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45-505: Initially, the core of what would become the Lunda confederation was a commune called a N'Gaange in the kiLunda (kiyaka-kipunu) language. It was ruled over by a monarch called the Mwane-a- n'Gaange. One of these rulers, Ilunga Tshibinda , came from the nation of Luba where his brother ruled and married a royal woman from a nation to their south. Their son became the first paramount ruler of

90-511: A Luba-speaking kingdom, but much larger than the various populations that existed in Kete and Sala Mpusa. The first major military campaign by Nawej was against Sala Mpasu. He is said to have built a major fortress in Sala Mpasu territory, but was not at this stage able to exert control over them. Nawej removed his troops from Sala Mpasu in response to an invasion of his territory by forces from

135-657: A decade after (see below for more information): By 1902, 90% of all the land that makes up Africa was under European control. Most of the Sahara was French, but after the quelling of the Mahdi rebellion and the ending of the Fashoda crisis , the Sudan remained firmly under joint British–Egyptian rulership, with Egypt being under British occupation before becoming a British protectorate in 1914. The Boer republics were conquered by

180-666: A joint policy on the African continent. The conference opened on 15 November 1884 and closed on 26 February 1885. The number of plenipotentiaries varied per nation, but these 14 countries sent representatives to attend the Berlin Conference and sign the subsequent Berlin Act: Uniquely, the United States reserved the right to decline or to accept the conclusions of the conference. The General Act fixed

225-460: A period of heightened colonial activity by European powers; one writer once made the point that the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 was responsible for "the old carve-up of Africa". Other writers have also laid the blame in "the partition of Africa" on the doors of the Berlin Conference. But Wm. Roger Louis holds a contrary view , although he conceded that "the Berlin Act did have a relevance to

270-589: A philanthropic front. From 1878 to 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo not as a reporter but as Leopold's agent, with the secret mission to organise what would become known as the Congo Free State soon after the closure of the Berlin Conference in August 1885. French agents discovered Leopold's plans, and in response France sent its own explorers to Africa. In 1881, French naval officer Pierre de Brazza

315-413: A result of reward for his loyalty to Mwanta Yamvo. Ilunga Tshibinda Ilunga Tshibinda was a Mwata Gaand of Luba descent. He was the second son of Ilunga Mbidi and younger brother Kalala Ilunga . At the seizure of power by Kalala Ilunga, Ilunga Tshibinda decided to leave his brother's empire is too small "for both. Arriving on land Lunda there marry Queen Lueji (Rweej or Nawej). No longer in

360-486: Is apparent throughout the protocols of the Berlin Conference but especially in the Principle of Effective Occupation. In line with Germany and Britain's opposing views, the powers finally agreed that it could be established by a European power establishing some kind of base on the coast from which it was free to expand into the interior. The Europeans did not believe that the rules of occupation demanded European hegemony on

405-523: Is now the Luapula Province of Zambia. The kingdom became a confederation of a number of chieftainships that enjoyed a degree of local autonomy (as long as tributes were paid), with Mwata Yamvo as paramount ruler and a ruling council (following the Luba model) to assist with administration. The strength of the kingdom enabled it to conquer the territory of other tribes, especially to the east. In

450-611: The Catholic Church . It quickly made a treaty on 26 February 1884 with its old ally, Great Britain , to block off the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic. By the early 1880s, many factors including diplomatic successes, greater European local knowledge, and the demand for resources such as gold, timber, and rubber, triggered dramatically increased European involvement in the continent of Africa. Stanley's charting of

495-572: The Congo River Basin (1874–1877) removed the last terra incognita from European maps of the continent, delineating the areas of British, Portuguese, French and Belgian control. These European nations raced to annex territory that might be claimed by rivals. France moved to take over Tunisia , one of the last of the Barbary states , using a claim of another piracy incident. French claims by Pierre de Brazza were quickly acted on by

