List of forms of government
118-548: Northern Rhodesia was a British protectorate in Southern Africa , now the independent country of Zambia . It was formed in 1911 by amalgamating the two earlier protectorates of Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia . It was initially administered, as were the two earlier protectorates, by the British South Africa Company (BSAC), a chartered company , on behalf of
236-564: A "tropical dependency" rather than a northward extension of white-settler controlled southern Africa. In 1895, Rhodes asked his American scout Frederick Russell Burnham to look for minerals and ways to improve river navigation in the region, and it was during this trek that Burnham discovered major copper deposits along the Kafue River . In 1911 the BSAC merged the two territories as 'Northern Rhodesia'. Under British South Africa Company rule,
354-748: A 1932 conference of copper producers in New York, the Rhodesian companies objected to further market intervention, and when no agreement could be made, the previous restrictions on competition lapsed. This placed the Northern Rhodesians in a very powerful position. Meanwhile, the British South Africa Company sold its remaining Southern Rhodesian holdings to the Southern Rhodesian government in 1933 giving it
472-493: A North Eastern Rhodesia Constabulary was formed, which had only a few white officers; all its NCOs and troopers were African. This was also merged into the Northern Rhodesia Police in 1912, which then numbered only 18 European and 775 African in six companies, divided between the headquarters of the various districts. The British South Africa Company was responsible for building the Rhodesian railway system in
590-643: A Speaker ex officio , eight nominated officials, twelve elected unofficials, four African unofficial members nominated by the Governor on the advice the African Representative Council, and two nominated unofficial European members representing the interests of Africans. The nominated officials were identified as the Chief Secretary, Attorney General, Financial Secretary, and Secretary for Native Affairs, and four others. 1959 saw
708-530: A body to consult residents, but after 1917 nominees were added to represent the small European minority : Northern Rhodesia had no elected representation while under BSAC rule. There were five nominated members: four represented the former North-Western Rhodesia and one represented North-Eastern Rhodesia. Hut tax was first collected in North-Eastern Rhodesia in 1901 and was slowly extended through North-Western Rhodesia between 1904 and 1913. It
826-582: A catastrophe in Northern Rhodesia where many employees were sacked and put an end to hopes which many Europeans had held of turning Northern Rhodesia into another white dominion like Southern Rhodesia. Many settlers took this opportunity to move back to Southern Rhodesia, while Africans returned to their farms. Despite the economic crash, large firms were still able to maintain a profit . The fact that unemployed workers had left meant there were no increases in taxation, and labour costs remained low. At
944-634: A colony of the same name Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia): "Protection" was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part of French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with
1062-463: A crucial means of solidifying and extending family connections. A man who has reached adulthood is expected to have employment, establish his own homestead known as a lapa , and find a wife mufumahali . Upon marriage, the wife typically moves to her husband's homestead, integrating into his family and adopting their surname. The way a couple manages their lapa influences their social status. Although declining in modern times, polygamy remains common among
1180-548: A disputed area of North-Eastern Rhodesia. This claim was accepted by the British Government. After the Charter ended, BSAC joined a group of nine South African and British companies which financed the development of Nchanga Mines , to prevent them falling under US control. However, its main concern was to receive royalties. However significant they were, these copper deposits could not be exploited commercially until
1298-635: A distant aspiration. However, several of the Welfare Associations on the Copperbelt were involved in the 1935 disturbances. Hut tax was gradually introduced to different areas of Northern Rhodesia between 1901 and 1913. Its introduction generally caused little unrest, but in 1909–10 the Gwembe branch of the Tonga people staged a relatively non-violent protest against its introduction, which
SECTION 10
#17327650651751416-498: A dominant interest in Mufulira, while Rhokana Corporation owned the remained of Mufulira, Nkana, Nchanga and Bwana Mkubwa. The shareholding structure of RST and particularly of Rhokana was complex. While at first the existence this cartel encouraged investment, consumers sought alternative and cheaper materials and with the economic downturn, the price of copper crashed in 1931. An international agreement restricted output. This caused
