144-613: The Lunar Roving Vehicle ( LRV ) is a battery-powered four-wheeled rover used on the Moon in the last three missions of the American Apollo program ( 15 , 16 , and 17 ) during 1971 and 1972. It is popularly called the Moon buggy , a play on the term " dune buggy ". Built by Boeing, each LRV has a mass of 462 pounds (210 kg) without payload. It could carry a maximum payload of 970 pounds (440 kg), including two astronauts, equipment, and cargo such as lunar samples, and
288-525: A Saturn IB . This was originally planned for April 1967, to be followed by the first crewed flight later that year. But the LM's development problems had been underestimated, and LM-1's flight was delayed until January 22, 1968, as Apollo 5 . At that time, LM-2 was held in reserve in case the LM-1 flight failed, which did not happen. LM-3 now became the first crewed LM, again to be flown in low Earth orbit to test all
432-517: A lunar rover predated Apollo, with a 1952–1954 series in Collier's Weekly magazine by Wernher von Braun and others, " Man Will Conquer Space Soon! " In this, von Braun described a six-week stay on the Moon, featuring 10-ton tractor-trailers for moving supplies. In 1956, Mieczysław G. Bekker published two books on land locomotion while he was a University of Michigan professor and a consultant to
576-524: A series powertrain are also called range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs), such as the Chevrolet Volt and Fisker Karma . Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) are a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs). The electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (aka all-combustion vehicles) belong to one of
720-547: A solar PV system on Adelaide's central bus station . Rides are zero-fare as part of Adelaide's public transport system. Proterra 's EcoRide BE35 transit bus, called the Ecoliner by Foothill Transit in West Covina, California, is a heavy-duty, fast charge, battery-electric bus. Proterra's ProDrive drive-system uses a UQM motor and regenerative braking that captures 90 percent of the available energy and returns it to
864-616: A throttleable Descent Propulsion System (DPS) engine with four hypergolic propellant tanks. A continuous-wave Doppler radar antenna was mounted by the engine heat shield on the bottom surface, to send altitude and rate of descent data to the guidance system and pilot display during the landing. Almost all external surfaces, except for the top, platform, ladder, descent engine and heat shield, were covered in amber, dark (reddish) amber, black, silver, and yellow aluminized Kapton foil blankets for thermal insulation. The number 1 (front) landing leg had an attached platform (informally known as
1008-453: A 10-volume report. Included was the need for a pressurized vehicle in the 6,490–8,470 lb (2,940–3,840 kg) weight range, accommodating two men with their expendables and instruments for traverses up to two weeks in duration. In June 1964, Marshall awarded contracts to Bendix and Boeing, with GM's lab designated as the vehicle technology subcontractor. Bell Aerospace was already under contract for studies of Lunar Flying Vehicles. Even as
1152-605: A Reaction Control System (RCS) for attitude and translation control, which consisted of sixteen hypergolic thrusters similar to those used on the Service Module, mounted in four quads, with their own propellant supply. A forward extravehicular activity hatch provided access to and from the lunar surface, while an overhead hatch and docking port provided access to and from the Command Module. Internal equipment included an environmental control (life support) system;
1296-543: A Saturn V, the telescope was mounted on a hinged arm and controlled from inside the MDA. Only the octagonal shape of the telescope container, solar panels and the Apollo Telescope Mount name were kept, though there was no longer any association with the LM. The Apollo LM Truck (also known as Lunar Payload Module) was a stand-alone LM descent stage intended to deliver up to 11,000 pounds (5.0 t) of payload to
1440-487: A VHF communications system with two antennas for communication with the Command Module; a unified S-band system and steerable parabolic dish antenna for communication with Earth; an extravehicular activity antenna resembling a miniature parasol which relayed communications from antennas on the astronauts' Portable Life Support Systems through the LM; primary (PGNCS) and backup (AGS) guidance and navigation systems; an Alignment Optical Telescope for visually determining
1584-601: A crewed command and service module , named the Apollo Telescope Mission (ATM). This idea was later transferred to the original wet workshop design for the Skylab orbital workshop and renamed the Apollo Telescope Mount to be docked on a side port of the workshop's multiple docking adapter (MDA). When Skylab changed to a "dry workshop" design pre-fabricated on the ground and launched on
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#17327732847071728-487: A distance of 3,100,000 kilometres (1,900,000 mi). They were made locally by Advanced Vehicle Systems. Two of these buses were used for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. Beginning in the summer of 2000, Hong Kong Airport began operating a 16-passenger Mitsubishi Rosa electric shuttle bus, and in the fall of 2000, New York City began testing a 66-passenger battery-powered school bus , an all-electric version of
1872-692: A dramatization of that mission starring Tom Hanks , Kevin Bacon , and Bill Paxton , was filmed using realistic spacecraft interior reconstructions of the Aquarius and the Command Module Odyssey . In 2013 in the television show Arrested Development , a fictionalized version of Howard is depicted as having the Apollo 11 "LEM" in his office, which his character claims was used to fake the 1969 moon landing . The development and construction of
2016-411: A greater turn angle than the outside tires, to avoid sideslip. Power was provided by two 36-volt silver-zinc potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries developed by Eagle-Picher with a charge capacity of 121 A·h each (a total of 242 A·h), yielding a range of 57 miles (92 km). These were used to power the drive and steering motors and also a 36-volt utility outlet mounted on the front of
2160-409: A lifeboat to provide life support and propulsion to keep the crew alive for the trip home, when their CSM was disabled by an oxygen tank explosion en route to the Moon. The six landed descent stages remain at their landing sites; their corresponding ascent stages crashed into the Moon following use. One ascent stage (Apollo 10's Snoopy ) was discarded in a heliocentric orbit after its descent stage
2304-670: A maximum loaded weight of 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg). The concept of battery electric vehicles is to use charged batteries on board vehicles for propulsion. Battery electric cars are becoming more and more attractive with the higher oil prices and the advancement of new battery technology ( lithium-ion ) that have higher power and energy density (i.e., greater possible acceleration and more range with fewer batteries). Compared to older battery types such as lead-acid batteries. Lithium-ion batteries for example now have an energy density of 0.9–2.63 MJ/L whereas lead-acid batteries had an energy density of 0.36 MJ/L (so 2.5 to 7.3x higher). There
2448-428: A near-vertical position, allowing the crew to look forward and down to see the lunar surface for the first time. Astronauts flew Apollo spacecraft manually only during the lunar approach. The final landing phase began about 2,000 feet (0.61 km) uprange of the targeted landing site. At this point, manual control was enabled for the commander, who had enough propellant to hover for up to two minutes to survey where
2592-432: A powered variant of the cycle rickshaw . The large-scale adoption of electric two-wheelers can reduce traffic noise and road congestion but may necessitate adaptations of the existing urban infrastructure and safety regulations. Ather Energy from India has launched their BLDC motor powered Ather 450 electric scooter with Lithium Ion batteries in 2018. Also from India, AVERA – a new and renewable energy company
