of acid mine drainage. After being exposed to air and water, oxidation of metal sulfides (often pyrite , which

1060-494: Is determined by many things: type and amount of vegetation in the watershed, geological properties, dissolved chemicals, sediments and biologic content – usually algae ." Lynch also notes that color differences can persist for miles downstream before they finally blend completely. Hydrodynamic behaviour of flow in a confluence can be divided into six distinct features which are commonly called confluence flow zones (CFZ). These include The broader field of engineering encompasses

1113-771: Is directed to a sludge-settling vessel, such as a clarifier . In that vessel, clean water will overflow for release, whereas settled metal precipitates (sludge) are recycled to the acid mine drainage treatment tank, with a sludge-wasting side stream. A number of variations of this process exist, as dictated by the chemistry of ARD, its volume, and other factors. Generally, the products of the HDS process also contain gypsum ( CaSO 4 ) and unreacted lime, which enhance both its settleability and resistance to re-acidification and metal mobilization. A general equation for this neutralisation process is: Less complex variants of this process, such as simple lime neutralization, may involve no more than

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1166-476: Is iron-sulfide) within the surrounding rock and overburden generates acidity. Colonies of bacteria and archaea greatly accelerate the decomposition of metal ions, although the reactions also occur in an abiotic environment. These microbes, called extremophiles for their ability to survive in harsh conditions, occur naturally in the rock, but limited water and oxygen supplies usually keep their numbers low. Extremophiles known as acidophiles especially favor

1219-426: Is itself a copper-iron-sulfide and occurs with a range of other sulfides. Thus, copper mines are often major culprits of acid mine drainage. At some mines, acidic drainage is detected within 2–5 years after mining begins, whereas at other mines, it is not detected for several decades. In addition, acidic drainage may be generated for decades or centuries after it is first detected. For this reason, acid mine drainage

1272-401: Is quite different from limestone, the ability of calcium silicate to neutralize acid solutions is equivalent to limestone as evidenced by its CCE value of 90–100% and its relative neutralizing value of 98% . In the presence of heavy metals, calcium silicate reacts in a different way than limestone. As limestone raises the pH of the bulk solution, when heavy metals are present, precipitation of

1325-403: Is sometimes referred to in the literature as an armor (shield, encrustation, rim, rind…). When present, it passivates the limestone surface, preventing calcite dissolution and the further release of bicarbonate in solution. This might explain why at Cwm Rheidol in mid Wales , the positive impact of limestone application has been much less than anticipated because of the formation of

1378-774: Is used to describe the meeting of tidal or other non-riverine bodies of water, such as two canals or a canal and a lake. A one-mile (1.6 km) portion of the Industrial Canal in New Orleans accommodates the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway and the Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet Canal ; therefore those three waterways are confluent there. The term confluence can also apply to the process of merging or flowing together of other substance. For example, it may refer to

1431-474: The River Neath at Ynysarwed . Although abandoned underground mines produce most of the acid mine drainage, some recently mined and reclaimed surface mines have produced ARD and have degraded local ground-water and surface-water resources. Acidic water produced at active mines must be neutralized to achieve pH 6–9 before discharge from a mine site to a stream is permitted. In Canada, work to reduce

1484-524: The coal mine discharges in Pennsylvania have pH under 5. However, a portion of mine drainage in both the bituminous and anthracite regions of Pennsylvania is alkaline, because limestone in the overburden neutralizes acid before the drainage emanates. When the pH of acid mine drainage is raised past 3, either through contact with fresh water or neutralizing minerals, previously soluble iron(III) ions precipitate as iron(III) hydroxide ,

1537-684: The 1980s to treat acid mine drainage generated by the abandoned coal mines in Eastern Appalachia . Generally, the wetlands receive near-neutral water, after it has been typically neutralized by a limestone-based treatment process. Metal precipitation occurs from their oxidation at near-neutral pH, complexation with organic matter, precipitation as carbonates or sulfides. The latter results from sediment-borne anaerobic bacteria capable of reducing sulfate ions into sulfide ions. These sulfide ions can then bind with heavy metal ions, precipitating heavy metals out of solution and effectively reversing

1590-560: The Prince of Wales) succeeded in purchasing the house, contents and estate. The estate was then managed under the auspices of his Dumfries House Trust, and since 2018 The Prince's Foundation . Close to Dumfries House the river flows beneath the Avenue Bridge, designed by John Adam . who also designed and built Dumfries House . A few yards downstream the Lugar flows beneath an elegant Chinese footbridge built in 2017. Continuing west