1534-628: A large increase in the proportion of elected members. The Legislative Council then consisted of the Speaker and 30 members. All but eight of these members were to be elected: the eight nominated were the same four named posts as before, two others, and two nominated unofficial members (who were not specifically responsible for African interests). These two members were retained to provide that there were some members who could be called upon for Ministerial duties if there were too few elected members willing to do so. The 22 elected members were organised in such
1652-599: A mineral concession for the BSAC in Katanga. He sent Alfred Sharpe to obtain a treaty from its ruler, Msiri which would grant the concession and create a British protectorate over his kingdom. King Leopold II was also interested in Katanga and Rhodes suffered one of his few setbacks when, in April 1891, a Belgian expedition led by Paul Le Marinel obtained Msiri's agreement to Congo Free State personnel entering his territory, which they did in force in 1892. This treaty produced
1770-605: A railway entirely in Congolese territory, linked to the Congo River, but in 1908, he agreed with the British South Africa Company to continue the Rhodesian railway to Elizabethville and the mines. Between 1912, when full-scale copper production began, until 1928 when a Congolese line was completed, almost all of Katanga's copper was shipped over the Rhodesian network. The railway's revenue from Katanga copper enabled it to carry other goods at low rates. Large-scale development of
1888-657: A region generally comprising the areas that are today Zambia and Zimbabwe . From 1964, it only referred to the former Southern Rhodesia . The name "Rhodesia" was derived from Cecil John Rhodes , the British capitalist and empire-builder who was a guiding figure in British expansion north of the Limpopo River into south-central Africa. Rhodes pushed British influence into the region by obtaining mineral rights from local chiefs under questionable treaties. After making
2006-560: A second series covering a disputed part of North-Eastern Rhodesia was negotiated by Joseph Thomson and Alfred Sharpe with local chiefs in 1890 and 1891. The Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1891 signed in Lisbon on 11 June 1891 between the United Kingdom and Portugal fixed the boundary between the territories administered by the British South Africa Company in North-Eastern Rhodesia and Portuguese Mozambique . It declared that Barotseland
2124-482: A settlement was achieved by which Northern Rhodesia remained a protectorate but came under the British government, with its administrative machinery taken over by the Colonial Office , while the British South Africa Company retained extensive areas of freehold property and the protectorate's mineral rights. It was also agreed that half of the proceeds of land sales in the former North-Western Rhodesia would go to
2242-454: A state. Multiple regions—such as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria , the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos , and similar—were subjects of colonial protection. Conditions of protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a de facto condition similar to a colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as
2360-538: A substantial minority in the Northern Rhodesian legislature favoured amalgamation with Southern Rhodesia, despite vigorous African opposition. However, the majority of settlers were still cautious about being marginalised by the much greater numbers of Europeans in Southern Rhodesia. From 1943, six Provincial Councils were set up to form a second tier of African representative institutions above
2478-543: A suitable area for British South Africa Company operations and as a gateway to the copper deposits of Katanga. Lewanika , king of the Lozi people of Barotseland sought European protection because of internal unrest and the threat of Ndebele raids. With the help of François Coillard of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society , he drafted a petition seeking a British protectorate in 1889, but
SECTION 20
#17327650651752596-607: A system of election was worked out and the first election was held for five elected unofficial members, who took their seats together with nine nominated official members. An elector in Northern Rhodesia had to be a United Kingdom citizen, a requirement which practically ruled out Africans who were British Protected Persons . In addition, would-be electors were required to fill in an application form in English, and to have an annual income of at least £200 or occupy immovable property worth £250 (tribal or community occupation of such property
2714-432: A total of five. From 1948, the African Representative Council recommended two African unofficial members for nomination by the Governor. 1948 saw the replacement of the Governor by a Speaker, who also sat ex officio , and the introduction of two members nominated on the advice of the African Representative Council. An Order-in-Council coming into effect on 31 December 1953 provided for a new Legislative Council to consist of
2832-675: A vast fortune in mining in South Africa, it was his ambition to extend the British Empire north, all the way to Cairo if possible, although this was far beyond the resources of any commercial company to achieve. Rhodes' main focus was south of the Zambezi , in Mashonaland and the coastal areas to its east, and when the expected wealth of Mashonaland did not materialise, there was little money left for significant development in