2736-422: A preliminary study of the shelter and its related vehicle. Because of the potential need for an enclosed vehicle for enlarged future lunar explorations, those design efforts continued for some time and resulted in several full-scale test vehicles. With pressure from Congress to hold down Apollo costs, Saturn V production was reduced, allowing only a single launch per mission. Any roving vehicle would have to fit on
2880-523: A second, forward docking port, allowing the LEM crew to take an active role in docking with the CSM. As the program continued, there were numerous redesigns to save weight, improve safety, and fix problems. First to go were the heavy cockpit windows and the seats; the astronauts would stand while flying the LEM, supported by a cable and pulley system, with smaller triangular windows giving them sufficient visibility of
3024-466: A small test track with craters and rock debris where several different mock-ups were compared; it became obvious that a small rover would be best for the proposed missions. The test vehicle was also operated in remote mode to determine characteristics that might be dangerous to the driver, such as acceleration, bounce-height, and turn-over tendency as it traveled at higher speeds and over simulated obstacles. The test rover's performance under one-sixth gravity
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#17327732847073168-564: A suit-puncture hazard to the astronauts, as the probes tended to break off and protrude upwards from the surface.) Equipment for the lunar exploration was carried in the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA), a drawer mounted on a hinged panel dropping out of the lefthand forward compartment. Besides the astronaut's surface excavation tools and sample collection boxes, the MESA contained a television camera with
3312-516: A three-part chassis that was hinged in the center so it could be folded up and hung in the Lunar Module Quadrant 1 bay, which was kept open to space by omission of the outer skin panel. They have two side-by-side foldable seats made of tubular aluminum with nylon webbing and aluminum floor panels. An armrest was mounted between the seats, and each seat had adjustable footrests and a Velcro -fastened seat belt. A large mesh dish antenna
3456-403: A tripod; as the commander opened the MESA by pulling on a lanyard while descending the ladder, the camera was automatically activated to send the first pictures of the astronauts on the surface back to Earth. A United States flag for the astronauts to erect on the surface was carried in a container mounted on the ladder of each landing mission. The Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package (later
3600-444: A wide variety of wheel-surface conditions. To simulate Pavlics's "resilient wheel," a four-foot-diameter inner tube wrapped with nylon ski rope was used. On the small test rover, each wheel had a small electric motor, with overall power provided by standard truck batteries. A roll bar gave protection from overturning accidents. In early 1966, Brown's vehicle became available for examining human factors and other testing. Marshall built
3744-685: Is a type of electric vehicle (EV) that uses energy exclusively from an on-board battery . This definition excludes hybrid electric vehicles . BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion. They derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell , or fuel tank . BEVs include – but are not limited to – motorcycles, bicycles, scooters, skateboards, railcars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks, and cars. In 2016, there were 210 million electric bikes worldwide used daily. Cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric car vehicles passed
3888-472: Is consumed. A country with a high share of renewable energy in its electricity mix will have a low C.I. In the European Union, in 2013, the carbon intensity had a strong geographic variability but in most of the member states, electric vehicles were "greener" than conventional ones. On average, electric cars saved 50–60% of CO 2 emissions compared to diesel and gasoline fuelled engines. Moreover,
4032-471: Is going to launch two models of electric scooters at the end of 2018, with Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery technology. India is the world’s biggest market for bicycles at 22 million units per year. By 2024, electric two-wheelers will be a $ 2 billion market with over 3 million units being sold in India. The Indian government is launching schemes and incentives to promote the adoption of electric vehicles in
4176-425: Is needed. This DC power is supplied by the battery pack, and the controller regulates the power to the motor, supplying either variable pulse width DC or variable frequency variable amplitude AC, depending on the motor type. The controller also handles regenerative braking , whereby electrical power is gathered as the vehicle slows down and this power recharges the battery. In addition to power and motor management,
4320-522: Is referred to as a battery pack , which is a group of multiple battery modules and cells. For example, the Tesla Model S battery pack has up to 7,104 cells, split into 16 modules with 6 groups of 74 cells in each. Each cell has a nominal voltage of 3–4 volts , depending on its chemical composition. Electric cars have traditionally used series wound DC motors, a form of brushed DC electric motor . Separately excited and permanent magnet are just two of
4464-517: Is still a long way to go if comparing it to petroleum-based fuels and biofuels, however (gasoline having an energy density of 34.2 MJ/L -38x to 12.92x higher- and ethanol having an energy of 24 MJ/L -26x to 9.12x higher-). This is partially offset by higher conversion efficiency of electric motors – BEVs travel roughly 3x further than similar-size internal combustion vehicles per MJ of stored energy. BEVs include automobiles , light trucks , and neighborhood electric vehicles . Battery electric trains in
Lunar Roving Vehicle - Misplaced Pages Continue
4608-627: Is used to power the Mountain View Community Shuttles. This technology was supported by the California Energy Commission, and the shuttle program is being supported by Google. Thunder Sky (based in Hong Kong) builds lithium-ion batteries used in submarines and has three models of electric buses, the 10/21 passenger EV-6700 with a range of 280 km (170 mi) under 20 mins quick-charge,
4752-514: The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package ), was carried in the opposite compartment behind the LM. An external compartment on the right front panel carried a deployable S-band antenna which, when opened looked like an inverted umbrella on a tripod. This was not used on the first landing due to time constraints, and the fact that acceptable communications were being received using the LM's S-band antenna, but
4896-687: The Blue Bird TC/2000 . A similar bus was operated in Napa Valley, California , for 14 months ending in April 2004. The 2008 Beijing Olympics used a fleet of 50 electric buses, which have a range of 130 km (81 mi) with the air conditioning on. They use lithium-ion batteries , and consume about 1 kW⋅h/mi (0.62 kW⋅h/km; 2.2 MJ/km). The buses were designed by the Beijing Institute of Technology and built by
5040-554: The Lunar Excursion Module ( LEM ), was the lunar lander spacecraft that was flown between lunar orbit and the Moon's surface during the United States' Apollo program . It was the first crewed spacecraft to operate exclusively in the airless vacuum of space, and remains the only crewed vehicle to land anywhere beyond Earth. Structurally and aerodynamically incapable of flight through Earth's atmosphere,
5184-606: The Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV), which used a gimbal-mounted vertical jet engine to counter five-sixths of its weight to simulate the Moon's gravity, in addition to its own hydrogen peroxide thrusters to simulate the LM's descent engine and attitude control. Successful testing of two LLRV prototypes at the Dryden Flight Research Center led in 1966 to three production Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV) which along with