1643-730: The United Kingdom, many discharges from abandoned mines are exempt from regulatory control. In such cases the Environment Agency and Natural Resources Wales working with partners such as the Coal Authority have provided some innovative solutions, including constructed wetland solutions such as on the River Pelenna in the valley of the River Afan near Port Talbot and the constructed wetland next to

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1696-532: The avian species to be found on its riverbanks, along with yellow and pied wagtails , chaffinch , goldfinch and the tiny wren . [REDACTED] Media related to Lugar Water at Wikimedia Commons Confluence Confluences are studied in a variety of sciences. Hydrology studies the characteristic flow patterns of confluences and how they give rise to patterns of erosion, bars, and scour pools. The water flows and their consequences are often studied with mathematical models . Confluences are relevant to

1749-416: The bulk solution, thereby increasing pH. As the silicate anion captures H ions (raising the pH), it forms monosilicic acid (H 4 SiO 4 ), a neutral solute. Monosilicic acid remains in the bulk solution and play many roles in correcting the adverse effects of acidic conditions. In the bulk solution, the silicate anion is very effective in neutralizing H cations in the soil solution. While its mode-of-action

1802-458: The calcium silicate aggregates , as silicic acid species are adsorbed onto the metal hydroxide surface, the development of silica layers (mono- and bi-layers) lead to the formation of colloidal complexes with neutral or negative surface charges. These negatively charged colloids are electrostatically repelled by each other (as well as with the negatively charged calcium silicate granules). The sequestered metal colloids are stabilized and remain in

1855-438: The concentrations of iron hydroxides in yellow boy are so high, the precipitate can be recovered for commercial use in pigments. Many acid rock discharges also contain elevated levels of potentially toxic metals, especially nickel and copper with lower levels of a range of trace and semi-metal ions such as lead , arsenic , aluminium , and manganese . The elevated levels of heavy metals can only be dissolved in waters that have

1908-472: The contaminants are adsorbed , the exchange sites on resins must be regenerated, which typically requires acidic and basic reagents and generates a brine that contains the pollutants in a concentrated form. A South African company that won the 2013 IChemE award for water management and supply (treating AMD) has developed a patented ion-exchange process that treats mine effluents (and AMD) economically. Constructed wetlands systems have been proposed during

1961-440: The discharge point is structurally stable as the entrance of the lateral culvert into the main structure may compromise the stability of the structure due to the lack of support at the discharge, this often constitutes additional supports in the form of structural bracing. The velocities and hydraulic efficiencies should be meticulously calculated and can be altered by integrating different combinations of geometries, components such

2014-499: The distribution of living organisms (i.e., ecology ) as well; "the general pattern [downstream of confluences] of increasing stream flow and decreasing slopes drives a corresponding shift in habitat characteristics." Another science relevant to the study of confluences is chemistry , because sometimes the mixing of the waters of two streams triggers a chemical reaction, particularly in a polluted stream. The United States Geological Survey gives an example: "chemical changes occur when

2067-450: The disturbance of acid sulfate soils formed under coastal or estuarine conditions after the last major sea level rise , and constitutes a similar environmental hazard . Historically, the acidic discharges from active or abandoned mines were called acid mine drainage, or AMD. The term acid rock drainage, or ARD, was introduced in the 1980s and 1990s to indicate that acidic drainage can originate from sources other than mines. For example,

2120-485: The earth has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites or highway construction ) may create acid rock drainage. In many localities, the liquid that drains from coal stocks, coal handling facilities, coal washeries, and coal waste tips can be highly acidic, and in such cases it is treated as acid rock drainage. These, combined with reduced pH, have a detrimental impact on the streams' aquatic environments. The same type of chemical reactions and processes may occur through

2173-869: The effects of acid mine drainage is concentrated under the Mine Environment Neutral Drainage (MEND) program. Total liability from acid rock drainage is estimated to be between CA$ 2 billion and CA$ 5 billion . Over a period of eight years, MEND claims to have reduced ARD liability by up to CA$ 400 million , from an investment of CA$ 17.5 million . Often, limestone rocks or appropriate calcareous strata that could contribute to neutralize acid effluents are lacking, or insufficiently accessible (too short contact time with acidic waters flowing too fast, too low specific surface area , insufficient contact…), at sites affected by acidic rock drainage. In such cases, crushed limestone can be dumped on site as neutralizing agent. However, although limestone