2950-422: A very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's strength. Amical protection was frequently extended by the great powers to other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance. After 1815, non-Christian states (such as
3068-504: A way as to ensure that there were eight African and 14 Europeans. The electoral roll was divided into 'General' and 'Special' with Special voters having much lower financial requirements than General voters so that the majority of Special voters were Africans (the nationality requirement had been varied so that British Protected Persons were eligible to vote). In the towns in which a majority of Europeans lived, there were twelve constituencies; special voters could have no more than one-third of
3186-564: Is different from a colony as it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiences colonization by the suzerain state. A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its "international personality" is called a "protected state", not a protectorate. Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to the Roman Empire . Civitates foederatae were cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In
3304-515: Is known as Mulonga, and Lozi society tolerates little criticism, even of an unpopular Litunga. Criticisms of a Litunga by a foreigner are treated as criticisms of the Lozi nation as a whole. The Lozi are not separated into clans, unlike most African ethnic groups. The Lozi people are closely related to the Balobedu and therefore also have rainmaking abilities. Lozi culture is strongly influenced by
3422-492: Is valued for its modesty, respect, and dignity. The staple food of the Lozi is a maize meal porridge called buhobe . It is often served with Zambezi bream fish and vegetables, or eaten with a fermented milk " mabisi " dish. This cuisine reflects the Lozi's connection to their environment and traditional agricultural practices. Music and dance are integral to Lozi social life. Sipelu is a traditional Lozi dance performed by young men and women at various social events throughout
3540-650: The Chinese Qing dynasty ) also provided amical protection of other, much weaker states. In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of microstates . According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints". *protectorates which existed alongside
3658-615: The Conservative Leo Amery , has attempted to water-down in 1927 when setting up the Hilton Young Commission . Passfield's Memorandum stated that no further white minority governments would be permitted, dismissing settler aspirations of self-government in Kenya and Northern Rhodesia. This turned Northern Rhodesian Europeans against association with East Africa towards union with Southern Rhodesia. In 1933,
Northern Rhodesia - Misplaced Pages Continue
3776-546: The Copperbelt and exploration in 1895 by the British South Africa Company's celebrated American scout, Frederick Russell Burnham , who led and oversaw the massive Northern Territories (BSA) Exploration Co. expedition first established for Westerners that major copper deposits existed in Central Africa. Along the Kafue River in then Northern Rhodesia, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in
3894-945: The Dominican Republic and Nicaragua through the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty . Some agencies of the United States government , such as the Environmental Protection Agency , refer to the District of Columbia and insular areas of the United States—such as American Samoa and the U.S. Virgin Islands —as protectorates. However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) within
4012-661: The Makololo language, referring to the Barotse Floodplain of the Zambezi River , on and around which most Lozi live. It may also be spelled Lotse or Rotse, the spelling Lozi having originated with German missionaries in what is now Namibia . Mu- and Ba- are corresponding singular and plural prefixes for certain nouns in the Silozi language , so Murotse means "person of the plain" while Barotse means "people of
4130-477: The Middle Ages , Andorra was a protectorate of France and Spain . Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century. In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter. Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on
4248-839: The Mufulira mine into partial production in 1930, although it only became fully operational in 1933, because of the Great Depression . South African interest in the Copperbelt was led the Anglo American Corporation , which gained an interest in the Bwana Mkubwa company in 1924 and acquired a one-third interest in Mufulira in 1928. Also in 1928, Anglo American acquired control of the Nkana mine at Kitwe and formed Rhodesian Anglo American, whose other shareholders included US and South African finance houses and
4366-666: The United States Department of Interior , uses only the term "insular area" rather than protectorate. Lozi people The Lozi people , also known as Balozi , are a Bantu-speaking ethnic group native to Southern Africa . They have significant populations in Angola , Botswana , Namibia , Zambia , and Zimbabwe . The Lozi language, Silozi , is used as the formal language in official, educational, and media contexts. The Lozi people number approximately 1,562,000. The Lozi comprise several tribes, including