5328-560: The National Air and Space Museum . The abrasion from the dust is evident on some portions of the makeshift fender. The color TV camera mounted on the front of the LRV could be remotely operated by Mission Control in pan and tilt axes as well as zoom. This allowed far better television coverage of the EVA than the earlier missions. On each mission, at the conclusion of the astronauts' stay on
5472-1291: The National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida , the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon , the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center in Hutchinson, Kansas , and the Omega Museum in Biel, Switzerland . A replica on loan from the Smithsonian Institution is on display at the Mission: Space attraction at Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort near Orlando, Florida . Battery electric vehicle A battery electric vehicle ( BEV ), pure electric vehicle , only-electric vehicle , fully electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle
5616-688: The S-IVB third stage of the Saturn V rocket. There it remained through Earth parking orbit and the trans-lunar injection (TLI) rocket burn to send the craft toward the Moon. Soon after TLI, the SLA opened; the CSM performed a maneuver whereby it separated, turned around, came back to dock with the Lunar Module, and extracted it from the S-IVB. During the flight to the Moon, the docking hatches were opened and
5760-482: The U.S. Army Tank-Automotive Command 's Land Locomotion Laboratory. The books provided much of the theoretical basis for future lunar vehicle development. In 1959, Georg von Tiesenhausen conceived the lunar rover as a four-wheel-drive vehicle with noninflated , flexible wheels. In the February 1964 issue of Popular Science , von Braun, then director of NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), discussed
5904-605: The United States , the first battery-electric, fast-charge bus has been in operation in Pomona, California , since September 2010 at Foothill Transit . The Proterra EcoRide BE35 uses lithium-titanate batteries and is able to fast-charge in less than 10 minutes. In 2012, heavy-duty trucks and buses contributed 7% of global warming emissions in California. In 2014, the first production model all-electric school bus
Lunar Roving Vehicle - Misplaced Pages Continue
6048-471: The artificial objects on the Moon , as are the Soviet Union 's uncrewed rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2 . The Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle is a battery electric vehicle designed to operate in the low-gravity vacuum of the Moon and to be capable of traversing the lunar surface, allowing the Apollo astronauts to extend the range of their surface extravehicular activities. Three LRVs were used on
6192-405: The brushless DC electric motor . Once electric power is supplied to the motor (from the controller), the magnetic field interaction inside the motor will turn the drive shaft and ultimately the vehicle's wheels. EV battery storage is a key element for the global energy transition which is dependent on more electricity storage right now. As energy availability is the most important factor for
6336-404: The cancellation of further Apollo missions . Other LRV models were built: a static model to assist with human factors design; an engineering model to design and integrate the subsystems; two one-sixth gravity models for testing the deployment mechanism; a one-gravity trainer to give the astronauts instruction in the operation of the rover and allow them to practice driving it; a mass model to test
6480-576: The command module Columbia splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, completing President John F. Kennedy's goal : "...before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth". This was followed by landings by Apollo 12 (LM-6 Intrepid ) and Apollo 14 (LM-8 Antares ). In April 1970, the Apollo 13 LM-7 Aquarius played an unexpected role in saving the lives of
6624-407: The two-stage Lunar Module was ferried to lunar orbit attached to the Apollo command and service module (CSM), about twice its mass. Its crew of two flew the Lunar Module from lunar orbit to the Moon's surface. During takeoff, the spent descent stage was used as a launch pad for the ascent stage which then flew back to the command module , after which it was also discarded. Overseen by Grumman ,
6768-411: The "porch") in front of the ascent stage's extravehicular activity hatch and a ladder, which the astronauts used to ascend and descend between the cabin to the surface. The landing pad of each leg incorporated a 67-inch-long (1.7 m) surface contact sensor probe, which signaled the commander to switch off the descent engine. (The probe was omitted from the number 1 leg of every landing mission, to avoid
6912-464: The 1890s. Battery vehicle milk floats expanded in 1931, and by 1967, gave Britain the largest electric vehicle fleet in the world. Hybrid electric vehicles use both electric motors and internal combustion engines, and are not considered pure or all-electric vehicles. Hybrid electric vehicles whose batteries can be charged externally are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and run as BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. PHEVs with
7056-654: The 20th century, the majority of the world's battery electric road vehicles were British milk floats . The 21st century saw the massive development of BYD electric trucks. In March 2012, Smith Electric Vehicles announced the release of the Newton Step-Van, an all-electric, zero-emission vehicle built on the versatile Newton platform that features a walk-in body produced by Indiana-based Utilimaster . BYD supplies DHL with electric distribution fleet of commercial BYD T3 . Although electric cars often give good acceleration and have generally acceptable top speed,
7200-593: The Bendix and Boeing studies were underway, Marshall was examining a less ambitious surface exploration activity, the LSSM. This would be composed of a fixed, habitable shelter–laboratory with a small lunar-traversing vehicle that could either carry one man or be remotely controlled. This mission would still require a dual launch with the moon vehicle carried on the "lunar truck". Marshall's Propulsion and Vehicle Engineering (P&VE) lab contracted with Hayes International to make
7344-670: The Boeing facility in Kent, Washington , and the chassis manufacturing and overall assembly would be completed at the Boeing facility in Huntsville. The first cost-plus-incentive-fee contract to Boeing was for $ 19,000,000 and called for delivery of the first LRV by 1 April 1971. Cost overruns, however, led to a final cost of $ 38,000,000, which was about the same as NASA's original estimate. Four lunar rovers were built, one each for Apollo missions 15, 16, and 17; and one used for spare parts after
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#17327732847077488-401: The CSM and docked to transfer the crew and rock samples. Having completed its job, the ascent stage was separated. The Apollo 10 ascent stage engine was fired until its fuel was used up, sending it past the Moon into a heliocentric orbit . The Apollo 11 ascent stage was left in lunar orbit to eventually crash; all subsequent ascent stages (except for Apollo 13) were intentionally steered into
7632-416: The CSM, flying independently. The commander operated the flight controls and engine throttle, while the Lunar Module pilot operated other spacecraft systems and kept the commander informed about systems status and navigational information. After the command module pilot visually inspected the landing gear , the LM was withdrawn to a safe distance, then rotated until the descent engine was pointed forward into