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540-586: The Franco-Prussian War which, with the Berlin Conference of 1884, brought colonial imperialism to flower" and that "[t]he primary reality of imperialism in Africa today is economic," going on to expound on the extraction of wealth from the continent. Other historians focus on the legal implications in international law and argue that the conference was only one of many (mostly bilateral) agreements between prospective colonists, which took place after

585-609: The International African Association the same year, invited Henry Morton Stanley to join him in researching and "civilising" the continent. In 1878, the International Congo Society was also formed, with more economic goals but still closely related to the former society. Leopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to imperialistic goals, with the "African Society" serving primarily as

630-836: The Mahdist State and the Sultanate of Zanzibar and, having already defeated the Zulu Kingdom in South Africa in 1879, moved on to annex the independent Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State . Within a few years, Africa was at least nominally divided up south of the Sahara . By 1895, the only independent states were: The following states were annexed by the British Empire roughly

675-520: The 18th century, a number of migrations took place as far as the region to the south of Lake Tanganyika . The Bemba people of Northern Zambia descended from Luba migrants who arrived in Zambia throughout the 17th century. At the same time, a Lunda chief and warrior called Mwata Kazembe set up an Eastern Lunda kingdom in the valley of the Luapula River . The kingdom of Lunda came to an end in

720-465: The 19th century, when it was invaded by the Chokwe , who were armed with guns. The Chokwe then established their own kingdom with their language and customs. Lunda chiefs and people continued to live in the Lunda heartland but were diminished in power. At the start of the colonial era (1884), the Lunda heartland was divided between Portuguese Angola, King Leopold II of Belgium 's Congo Free State and

765-577: The Berlin Conference as the formalisation of the Scramble for Africa but recently, scholars have questioned the legal and economic impact of the conference. Some have argued the conference central to imperialism. African-American historian W. E. B. Du Bois wrote in 1948 that alongside the Atlantic slave trade in Africans a great world movement of modern times is "the partitioning of Africa after

810-599: The British in North-Western Rhodesia , which became Angola, DR Congo and Zambia, respectively. The Lunda groups in Northern Rhodesia were led by two prominent chiefs, Ishindi and Kazembe Kazembi, with Ishindi establishing his kingdom in the north-west of the country and Kazembe in the north-east. Of the two prominent chiefs, Ishindi was the first born of Mwanta Yamvo which Kazembe was made King as

855-678: The British in the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902. Libya was conquered by Italy in 1911, and Morocco was divided between the French and Spanish in 1912. One of the chief stated justifications "was a desire to stamp out slavery once and for all". Before he died in 1873, Christian missionary, David Livingstone , called for a worldwide crusade to defeat the Arab-controlled slave trade in East Africa. The way to do it

900-559: The European powers expand in the face of rising American, Russian and Japanese interests; and form constructive dialogue to limit future hostilities. In Africa, colonialism was introduced across nearly all the continent. When African independence was regained after World War II, it was in the form of fragmented states. The Scramble for Africa sped up after the Conference since even within areas designated as their sphere of influence,

945-623: The European powers had to take effective possession by the principle of effectivity. In central Africa in particular, expeditions were dispatched to coerce traditional rulers into signing treaties, using force if necessary, such as was the case for Msiri , King of Katanga , in 1891. Bedouin- and Berber-ruled states in the Sahara and the Sahel were overrun by the French in several wars by the beginning of World War I . The British moved up from South Africa and down from Egypt and conquered states such as

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990-552: The French military, which took control of what is now the Republic of the Congo in 1881 and Guinea in 1884. Italy became part of the Triple Alliance , an event that upset Bismarck's carefully laid plans and led Germany to join the European invasion of Africa. In 1882, realizing the geopolitical extent of Portuguese control on the coasts, but seeing penetration by France eastward across Central Africa toward Ethiopia,

1035-627: The Kingdom of Kanyok. The Kanyok forces killed Nawej and established a fortress in Lunda territory. The next ruler, Muland, elected by the leaders of the state, was eventually able to drive out the Kanyok forces. The Lunda Kingdom controlled some 150,000 km by 1680. The state doubled in size to around 300,000 km at its height in the 19th century. The Mwane-a Yamvo of Lunda became powerful militarily from their base of 175,000 inhabitants. Along with this military strength through sheer numbers,