4484-441: The suzerainty of a more powerful sovereign state without being a possession. In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement. Usually protectorates are established de jure by a treaty . Under certain conditions—as with Egypt under British rule (1882–1914)—a state can also be labelled as a de facto protectorate or a veiled protectorate . A protectorate
4602-527: The Administrator, although this power was never used. In this period the Administrator was assisted neither by an Executive Council nor a Legislative council , as was common in British-ruled territories. There was an Advisory Council, which fulfilled most of the functions of such bodies, and which until 1917 consisted entirely of senior officials. There was no obligation for the company to form
4720-608: The Advisory Council, limiting them to a few nominated members. Following a judgement by the Privy Council that the land in Southern Rhodesia belonged to the British Crown not the BSAC, opinion among settlers in Southern Rhodesia turned to favour responsible government and in 1923 this was granted. This left Northern Rhodesia in a difficult position since the British South Africa Company had believed it owned
4838-692: The Bamakoma, Kwanda, Lukolwe, Bafwe , Batotela , Bayeyi , Mbowe (Mamboe), Bambukushu , Mishulundu, Muenyi (Mwenyi), Mwanga, Ndundulu, Nygengo, Shanjo, Simaa, Basubia , and Batonga . These tribes share common customs and traditions, with Silozi serving as the formal language for official, educational, and media purposes. Intermarriage among the tribes further strengthens their cultural bonds. The Lozi people are also known by various names such as Malozi, Nyambe, Makololo, Barotse, Rotse, Rozi, Rutse, Balozi, Balobedu, and Tozvi. They refer to their land as Bulozi or Barotseland . The word "Lozi" means "plain" in
Northern Rhodesia - Misplaced Pages Continue
4956-516: The British Government preferred a looser association to include Nyasaland. This was intended to protect Africans in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland from discriminatory Southern Rhodesian laws. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland formed in 1953 was intensely unpopular among the vast African majority and its formation hastened calls for majority rule. As a result of this pressure, the country became independent in 1964 as Zambia . The geographical, as opposed to political, term " Rhodesia " referred to
5074-400: The British Government. From 1924, it was administered by the British Government as a protectorate, under similar conditions to other British-administered protectorates, and the special provisions required when it was administered by BSAC were terminated. Although under the BSAC charter it had features of a charter colony , the BSAC's treaties with local rulers, and British legislation, gave it
5192-569: The British South Africa Company (BSAC). As BSAC exchanged its own shares for Rhodesian Anglo American ones, Rhodesian Anglo American now became a major shareholder in BSAC. Both Roan Antelope and Nkana started commercial production in 1931. At first, very little British capital was invested in the Copperbelt. However, in 1929 it seemed possible that a fourth source of copper, Nchanga Mines , might fall under US control: as an American cartel which sought to restrict supply to increase prices then already controlled three-quarters of world copper production,
5310-661: The British South African Company was given the power to establish a police force and administer justice within Northern Rhodesia. In the case of African natives appearing before courts, the Company was instructed to have regard to the customs and laws of their tribe or nation. An Order in Council of 1900 created the High Court of North-Eastern Rhodesia which took control of civil and criminal justice; it
5428-500: The British government encouraged a group of nine "British" companies to finance Nchanga. This group was dominated by Rhodesian Anglo American, so truly British participation was still limited. In 1931 the ownership of Bwana Mkubwa and Nchanga was amalgamated into the Rhokana Corporation, in which Rhodesian Anglo American also predominated. The situation in 1931 was that Rhodesian Selection Trust (RST) owned Roan Antelope and
5546-536: The British government's Colonial Office sent Harry Johnston to this area, where he proclaimed a protectorate, later named the British Central Africa Protectorate . The charter of BSAC contained only vague limits on the northern extent of the company's sphere of activities, and Rhodes sent emissaries Joseph Thomson and Alfred Sharpe to make treaties with chiefs in the area west of Nyasaland. Rhodes also considered Barotseland as
5664-533: The Colonial Office took no immediate action on it. However, Rhodes sent Frank Elliott Lochner to Barotseland to obtain a concession and offered to pay the expenses of a protectorate there. Lochner told Lewanika that BSAC represented the British government, and on 27 June 1890, Lewanika consented to an exclusive mineral concession. This (the Lochner Concession) gave the company mining rights over