7776-574: The EV-2009 city buses, and the 43 passenger EV-2008 highway bus, which has a range of 300 km (190 mi) under quick-charge (20 mins to 80 percent), and 350 km (220 mi) under full charge (25 mins). The buses will also be built in the United States and Finland. Tindo is an all-electric bus from Adelaide, Australia . The Tindo (aboriginal word for sun) is made by Designline International in New Zealand and gets its electricity from
7920-456: The EVA. Therefore, they went to the farthest point away from the LM and worked their way back to it so that, as the life support consumables were depleted, their remaining walk back distance was equally diminished. This constraint was relaxed during the longest traverse on Apollo 17, based on the demonstrated reliability of the LRV and spacesuits on previous missions. A paper by Burkhalter and Sharp provides details on usage. Astronaut deployment of
8064-535: The Jinghua Coach. The batteries are replaced with fully charged ones at the recharging station to allow 24-hour operation of the buses. In France , the electric bus phenomenon is in development, but some buses are already operating in numerous cities. PVI, a medium-sized company located in the Paris region, is one of the leaders of the market with its brand Gepebus (offering Oreos 2X and Oreos 4X ). In
8208-589: The LLRV's were used to train the astronauts at the Houston Manned Spacecraft Center. This aircraft proved fairly dangerous to fly, as three of the five were destroyed in crashes. It was equipped with a rocket-powered ejection seat, so in each case the pilot survived, including the first man to walk on the Moon, Neil Armstrong . LM-1 was built to make the first uncrewed flight for propulsion systems testing, launched into low Earth orbit atop
8352-471: The LM's development was plagued with problems that delayed its first uncrewed flight by about ten months and its first crewed flight by about three months. Regardless, the LM became the most reliable component of the Apollo–Saturn space vehicle . The total cost of the LM for development and the units produced was $ 21.65 billion in 2016 dollars, adjusting from a nominal total of $ 2.29 billion using
8496-523: The LM. Marshall also continued to examine uncrewed robotic rovers that could be controlled from the Earth. From the beginnings at Marshall, the Brown Engineering Company of Huntsville, Alabama , had participated in all of the lunar mobility efforts. In 1965, Brown became the prime support contractor for Marshall's P&VE Laboratory. With an urgent need to determine the feasibility of a two-man self-contained lander, von Braun bypassed
8640-462: The LM. There was also a Sun-shadow device that could give a manual heading based on the direction of the Sun, using the fact that the Sun moved very slowly in the sky. The LRV was used during the lunar surface operations of Apollo 15, 16 and 17, the J missions of the Apollo program. On each mission, the LRV was used on three separate EVAs, for a total of nine lunar traverses, or sorties. During operation,
8784-450: The LRV to power the communications relay unit or the TV camera. LRV batteries and electronics were passively cooled, using change-of-phase wax thermal capacitor packages and reflective, upward-facing radiating surfaces. While driving, radiators were covered with mylar blankets to minimize dust accumulation. When stopped, the astronauts would open the blankets, and manually remove excess dust from
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#17327732847078928-413: The Lunar Module pilot entered the LM to power up temporarily and test all systems except propulsion. The Lunar Module pilot performed the role of an engineering officer, monitoring the systems of both spacecraft. After achieving a lunar parking orbit, the commander and LM pilot entered and powered up the LM, replaced the hatches and docking equipment, unfolded and locked its landing legs, and separated from
9072-495: The Lunar Roving Vehicle from the LM's open Quadrant 1 bay was achieved with a system of pulleys and braked reels using ropes and cloth tapes. The rover was folded and stored in the bay with the underside of the chassis facing out. One astronaut would climb the egress ladder on the LM and release the rover, which would then be slowly tilted out by the second astronaut on the ground through the use of reels and tapes. As
9216-648: The Mexico City ePrix takes place on a road course, a modified version of the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez. Special-purpose vehicles come in a wide range of types, ranging from relatively common ones such as golf carts , things like electric golf trolleys , milk floats , all-terrain vehicles , neighborhood electric vehicles , and a wide range of other devices. Certain manufacturers specialize in electric-powered "in plant" work machines. Three-wheeled vehicles include electric rickshaws ,
9360-560: The Moon for an uncrewed landing. This technique was intended to deliver equipment and supplies to a permanent crewed lunar base . As originally proposed, it would be launched on a Saturn V with a full Apollo crew to accompany it to lunar orbit and guide it to a landing next to the base; then the base crew would unload the "truck" while the orbiting crew returned to Earth. In later AAP plans, the LPM would have been delivered by an uncrewed lunar ferry vehicle. The 1995 Ron Howard film Apollo 13 ,
9504-502: The Moon to obtain readings from seismometers placed on the surface. The Lunar Module (originally designated the Lunar Excursion Module, known by the acronym LEM) was designed after NASA chose to reach the Moon via Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR) instead of the direct ascent or Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR) methods. Both direct ascent and EOR would have involved landing a much heavier, complete Apollo spacecraft on
9648-519: The Moon. Once the decision had been made to proceed using LOR, it became necessary to produce a separate craft capable of reaching the lunar surface and ascending back to lunar orbit. In July 1962, eleven firms were invited to submit proposals for the LEM. Nine companies responded in September, answering 20 questions posed by the NASA RFP in a 60-page limited technical proposal. Grumman was awarded
9792-565: The Moon: one on Apollo 15 by astronauts David Scott and Jim Irwin , one on Apollo 16 by John Young and Charles Duke , and one on Apollo 17 by Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt . The mission commander served as the driver, occupying the left-hand seat of each LRV. Features are available in papers by Morea, Baker, and Kudish. The Lunar Roving Vehicles have a mass of 460 pounds (210 kg), and were designed to hold an additional payload of 510 pounds (230 kg). This resulted in weights in
9936-515: The NASA New Start Inflation Indices. Ten lunar modules were launched into space. Of these, six were landed by humans on the Moon from 1969 to 1972. The first two flown were tests in low Earth orbit : Apollo 5 , without a crew; and Apollo 9 with a crew. A third test flight in low lunar orbit was Apollo 10 , a dress rehearsal for the first landing, conducted on Apollo 11 . The Apollo 13 lunar module functioned as
10080-552: The TerraVolt energy storage system, which in turn increases the total distance the bus can drive by 31–35 percent. It can travel 30–40 miles (48–64 km) on a single charge, is up to 600 percent more fuel-efficient than a typical diesel or CNG bus, and produces 44 percent less carbon than CNG. Proterra buses have had several problems, most notably in Philadelphia where the entire fleet was removed from service. For most of
10224-439: The abbreviation as ( / l ɛ m / ) instead of the letters "L-M". Comparing landing on the Moon to "a hovering operation", Gus Grissom said in 1963 that although most early astronauts were fighter pilots, "now we're wondering if the pilot making this first moon landing shouldn't be a highly experienced helicopter pilot". To allow astronauts to learn lunar landing techniques, NASA contracted Bell Aerosystems in 1964 to build
10368-409: The approximately one-sixth g on the lunar surface of 77 pounds-force (35 kgf) empty ( curb weight ) and 160 pounds-force (73 kgf) fully loaded ( gross vehicle weight ). The vehicle frame is 10 feet (3.0 m) long with a wheelbase of 7.5 feet (2.3 m). The height of the vehicles is 3.6 feet (1.1 m). The frame is made of 2219 aluminum alloy tubing welded assemblies and consisted of