1080-533: The Lunda Kingdom also received Muslim military advisors and some dated weapons from the cities of Nyangwe and Kabambare . Through marriage with descendants of the Luba kings, they gained political ties. The Lunda people were able to settle and colonize other areas and tribes, thus extending their kingdom through southwest Katanga into Angola and north-western Zambia , and eastwards across Katanga into what

1125-403: The Lunda, creating the title of Mwane-a-Yamvu (c. 1665). Other sources state the first well-attested historical ruler of Lunda was Nawej, who begin his rule about 1695. His father was said to have come from Kalundwe, a Luba language -speaking state. It is unclear, though, how much of the traditions of the kingdom before Nawej are historically accurate. Nawej is said by tradition to have created

1170-609: The Nile, and the Suez Canal , Britain saw its vital trade route through Egypt to India threatened. Because of the collapsed Egyptian financing and a subsequent mutiny in which hundreds of British subjects were murdered or injured, Britain intervened in the nominally Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt , which it controlled for decades. The European race for colonies made Germany start launching expeditions of its own, which frightened both British and French statesmen. Hoping to quickly soothe

1215-463: The best known were Mwata Mutomb Kumuinda and Kasongo. Mwata Mutomb succèda his father and was known as Mwata Yav (or Mwant-a-Yav) Mutomb. The kings Lunda bear the title of Mwata Yav after him. This biography of a member of an African royal house is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Berlin conference The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 met on 15 November 1884 and, after an adjournment , concluded on 26 February 1885 with

1260-513: The brewing conflict, Belgian King Leopold II convinced France and Germany that common trade in Africa was in the best interests of all three countries. Under support from the British and the initiative of Portugal, Otto von Bismarck , the Chancellor of Germany , called on representatives of 13 nations in Europe as well as the United States to take part in the Berlin Conference in 1884 to work out

1305-475: The colonial partitioning of Africa, and draw attention to bilateral agreements concluded before and after the conference. According to a 2024 study, the conference only set the borders for the Congo region (those borders were later revised). The study finds that "most of Africa’s borders were not initially formed until after the 1884–85 Berlin Conference... most did not take their final form until over two decades later." The conference contributed to ushering in

1350-503: The conference, regardless of whether they were finalized and followed in practice. For example, Craven has questioned the legal and economic impact of the conference. However, the countries that ultimately participated in the Final Act ignored requirements set forth within it to establish their satellite governments, rights to the land, and trade for the benefit of their national, and domestic economies. Historians have long marked

1395-656: The continent, essentially believed that as far as the extension of power in Africa was concerned, no colonial power should have any legal right to a territory unless the state exercised strong and effective political control and, if so, only for a limited period of time, essentially an occupational force only. However, Britain's view was that Germany was a latecomer to the continent and was assumptively unlikely to gain any possessions beyond those it already held, which were swiftly proving to be more valuable than British territories. That logic caused it to be generally assumed by Britain and France that Germany had an interest in embarrassing

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1440-598: The course of the partition" of Africa. Of the fourteen countries being represented, seven of them – Austria-Hungary , Russia , Denmark , the Netherlands , Sweden-Norway , the Ottoman Empire , and the United States – came home without any formal possessions in Africa. Prior to the conference, European diplomats approached African rulers and the French leaders had already invaded some parts of Lagos in

1485-409: The following points: The first reference in an international act to the obligations attaching to spheres of influence is contained in the Berlin Act. The principle of effective occupation stated that a power could acquire rights over colonial lands only if it possessed them or had effective occupation: if it had treaties with local leaders, flew its flag there, and established an administration in

1530-505: The ground. The Belgians originally wanted to include that effective occupation required provisions that "cause peace to be administered", but Britain and France were the powers that had that amendment struck out of the final document. That principle, along with others that were written at the conference, allowed the Europeans to conquer Africa but to do as little as possible to administer or control it. The principle did not apply so much to