5782-531: The Company. On 1 April 1924, Herbert Stanley was appointed as Governor and Northern Rhodesia became an official Protectorate of the United Kingdom, with its capital in Livingstone . The capital was moved to Lusaka in 1935. Under the Administration of the British South Africa Company, the Administrator had similar powers to those of a colonial governor, except that certain powers were reserved to
5900-457: The Copperbelt only began in the late 1920s, with an increasing world market for copper. Transport was no problem as only short branches had to be built to connect the Copperbelt to the main line. Almost from the start of European settlement, the settlers in Northern Rhodesia were hostile to the BSAC administration and its commercial position. The company opposed the settlers' political aspirations and refused to allow them to elect representatives to
6018-755: The District Officers still retained most of their former powers, and used the Native Authorities as intermediaries. In June 1930, the Colonial Secretary of the Labour Government, Lord Passfield , published his Memorandum on Native Policy in East and Central Africa. His statement of colonial policy was an emphatic reassertion of the principle of paramountcy of African interests, which his predecessor as Colonial Secretary,
SECTION 50
#17327650651756136-488: The District Officers. By the late 1920s, the idea of Indirect Rule that Lord Lugard had proposed in "The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa" had gained favour. Lugard suggested that, in colonies where climate and geography precluded extensive European settlement, African interests should be recognised as paramount and the development of such colonies must benefit their indigenous population as well as
6254-598: The High Commissioner for South Africa. There was neither an Executive Council nor a legislative council, but only an Advisory Council, consisting entirely of nominees. The Northern Rhodesia Order in Council, 1924 transferred to the Governor any power or jurisdiction previously held by the Administrator or vested in the High Commissioner for South Africa. The Order also provided for an Executive Council consisting of six ex-officio senior officials and any other official or unofficial members Governor wished to appoint. At
6372-422: The High Court. Civil matters relating to constitutional issues, wills and marriages were also restricted to the High Court. The Native Courts Ordinance 1937 allowed the Governor to issue a warrant recognising native courts. Their jurisdiction only covered natives but extended to criminal and civil jurisdiction. Native courts were not allowed to impose the death penalty, nor try witchcraft without permission. There
6490-565: The Lozi has long centred on a monarchy , whose reigning head, the Paramount King, is known as ' Litunga ', which means 'keeper of the earth.' The renowned Litunga Lewanika , whose latter name was a nickname from the Mbunda meaning "unifier" following the Lozi revolt, reigned from 1878 to 1916, with a short insurrectionist break in 1884–85. He requested that Queen Victoria bring Barotseland under protectorate status. Great Britain, however,
6608-408: The Lozi. Traditional attire is an important aspect of Lozi culture, particularly for women. Lozi women wear the musisi , which means "skirt" in Silozi . This garment is usually made from satin and is often paired with a matching shawl called a cali . Additionally, women wear a wrapper to cover themselves, particularly from the waist down, and always cover their hair with a headscarf. This attire
6726-599: The Native Authorities. These were purely advisory bodies, whose advice the Provincial Commissioner need not accept. Most of the members of the Provincial Councils were rural and many were chiefs, but some educated urban Africans were included. In 1946, a third tier was added with the formation of an African Representative Council for the whole protectorate, whose members were nominated by the Provincial Councils. The African Representative Council
6844-403: The Protectorate. Where Africans were parties before courts, Native law and customs were applied, except if they were "repugnant to natural justice or morality", or inconsistent with any other law in force. Below the High Court were Magistrates' Courts which fell into four classes: Criminal trials for treason, murder and manslaughter, or attempts and conspiracies to commit them, were reserved for
6962-412: The Southern Rhodesian mines, particularly the coal mines of Wankie . At this time the Company considered the principal economic benefit of Northern Rhodesia to be as a reservoir for migrant labour which could be called upon for Southern Rhodesia. British common law became the basis of the administration of Southern and Northern Rhodesia, unlike Roman Dutch law which applied in South Africa. In 1889,
7080-456: The Southern Rhodesian railway had extended across the Zambezi and continued northward, to reach the Belgian Congo border, which it did in 1909. By that time, mining had started in Katanga , where rich copper oxide ores occurred near the surface. In Northern Rhodesia, the surface ores were of poorer quality, and copper was only worked intermittently at Bwana Mkubwa until in 1924 rich copper sulphide ores were discovered about 100 feet below