10512-452: The cabin. The return payload included the lunar rock and soil samples collected by the crew (as much as 238 pounds (108 kg) on Apollo 17), plus their exposed photographic film . The descent stage's primary job was to support a powered landing and surface extravehicular activity. When the excursion was over, it served as the launch pad for the ascent stage. Its octagonal shape was supported by four folding landing gear legs, and contained
10656-476: The commander (CDR) always drove, while the Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) was a passenger who assisted with navigation. An operational constraint on the use of the LRV was that the astronauts must be able to walk back to the LM if the LRV were to fail at any time during the EVA (called the "Walkback Limit"). Thus, the traverses were limited in the distance they could go at the start and at any time later in
10800-408: The computer to slow the craft's forward and vertical velocity to near zero. Control was exercised with a combination of engine throttling and attitude thrusters, guided by the computer with the aid of landing radar. During braking, the LM descended to about 10,000 feet (3.0 km), then, in the final approach phase, down to about 700 feet (210 m). During final approach, the vehicle pitched over to
10944-400: The computer was taking the craft and make any necessary corrections. If necessary, landing could have been aborted at almost any time by jettisoning the descent stage and firing the ascent engine to climb back into orbit for an emergency return to the CSM. Finally, one or more of three 67.2-inch (1.71 m) probes extending from footpads on the legs of the lander touched the surface, activating
11088-474: The contact indicator light which signaled the commander to shut off the descent engine, allowing the LM to settle onto the surface. On touchdown, the probes would be bent as much as 180 degrees, or even break off. The original design used the probes on all four legs, but starting with the first landing (LM-5 on Apollo 11), the one at the ladder was removed out of concern that the bent probe after landing might puncture an astronaut's suit as he descended or stepped off
11232-474: The contract officially on November 7, 1962. Grumman had begun lunar orbit rendezvous studies in the late 1950s and again in 1961. The contract cost was expected to be around $ 350 million. There were initially four major subcontractors: Bell Aerosystems ( ascent engine ), Hamilton Standard (environmental control systems), Marquardt (reaction control system) and Rocketdyne ( descent engine ). The Primary Guidance, Navigation and Control System (PGNCS)
11376-490: The controller performs various safety checks such as anomaly detection, functional safety tests and failure diagnostics. Most electric vehicles today use an electric battery , consisting of electrochemical cells with external connections in order to provide power to the vehicle. Battery technology for EVs has developed from early lead-acid batteries used in the late 19th century to the 2010s, to lithium-ion batteries which are found in most EVs today. The overall battery
11520-403: The cooling surfaces with hand brushes. A T-shaped hand controller situated between the two seats controlled the four drive motors, two steering motors, and brakes. Moving the stick forward powered the LRV forward, left and right turned the vehicle left or right, and pulling backwards activated the brakes. Activating a switch on the handle before pulling back would put the LRV into reverse. Pulling
11664-554: The country, and is aiming to be a manufacturing hub for electric vehicles within the next five years. China has experienced an explosive growth of sales of non-assisted e-bikes including the scooter type, with annual sales jumping from 56,000 units in 1998 to over 21 million in 2008, and reaching an estimated 120 million e-bikes on the road in early 2010. China is the world's leading manufacturer of e-bikes, with 22.2 million units produced in 2009. An increasing variety of personal transporters are being manufactured, including
11808-536: The de-carbonisation process is constantly reducing the GHG emissions due to the use of electric vehicles. In the European Union, on average, between 2009 and 2013 there was a reduction in the electricity carbon intensity of 17%. In a life-cycle assessment perspective, considering the GHG necessary to build the battery and its end-of-life, the GHG savings are 10–13% lower. Apollo Lunar Module The Apollo Lunar Module ( LM / ˈ l ɛ m / ), originally designated
11952-513: The descent propellant tanks were enlarged. A waste storage tank was added to the descent stage, with plumbing from the ascent stage. These upgrades allowed stays of up to 75 hours on the Moon. The Lunar Roving Vehicle was folded up and carried in Quadrant 1 of the descent stage. It was deployed by the astronauts after landing, allowing them to explore large areas and return a greater variety of lunar samples. Weights given here are an average for
12096-506: The designers compromised on four landing legs. In June 1966, the name was changed to Lunar Module (LM), eliminating the word excursion . According to George Low , Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, this was because NASA was afraid that the word excursion might lend a frivolous note to Apollo. Despite the name change, the astronauts and other NASA and Grumman personnel continued to pronounce
12240-410: The direction of travel. A 30-second descent orbit insertion burn was performed to reduce speed and drop the LM's perilune to within about 50,000 feet (15 km) of the surface, about 260 nautical miles (480 km) uprange of the landing site. As the craft approached perilune, the descent engine was started again to begin powered descent. During this time, the crew flew on their backs, depending on
12384-413: The earlier small-rover studies, and commercially available components were incorporated wherever possible. The selection of wheels was of great importance, and almost nothing was known at that time about the lunar surface. The Marshall Space Sciences Laboratory (SSL) was responsible for predicting surface properties, and Brown was also prime support contractor for this lab; Brown set up a test area to examine
12528-504: The effect of the rover on the LM structure, balance, and handling; a vibration test unit to study the LRV's durability and handling of launch stresses; and a qualification test unit to study integration of all LRV subsystems. A paper by Saverio Morea gives details of the LRV system and its development. LRVs were used for greater surface mobility during the Apollo J-class missions, Apollo 15 , Apollo 16 , and Apollo 17 . The rover
12672-419: The electricity is generated. Electric cars are having a major impact in the auto industry given advantages in city pollution , less dependence on oil and combustion, and scarcity and expected rise in gasoline prices. World governments are pledging billions to fund development of electric vehicles and their components. Formula E is a fully electric international single-seater championship. The series
12816-489: The electricity used to power them may do so in its generation. The two factors driving the emissions of battery electric vehicles are the carbon intensity of the electricity used to recharge the Electric Vehicle (commonly expressed in grams of CO 2 per kWh) and the consumption of the specific vehicle (in kilometers/kWh). The carbon intensity of electricity varies depending on the source of electricity where it
12960-400: The electronics, the vehicle was ready to back away from the LM. Four flight-ready LRVs were manufactured, as well as several others for testing and training. Three were transported to and left on the Moon via the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions (LRV-1 to 3), with the fourth (LRV-4) used for spare parts for the first three following the cancellation of Apollo 18. The rover used on Apollo 15