1575-475: The hinterlands of Africa at the time of the conference. This gave rise to hinterland theory, which basically gave any colonial power with coastal territory the right to claim political influence over an indefinite amount of inland territory. Since Africa was irregularly shaped, that theory caused problems and was later rejected. The conference provided an opportunity to channel latent European hostilities towards one another outward; provide new areas for assisting

1620-531: The office of queen mother, called Rukonkesh. A key part of this role was to help determine succession. He also created the office of Swan Mulond, which he gave to his mother Ruwej, and Swan Mulop, a title for the heir apparent. However these offices are only directly attested to by sources from the early 19th century. Perpetual kingship was practised, whereby the king 'became' his predecessor, adopting his name, kinship relations, and duties. Lunda started in an area where traditional farming and thus settled existence

1665-451: The opportunity to prevail, Lueji cèda the throne to her husband, who rebelled brothers Lueji. Became sole master of the Kingdom, Ilunga Tshibinda led a campaign of expansion in which there will be great successes at the point of raising the Lunda kingdom to an empire, competing with his brother Kalala Ilunga. It is proclaimed Emperor and took the title of Mukalenge. Its capital was Asokwele . Ilunga Tshibinda had several children, among them

1710-399: The other European powers on the continent and forcing them to give up their possessions if they could not muster a strong political presence. On the other side, Britain had large territorial holdings there and wanted to keep them while it minimised its responsibilities and administrative costs. In the end, the British view prevailed. The great powers' disinclination to rule their territories

1755-606: The same manner as they had in the Western Hemisphere, by establishing a connection to local trade networks. In the early 1800s, the European demand for ivory , which was then often used in the production of luxury goods , led many European merchants into the interior markets of Africa. European spheres of power and influence were limited to coastal Africa at this time as Europeans had only established trading posts (protected by gunboats) up to this point. In 1876, King Leopold II of Belgium , who had founded and controlled

1800-489: The scope of the Berlin Act was limited to the lands that fronted on the African coast, European powers in numerous instances later claimed rights over interior lands without demonstrating the requirement of effective occupation, as articulated in Article 35 of the Final Act. At the Berlin Conference, the scope of the Principle of Effective Occupation was heavily contested between Germany and France. The Germans, who were new to

1845-513: The signature of a General Act regulating European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period. The conference was organized by Otto von Bismarck , the first chancellor of Germany , at the request of Leopold II of Belgium . The General Act of Berlin can be seen as the formalisation of the Scramble for Africa that was already in full swing. Some scholars, however, warn against an overemphasis on its role in

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1890-431: The territory to govern it with a police force to keep order. The colonial power could also make use of the colony economically. That principle became important not only as a basis for the European powers to acquire territorial sovereignty in Africa but also for delimiting their respective overseas possessions, as effective occupation served in some instances as a criterion for settling colonial boundary disputes. However, as

1935-404: Was dispatched to central Africa, travelled into the western Congo basin, and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in what is now the Republic of Congo . Finally, Portugal , which had essentially abandoned a colonial empire in the area, long held through the mostly defunct proxy Kingdom of Kongo , also claimed the area, based on old treaties with Restoration-era Spain and

1980-598: Was only generally done in river valleys. Just to the north is an area where the areas between rivers can also be inhabited. In its early history Lundu struggled primarily with the Luba-speaking people who lived downriver, and thus north of it. These people are sometimes referred to with names such as Sala Mpusa or Kete, which make it appear they were organized single states. However in reality they were loose confederations of shifting alliances. It also early on faced off with Kanyok Kingdom , located to its north-west, also

2025-475: Was to "liberate Africa" by the introduction of "commerce, Christianity" and civilization. Crowe, Craven, and Katzenellenbogen are authors who have attempted to soften the language and therefore the intent of the conference. They warn against an overemphasis on its role in the colonial partitioning of Africa, extensively justifying it by ignoring the motivations and outcomes of the conference by only drawing attention to bilateral agreements concluded before and after

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