7198-416: The US had the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve its independence, among other reasons (the Platt Amendment had also been integrated into the 1901 constitution of Cuba ). Later that year, Panama and the US signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty , which established the Panama Canal Zone and gave the US the right to intervene in the cities of Panama and Colón (and the adjacent territories and harbors) for
SECTION 60
#17327650651757316-481: The United States, and he encountered natives wearing copper bracelets. Later, the British South Africa Company built towns along the river and a railway to transport the copper through Mozambique . BSAC claimed to own mineral rights over the whole of Northern Rhodesia under concessions granted between 1890 and 1910 by Lewanika covering a poorly defined area of North-Western Rhodesia or negotiated by Joseph Thomson and Alfred Sharpe in 1890 and 1891 with local chiefs in
7434-420: The agent of indirect rule . Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company , which becomes a de facto state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces. In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by
7552-406: The anomaly of the Congo Pedicle . The two stages in acquiring territory in Africa after the Congress of Berlin were, firstly, to enter into treaties with local rulers and, secondly, to make bi-lateral treaties with other European powers. By one series of agreements made between 1890 and 1910, Lewanika granted concessions covering a poorly defined area of Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia , and
7670-413: The area north of the Zambezi, which he wanted to be held as cheaply as possible. Although Rhodes sent European settlers into the territory that became Southern Rhodesia , he limited his involvement north of the Zambezi to encouraging and financing British expeditions to bring it into the British sphere of influence . British missionaries had already established themselves in Nyasaland , and in 1890
7788-500: The authorities considered seditious . They were not generally politically active, but the Watchtower movement was supposedly involved in the 1935 Copperbelt riots, probably incorrectly. Secondly, Africans educated by missions or abroad sought social, economic and political advancement through voluntary associations, often called "Welfare Associations". Their protests were muted until the early 1930s, and concentrated on improving African education and agriculture, with political representation
7906-417: The capital to invest in developing other mines. It negotiated an agreement between Rhodesia Railways and the copper mine companies for exclusive use and used resources freed up to buy a major stake in the Anglo American Corporation. By the end of the 1930s, Northern Rhodesian copper mining was booming. When Northern Rhodesia became a Protectorate under the British Empire on 1 April 1924, a Legislative Council
8024-463: The company's claim to unalienated land north of the Zambezi. However, the company's claim in Northern Rhodesia was based on concessions granted rather than conquest and, although a Northern Rhodesian parliamentary Committee in 1921 recommended that these claims also should be referred to the Privy Council, the British government preferred to negotiate an overall settlement for the end of BSAC administration in Northern Rhodesia. This effectively acknowledged
8142-477: The company's claim. Under an Agreement of 29 September 1923, the Northern Rhodesian government took over the entire control of lands previously controlled by BSAC from 1 April 1924, paying the company half the net rents and the proceeds of certain land sales. Firstly, independent African churches such as the Ethiopian Church in Barotseland, Kitawala or the Watchtower movement and others rejected European missionary control and promoted Millennialism doctrines that
8260-415: The company-appointed Administrator had powers similar to those of the governor of a British colony or protectorate, except that certain decisions of the Administrator affecting Europeans had to be approved by the High Commissioner for South Africa to be valid. The High Commissioner could also make, alter or repeal proclamations for the administration of justice, taxation, and public order without reference to
8378-483: The economic interests of the colonial power. However, what was introduced into Northern Rhodesia in 1930 as a policy of Indirect Rule was little different in practice to the previous policy. Although some legitimate traditional chiefs and other appointed chiefs and headmen were nominated as Native Authorities, they had limited judicial powers and very limited financial resources to build up any institutions of self-government within their communities. Apart from in Barotseland,
8496-474: The four mines in the area, namely Mufulira , Nkana and Roan Antelope . British South Africa Police were sent from Southern Rhodesia to Nkana to suppress it. When, on 29 May, police in Luanshya attempted to disperse a group of Africans, violence erupted and six Africans were shot dead. The loss of life shocked both sides and the strike was suspended while a Commission of Inquiry was set up. It concluded that
8614-566: The ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa . A similar case is the formal use of such terms as colony and protectorate for an amalgamation—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held ( de facto ) sway by protective or "raw" colonial power. In amical protection—as of United States of the Ionian Islands by Britain—the terms are often very favourable for