13104-547: The equipment, supplies, and transport vehicle for use by the crew while on the surface. All of the first Marshall studies were based on this dual-launch assumption, allowing a large, heavy, roving vehicle. Grumman and Northrop, in the fall of 1962, began to design pressurized-cabin vehicles, with electric motors for each wheel. At about this same time, Bendix and Boeing started their internal studies on lunar transportation systems. Mieczysław Bekker , now with General Motors Defense Research Laboratories at Santa Barbara, California ,
13248-400: The extended missions. [REDACTED] One proposed Apollo application was an orbital solar telescope constructed from a surplus LM with its descent engine replaced with a telescope controlled from the ascent stage cabin, the landing legs removed and four "windmill" solar panels extending from the descent stage quadrants. This would have been launched on an uncrewed Saturn IB, and docked with
13392-455: The extension was lost after about one hour of driving, causing the astronauts to be covered with dust. For their second EVA, a replacement "fender" was made with some EVA maps, duct tape, and a pair of clamps from inside the Lunar Module that were nominally intended for the moveable overhead light. This repair was later undone so that the clamps could be taken inside for the return launch. The maps were brought back to Earth and are now on display at
13536-413: The final approach. The CSM would then raise its perilune back to the normal 60 nautical miles (110 km). The Extended Lunar Module (ELM) used on the final three "J-class missions" — Apollo 15 , 16 , and 17 — was upgraded to land larger payloads and stay longer on the lunar surface. The descent engine thrust was increased by the addition of a 10-inch (250 mm) extension to the engine bell, and
13680-674: The form of BEMUs (battery electric multiple units) are operated commercially in Japan . They are charged via pantographs , either when driving on electrified railway lines or during stops at specially equipped train stations. They use battery power for propulsion when driving on railway lines that are not electrified, and have successfully replaced diesel multiple units on some such lines. Other countries have also tested or ordered such vehicles. Chattanooga, Tennessee , operates nine zero-fare electric buses, which have been in operation since 1992 and have carried 11.3 million passengers and covered
13824-435: The handle all the way back activated a parking brake. The control and display modules were situated in front of the handle and gave information on the speed, heading, pitch, and power and temperature levels. Navigation was based on continuously recording direction and distance through use of a directional gyro and odometer and feeding this data to a computer that would keep track of the overall direction and distance back to
13968-428: The hub. Dust guards were mounted above the wheels. Each wheel had its own electric drive made by Delco, a brushed DC electric motor capable of 0.25 horsepower (190 W) at 10,000 rpm, attached to the wheel via an 80:1 harmonic drive , and a mechanical brake unit. In the case of drive failure, astronauts could remove pins to disengage the drive from the wheel, allowing the wheel to spin freely. Maneuvering capability
14112-423: The ladder. The original extravehicular activity plan, up through at least 1966, was for only one astronaut to leave the LM while the other remained inside "to maintain communications". Communications were eventually deemed to be reliable enough to allow both crew members to walk on the surface, leaving the spacecraft to be only remotely attended by Mission Control. Beginning with Apollo 14 , extra LM propellant
14256-562: The landing site. Later, the redundant forward docking port was removed, which meant the Command Pilot gave up active control of the docking to the Command Module Pilot; he could still see the approaching CSM through a small overhead window. Egress while wearing bulky extra-vehicular activity spacesuits was eased by a simpler forward hatch (32 in × 32 in or 810 mm × 810 mm). The configuration
14400-468: The last four landing missions by using the Service Module engine to perform the initial descent orbit insertion burn 22 hours before the LM separated from the CSM, a practice begun on Apollo 14. This meant that the complete spacecraft, including the CSM, orbited the Moon with a 9.1-nautical-mile (16.9 km) perilune, enabling the LM to begin its powered descent from that altitude with a full load of descent stage propellant, leaving more reserve propellant for
14544-411: The lightest possible configuration. But as any particular leg would have to carry the weight of the vehicle if it landed at a significant angle, this was also the least stable configuration if one of the legs were damaged during landing. The next landing gear design iteration had five legs and was the most stable configuration for landing on an unknown terrain. That configuration, however, was too heavy and
14688-604: The lower specific energy of production batteries available in 2015 compared with carbon-based fuels means that electric cars need batteries that are a fairly large fraction of the vehicle mass but still often give a relatively low range between charges. Recharging can also take significant lengths of time. For journeys within a single battery charge, rather than long journeys, electric cars are practical forms of transportation and can be recharged overnight. Electric cars can significantly reduce city pollution by having zero emissions . Vehicle greenhouse gas savings depend on how
14832-409: The lunar landing, practicing all phases of the mission except powered descent initiation through takeoff. The LM descended to 47,400 feet (9.0 mi; 14.4 km) above the lunar surface, then jettisoned the descent stage and used its ascent engine to return to the CSM. The first crewed lunar landing occurred on July 20, 1969, in the Apollo 11 LM-5 Eagle . Four days later, the Apollo 11 crew in
14976-403: The lunar module is dramatized in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode entitled "Spider" . This is in reference to LM-3, used on Apollo 9, which the crew named Spider after its spidery appearance. The unused LM-13 stood in during the teleplay to depict LM-3 and LM-5, Eagle , used by Apollo 11. The Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle is depicted in the 2018 film First Man ,
15120-422: The mobility laboratory (MOLAB), then the lunar scientific survey module (LSSM), and finally the mobility test article (MTA). In early planning for the Apollo program , it had been assumed that two Saturn V launch vehicles would be used for each lunar mission: one for sending the crew aboard a Lunar Surface Module (LSM) to lunar orbit, landing, and returning, and a second for sending an LSM-Truck (LSM-T) with all of
15264-431: The need for a lunar surface vehicle, and revealed that studies had been underway at Marshall in conjunction with Lockheed, Bendix, Boeing, General Motors, Brown Engineering, Grumman, and Bell Aerospace. Saverio Morea was named LRV Manager at MSFC in 1961. Beginning in the early 1960s, a series of studies centering on lunar mobility were conducted under Marshall. This began with the lunar logistics system (LLS), followed by
15408-665: The need for wheel fenders to reduce dust contamination was found. The model was also extensively tested at the U.S. Army's Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona , as well as the Army's Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland . During 1965 and 1967, the Summer Conference on Lunar Exploration and Science brought together leading scientists to assess NASA's planning for exploring the Moon and to make recommendations. One of their findings
15552-504: The one million unit milestone in September 2016. As of October 2020 , the world's top selling all-electric car in history is the Tesla Model 3 , with an estimated 645,000 sales, followed by the Nissan Leaf with over 500,000 sales as of September 2020 . During the 1880s, Gustave Trouvé , Thomas Parker and Andreas Flocken built experimental electric cars, but the first practical battery electric vehicles appeared during