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2226-502: The effluent from constructed wetland receiving near-neutral water will be well-buffered at 6.5–7.0 and can readily be discharged. Some of metal precipitates retained in sediments are easily oxidised and remobilised when exposed to atmospheric oxygen (e.g., copper sulfide or elemental selenium ), and it is very important that the wetland sediments remain largely and permanently submerged to maintain them insoluble and immobile. Prolonged droughts caused by climate warming might compromise

2279-441: The entire process. The attractiveness of a constructed wetlands solution lies in its relative low cost. They are limited by the metal loads they can deal with (either from high flows or metal concentrations), though current practitioners have succeeded in developing constructed wetlands that treat high volumes (see description of Campbell Mine constructed wetland ) and/or highly acidic water (with adequate pre-treatment). Typically,

2332-558: The list below. A number of major cities, such as Chongqing , St. Louis , and Khartoum , arose at confluences; further examples appear in the list. Within a city, a confluence often forms a visually prominent point, so that confluences are sometimes chosen as the site of prominent public buildings or monuments, as in Koblenz , Lyon , and Winnipeg . Cities also often build parks at confluences, sometimes as projects of municipal improvement, as at Portland and Pittsburgh . In other cases,

2385-409: The low pH levels of abandoned mines. In particular, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is a key contributor to pyrite oxidation. Metal mines may generate highly acidic discharges where the ore is a sulfide mineral or is associated with pyrite. In these cases the predominant metal ion may not be iron but rather zinc , copper , or nickel . The most commonly mined ore of copper, chalcopyrite ,

2438-546: The merger of the flow of two glaciers . Acid mine drainage Acid mine drainage , acid and metalliferous drainage ( AMD ), or acid rock drainage ( ARD ) is the outflow of acidic water from metal mines and coal mines . Acid rock drainage occurs naturally within some environments as part of the rock weathering process but is exacerbated by large-scale earth disturbances characteristic of mining and other large construction activities, usually within rocks containing an abundance of sulfide minerals . Areas where

2491-506: The pH and maintains the solubility of the ferric ion. Water temperatures as high as 47 °C (117 °F) have been measured underground at the Iron Mountain Mine , and the pH can be as low as −3.6. Organisms which cause acid mine drainage can thrive in waters with pH very close to zero. Negative pH occurs when water evaporates from already acidic pools thereby increasing the concentration of hydrogen ions. About half of

2544-532: The pollution. Among the macroinvertebrates, certain species can be found at only certain levels of pollution, while other species can be found over a wide range. In a mining setting it is leading practice to carry out a geochemical assessment of mine materials during the early stages of a project to determine the potential for AMD. The geochemical assessment aims to map the distribution and variability of key geochemical parameters, acid generating and element leaching characteristics. The assessment may include: In

2597-523: The poorly soluble metal hydroxides is accelerated and the tendency for an impermeable metal hydroxide coating, termed armoring , to form on limestone grains surface increases significantly. Limestone grains become coated by a rind of gypsum encapsulated itself in a thin external film of impermeable and protective Fe-Al hydroxysulfate. Armoring slows the CaCO 3 dissolution and prevents the limestone grains from releasing additional alkalinity in solution. In

2650-670: The proper functioning and the safety of some constructed wetlands if during extremely hot summer period water supply decreases and evaporation accelerates causing them to dry up. An example of an effective constructed wetland is on the Afon Pelena in the River Afan valley above Port Talbot where highly ferruginous discharges from the Whitworth mine have been successfully treated. Most base metals in acidic solution precipitate in contact with free sulfide, e.g. from H 2 S or NaHS. Solid-liquid separation after reaction would produce

2703-525: The river reaches the village of Ochiltree , where it is joined by the Burnock Water and its waters are harnessed by a weir which drove the local grain mills in days gone by. Here Atlantic salmon have been seen jumping the fish ladder , which allows them to reach their spawning grounds in the upper reaches of the river. The river also holds a good stock of the native brown trout , and these are fished for by anglers of all ages. The river now enters

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2756-453: The sites for fortified triangular temples, where they practiced human sacrifice and other sacred rites. In Hinduism , the confluence of two sacred rivers often is a pilgrimage site for ritual bathing. In Pittsburgh, a number of adherents to Mayanism consider their city's confluence to be sacred. Mississippi basin Atlantic watersheds Pacific watersheds Occasionally, "confluence"

2809-426: The sulfide to sulfate solubilizes the ferrous iron ( iron(II) ), which is subsequently oxidized to ferric iron ( iron(III) ): Either of these reactions can occur spontaneously or can be catalyzed by microorganisms that derive energy from the oxidation reaction. The ferric cations produced can also oxidize additional pyrite and reduce into ferrous ions: The net effect of these reactions is to release H , which lowers

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