8732-408: The influence on the total. In the rural areas where most Africans lived, six special constituencies were drawn. Both general and special voters participated in the elections and their votes counted for equal weight, although the majority of voters were Africans. In the special constituency areas, there were two composite 'Reserved European seats', in which special voters were restricted to one-third of
8850-525: The influence. There were also two 'Reserved African seats' in the areas of the ordinary constituencies, although all votes counted in full. Before the end of BSAC administration, Northern Rhodesian law was in conformity with the laws of England and Wales and its High Court of Northern Rhodesia was ultimately subordinate to those of the United Kingdom. This continued after 1924; all United Kingdom statutes in force on 17 August 1911 were applied to Northern Rhodesia, together with those of later years if specific to
8968-647: The land adjacent to the line of the main railway line was reserved for European settlement and farming. In 1938, it was reported that the Native Reserves were overcrowded, while much of the land reserved for Europeans was unoccupied and unused. In 1918, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom had rejected the British South Africa Company claims to unalienated land in Southern Rhodesia, and this raised questions about
9086-404: The land in both territories and some settlers suggested that the ownership in Northern Rhodesia should also be referred to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council . However, the British South Africa Company insisted that its claims were unchallengeable and persuaded the United Kingdom government to enter into direct negotiations over the future administration of Northern Rhodesia. As a result,
9204-594: The latter by the North-Eastern Rhodesia Order-in-Council of 1900. Both Orders-in-Council regularised the position of the BSAC Administrators, the first of whom were appointed in 1895. Both Order-in-Councils confirmed that the territories had the status of protectorates, with the Colonial Office ultimately responsible for the welfare of their indigenous populations, despite BSAC administration. The Colonial Office retained
9322-492: The low-level authority figures in the French Cercles —with leaders appointed and removed by French officials. The German Empire used the word Schutzgebiet , literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I , regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included: Before and during World War II , Nazi Germany designated
9440-765: The maintenance of public order. The 1904 constitution of Panama , in Article 136, also gave the US the right to intervene in any part of Panama "to reestablish public peace and constitutional order." Haiti later also became a protectorate after the ratification of the Haitian–American Convention (which gave the US the right to intervene in Haiti for a period of ten years, which was later expanded to twenty years through an additional agreement in 1917) on September 16, 1915. The US also attempted to establish protectorates over
9558-619: The period of primary construction which ended in 1911 when the main line through Northern Rhodesia crossed the Congo border to reach the Katanga copper mines. Rhodes' original intention was for a railway extending across the Zambezi to Lake Tanganyika , but when little gold was found in Mashonaland, he accepted that the scheme to reach Lake Tanganyika had no economic justification. Railways built by private companies needed traffic that can pay high freight rates, such as large quantities of minerals. A line from Kimberley reached Bulawayo in 1897; this
9676-528: The plain". Lozi tradition states that they have always inhabited Barotseland. In about 1830, an army that originated in the Sotho-speaking Bafokeng region of South Africa , known as the Makololo , led by a warrior called Sebetwane , invaded Barotseland and conquered the Lozi. They ruled until 1864, when the Sotho clique was overthrown following a Lozi revolt. The political organisation of
9794-460: The population density was low and the European population was small. In 1913, BSAC drew up plans for Native Reserves along Southern Rhodesian lines, outside which Africans would have no right to own or occupy land, but these plans were not put into effect under company administration. However, reserves were created in 1928 and 1929 in the northern and eastern parts of the protectorate, and about half
9912-423: The protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state. A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state. International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than
10030-426: The protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a de facto administering power. A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy. For political and pragmatic reasons,
10148-402: The protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation , in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate. Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations trust territories , whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community . A protectorate formally enters into