15696-419: The one-wheeled self-balancing unicycles , self-balancing scooters , electric kick scooters , and electric skateboards . Several battery electric ships operate throughout the world, some for business. Electric ferries are being operated and constructed. The motor controller receives a signal from potentiometers linked to the accelerator pedal, and it uses this signal to determine how much electric power
15840-403: The original pre-ELM spec vehicles. For specific weights for each mission, see the individual mission articles. The ascent stage contained the crew cabin with instrument panels and flight controls. It contained its own Ascent Propulsion System (APS) engine and two hypergolic propellant tanks for return to lunar orbit and rendezvous with the Apollo command and service module . It also contained
15984-530: The reliable, safe and flexible lunar exploration vehicle we expected it to be. Without it, the major scientific discoveries of Apollo 15, 16, and 17 would not have been possible; and our current understanding of lunar evolution would not have been possible." The LRVs experienced some minor problems. The rear fender extension on the Apollo 16 LRV was lost during the mission's second extra-vehicular activity (EVA) at station 8 when John Young bumped into it while going to assist Charles Duke . The dust thrown up from
16128-449: The rover broke down at any point. The rovers were designed with a top speed of about 8 mph (13 km/h), although Eugene Cernan recorded a maximum speed of 11.2 mph (18.0 km/h), giving him the (unofficial) lunar land-speed record. The LRV was developed in only 17 months and performed all its functions on the Moon with no major anomalies. Scientist-astronaut Harrison Schmitt of Apollo 17 said, "The Lunar Rover proved to be
16272-435: The rover was let down from the bay, most of the deployment was automatic. The rear wheels folded out and locked in place. When they touched the ground, the front of the rover could be unfolded, the wheels deployed, and the entire frame let down to the surface by pulleys. The rover components locked into place upon opening. Cabling, pins, and tripods would then be removed and the seats and footrests raised. After switching on all
16416-420: The same lunar module as the astronauts. In November 1964, two-rocket models were put on indefinite hold, but Bendix and Boeing were given study contracts for small rovers. The name of the lunar excursion module was changed to simply the lunar module , indicating that the capability for powered "excursions" away from a lunar-lander base did not yet exist. There could be no mobile lab—the astronauts would work out of
16560-409: The spacecraft orientation; rendezvous radar with its own steerable dish antenna; and a system for active thermal control. Electrical storage batteries, cooling water, and breathing oxygen were stored in amounts sufficient for a lunar surface stay of 48 hours initially, extended to 75 hours for the later missions. During rest periods while parked on the Moon, the crew would sleep on hammocks slung across
16704-551: The successful Moon landing of Apollo 11 , a request for proposal for the final development and building the Apollo LRV was released by Marshall. Boeing, Bendix, Grumman, and Chrysler submitted proposals. Following three months of proposal evaluation and negotiations, Boeing was selected as the Apollo LRV prime contractor on 28 October 1969. Boeing would manage the LRV project under Henry Kudish in Huntsville, Alabama . Kudish
16848-488: The surface, the commander drove the LRV to a position away from the Lunar Module so that the camera could record the ascent stage launch. The camera operator in Mission Control experienced difficulty in timing the various delays so that the LM ascent stage was in frame through the launch. On the third and final attempt (Apollo 17), the launch and ascent were successfully tracked. NASA's rovers, left behind, are among
16992-727: The surface, the vehicles, along with the lower stages were abandoned. As a result, the only lunar rovers on display are LRV-4, test vehicles, trainers, and mock-ups. As mentioned before, additional test units were built, like a static model, two 1/6 gravity models, a mass model. Replicas of rovers are on display at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas , the Kennedy Space Center Visitors Complex in Cape Canaveral, Florida ,
17136-472: The systems, and practice the separation, rendezvous, and docking planned for Apollo 8 in December 1968. But again, last-minute problems delayed its flight until Apollo 9 on March 3, 1969. A second, higher Earth orbit crewed practice flight had been planned to follow LM-3, but this was cancelled to keep the program timeline on track. Apollo 10 launched on May 18, 1969, using LM-4 for a "dress rehearsal" for
17280-752: The three astronauts after an oxygen tank in the service module ruptured, disabling the CSM. Aquarius served as a "lifeboat" for the astronauts during their return to Earth. Its descent stage engine was used to replace the crippled CSM Service Propulsion System engine, and its batteries supplied power for the trip home and recharged the Command Module's batteries critical for reentry. The astronauts splashed down safely on April 17, 1970. The LM's systems, designed to support two astronauts for 45 hours (including two depressurization and repressurization cycles, causing loss of oxygen supply), actually stretched to support three astronauts for 90 hours (without pressurization cycles and loss of oxygen). Hover times were maximized on
17424-432: The two categories. In China, plug-in electric vehicles, together with hybrid electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles (NEVs). However, in the United States, neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) are battery electric vehicles that are legally limited to roads with posted speed limits no higher than 45 miles per hour (72 km/h), are usually built to have a top speed of 30 miles per hour (48 km/h), and have
17568-401: The types of DC motors available. More recent electric vehicles have made use of a variety of AC motor types, as these are simpler to build and have no brushes that can wear out. These are usually induction motors or brushless AC electric motors which use permanent magnets. There are several variations of the permanent magnet motor which offer simpler drive schemes and/or lower cost including
17712-437: The usual procurement process and had P&VE's Advanced Studies Office directly task Brown to design, build, and test a prototype vehicle. While Bendix and Boeing would continue to refine concepts and designs for a lander, test model rovers were vital for Marshall human factors studies involving spacesuit-clad astronauts interfacing with power, telemetry, navigation, and life-support rover equipment. Brown's team made full use of
17856-418: The vitality of an economy the mobile storage infrastructure of EV batteries can be seen as one of the most meaningful infrastructure projects facilitating the energy transition to a fully sustainable economy based on renewables. A meta-study graphically showing the importance of electricity storage depicts the technology in context. Electric vehicles produce no greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in operation, but
18000-408: The wheel covered the crew, the console, and the communications equipment. High battery temperatures and resulting high power consumption ensued. No repair attempt was mentioned. The fender extension on the Apollo 17 LRV broke when accidentally bumped by Eugene Cernan with a hammer handle. Cernan and Schmitt taped the extension back in place, but due to the dusty surfaces, the tape did not adhere, and
18144-417: Was chiefly designed by Grumman aerospace engineer Thomas J. Kelly . The first LEM design looked like a smaller version of the Apollo command and service module (a cone-shaped cabin atop a cylindrical propulsion section) with folding legs. The second design invoked the idea of a helicopter cockpit with large curved windows and seats, to improve the astronauts' visibility for hover and landing. This also included
18288-492: Was completing a study for NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory on a small, uncrewed lunar roving vehicle for the Surveyor program . Ferenc Pavlics , originally from Hungary , used a wire-mesh design for "resilient wheels," a design that would be followed in future small rovers. In early 1963, NASA selected Marshall for studies in an Apollo Logistics Support System (ALSS). Following reviews of all earlier efforts, this resulted in
18432-618: Was conceived in 2012, and the inaugural championship started in Beijing on 13 September 2014. The series is sanctioned by the FIA. Alejandro Agag is the current CEO of Formula E. The Formula E championship is currently contested by ten teams with two drivers each (after the withdrawal of Team Trulli, there are temporarily only nine teams competing). Racing generally takes place on temporary city-center street circuits which are approximately 2 to 3.4 kilometres (1.2 to 2.1 mi) long. Currently, only
18576-593: Was delivered to the Kings Canyon Unified School District in California's San Joaquin Valley . The bus was one of four the district ordered. This battery-electric school bus, which has four sodium nickel batteries, is the first modern electric school bus approved for student transportation by any state. In 2016, including the light heavy-duty vehicles, there were roughly 1.5 million heavy-duty vehicles in California. The same technology
18720-459: Was designed for a top speed of 6 miles per hour (9.7 km/h), although it achieved a top speed of 11.2 miles per hour (18.0 km/h) on its last mission, Apollo 17 . Each LRV was carried to the Moon folded up in the Lunar Module 's Quadrant 1 Bay. After being unpacked, each was driven an average of 30 km, without major incident. These three LRVs remain on the Moon. The concept of
18864-713: Was developed by the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory ; the Apollo Guidance Computer was manufactured by Raytheon (a similar guidance system was used in the command module ). A backup navigation tool, the Abort Guidance System (AGS), was developed by TRW . The landing gear was manufactured by Héroux . The Apollo Lunar Module was assembled in a Grumman factory in Bethpage, New York . The Apollo Lunar Module
19008-474: Was discarded in lunar orbit. The other three LMs were destroyed during controlled re-entry in the Earth's atmosphere: the four stages of Apollo 5 and Apollo 9 each re-entered separately, while Apollo 13's Aquarius re-entered as a unit. At launch, the lunar module sat directly beneath the command and service module (CSM) with legs folded, inside the Spacecraft-to-LM adapter (SLA) attached to
19152-414: Was first used on 31 July 1971, during the Apollo 15 mission. This greatly expanded the range of the lunar explorers. Previous teams of astronauts were restricted to short walking distances around the landing site due to the bulky space suit equipment required to sustain life in the lunar environment. The range, however, was operationally restricted to remain within walking distance of the lunar module, in case
19296-664: Was frozen in April 1963, when the ascent and descent engine designs were decided. In addition to Rocketdyne, a parallel program for the descent engine was ordered from Space Technology Laboratories (TRW) in July 1963, and by January 1965 the Rocketdyne contract was cancelled. Power was initially to be produced by fuel cells built by Pratt and Whitney similar to the CSM, but in March 1965 these were discarded in favor of an all-battery design. The initial design had three landing legs,
19440-441: Was given special recognition by NASA for developing the "resilient wheel". They consisted of a spun aluminum hub and a 32-inch-diameter (81 cm), 9-inch-wide (23 cm) tire made of zinc-coated woven 0.033-inch-diameter (0.84 mm) steel strands attached to the rim. Titanium chevrons covered 50% of the contact area to provide traction. Inside the tire was a 25.5-inch-diameter (65 cm) titanium bump stop frame to protect
19584-432: Was left at Hadley-Apennine ( 26°06′N 3°39′E / 26.10°N 3.65°E / 26.10; 3.65 ( Apollo 15 Lunar Roving Vehicle at Hadley–Apennine ) ). The rover used on Apollo 16 was left at Descartes ( 8°59′S 15°31′E / 8.99°S 15.51°E / -8.99; 15.51 ( Apollo 16 Lunar Roving Vehicle at Descartes Highlands ) ). The rover used on Apollo 17
19728-583: Was left at Taurus-Littrow ( 20°10′N 30°46′E / 20.16°N 30.76°E / 20.16; 30.76 ( Apollo 17 Lunar Roving Vehicle at Taurus-Littrow ) ) and was seen by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter during passes in 2009 and 2011. In 2020 the State of Washington designated the flown rovers as historic landmarks. Since only the upper stages of the lunar excursion modules could return to lunar orbit from
19872-409: Was made available for the powered descent and landing, by using the CSM engine to achieve the 50,000-foot (15 km) perilune. After the spacecraft undocked, the CSM raised and circularized its orbit for the remainder of the mission. When ready to leave the Moon, the LM's ascent engine fired, leaving the descent stage on the Moon's surface. After a few course correction burns, the LM rendezvoused with
20016-479: Was mounted on a mast on the front center of the rover. The suspension consists of a double horizontal wishbone with upper and lower torsion bars and a damper unit between the chassis and upper wishbone. Fully loaded, the LRV has a ground clearance of 14 inches (36 cm). The wheels were designed and manufactured by General Motors Defense Research Laboratories in Santa Barbara, California . Ferenc Pavlics
20160-570: Was obtained through flights on a KC-135A aircraft in a Reduced Gravity parabolic maneuver; among other things, the need for a very soft wheel and suspension combination was shown. Although Pavlics' wire-mesh wheels were not initially available for the reduced gravity tests, the mesh wheels were tested on various soils at the Waterways Experiment Station of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at Vicksburg, Mississippi . Later, when wire-mesh wheels were tested on low-g flights,
20304-473: Was provided through the use of front and rear steering motors. Each series-wound DC steering motor was capable of 0.1 horsepower (75 W). The front and rear wheels could pivot in opposite directions to achieve a tight turning radius of 10 feet (3 m), or could be decoupled so only front or rear would be used for steering. The wheels were linked in Ackermann steering geometry , where the inside tires have
20448-612: Was replaced the following year in 1970 by LRV Project Manager Earl Houtz. As a major subcontractor, the General Motors Defense Research Laboratories in Santa Barbara, California , would furnish the mobility system (wheels, motors, and suspension); this effort would be led by GM Program Manager Samuel Romano and Ferenc Pavlics . Boeing in Seattle, Washington , would furnish the electronics and navigation system. Vehicle testing would take place at
20592-621: Was that the LSSM was critical to a successful program and should be given major attention. At Marshall, von Braun established a Lunar Roving Task Team, and in May 1969, NASA approved the Manned Lunar Rover Vehicle Program as a Marshall hardware development. The project was led by Eberhard Rees , Director of Research and Development at Marshall, who oversaw the design and construction of the rover, with Saverio Morea acting as project manager. On 11 July 1969, just before
20736-602: Was used on Apollo 12 and 14. A hand-pulled Modular Equipment Transporter (MET), similar in appearance to a golf cart, was carried on Apollo 13 and 14 to facilitate carrying the tools and samples on extended moonwalks. On the extended missions ( Apollo 15 and later), the antenna and TV camera were mounted on the Lunar Roving Vehicle , which was carried folded up and mounted on an external panel. Compartments also contained replacement Portable Life Support System (PLSS) batteries and extra lithium hydroxide canisters on
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