10266-400: The protectorate. The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or dynastic , historical, or ethnocultural ties). Also, the protector's interest is in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve
10384-562: The rump of occupied Czechoslovakia and Denmark as protectorates: Some sources mention the following territories as de facto Russian protectorates: After becoming independent nations in 1902 and 1903 respectively, Cuba and Panama became protectorates of the United States . In 1903, Cuba and the US signed the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations , which affirmed the provisions of the Platt Amendment , including that
10502-538: The run-up to independence, the Litunga, the Ngambela (Prime Minister), and about a dozen senior indunas went to London for talks with the Colonial Office, in an attempt to have Barotseland remain a Protectorate. In Lozi society, the family is traditionally led by the eldest male, often the grandfather. Family relationships are formed through marriage, birth, or adoption. Marriage holds significant importance, serving as
10620-541: The same time, a legislative council was established, consisting of the Governor and up to nine official members, and five unofficial members who were to be elected by the small European minority numbering 4,000 people only, as none of the African population had the right to vote. The most important factor in the colony's economy was copper. Ancient surface copper workings were known at Kansanshi (near Solwezi ), Bwana Mkubwa and Luanshya , all on what later became known as
10738-927: The southern end of the Copperbelt, and Beatty was responsible for the development of the Roan Antelope mine at Luanshya in 1926. Copper was becoming much more valuable as more of it was needed for electrical components and the motor industry . In 1927, Beatty sold a one-third interest in Roan Antelope to the American Metal Company (AMC), whose interests were in refining and selling metals, and in 1928 he formed Rhodesian Selection Trust (RST – later renamed Roan Selection Trust) to finance further mining developments. Beatty then sold his controlling interest in RST to AMC in 1930, becoming AMC's largest shareholder. AMC's commitment to RST allowed it to bring
10856-649: The state supposedly being protected, or only agreed to by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, without being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate's status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on
10974-409: The status of a protectorate. The territory attracted a relatively small number of European settlers, but from the time they first secured political representation, they agitated for white minority rule, either as a separate entity or associated with Southern Rhodesia and possibly Nyasaland . The mineral wealth of Northern Rhodesia made full amalgamation attractive to Southern Rhodesian politicians, but
11092-470: The surface. Prior to 1924, there had not been significant exploitation of Northern Rhodesia's mineral resources: there was some cattle farming in Barotseland, but Northern Rhodesia had attracted little white settlement, in contrast to its southern neighbour. Unlike Southern Rhodesia, which had seen a flood of fortune-seeking prospectors seeking to set up independent mines, Northern Rhodesia's mining policy
11210-416: The territory failed to produce gold, copper, or other exports, the "British South Africa Company defaulted on every commitment it had made to Lewanika," and few developments in infrastructure and education were made. Although Barotseland was incorporated into Northern Rhodesia , it retained a large degree of autonomy, which was carried over when Northern Rhodesia became Zambia on its independence in 1964. In
11328-731: The ultimate responsibility for these territory, and the High Commissioner for South Africa had the power to approve or reject all BSAC legislation. At first, Harry Johnston in Nyasaland was the local representative of the Colonial Office and the High Commissioner. Rhodes financed much of the British presence in Nyasaland and worked closely with Johnston and his successor, Alfred Sharpe, so he could use them as emissaries and their Nyasaland troops as enforcers, particularly in North-Eastern Rhodesia. This territory and North-Western Rhodesia were considered by Rhodes and his colonisers to be
11446-579: The very short boundary between North-Western Rhodesia and German South-West Africa , now Namibia . The boundary between the Congo Free State and British territory was fixed by a treaty in 1894, although there were some minor adjustments up to the 1930s. Boundaries with other British territories were fixed by Orders-in-Council. The border between the British Central Africa Protectorate and North-Eastern Rhodesia
11564-446: The way the increases were announced was the key factor, and that if they had been introduced calmly, they would have been accepted. Protectorate A protectorate , in the context of international relations, is a state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing
11682-566: The whole area in which Lewanika was paramount ruler in exchange for an annual subsidy and the promise of British protection, a promise that Lochner had no authority to give. However, the BSAC advised the Foreign Office that the Lozi had accepted British protection. As a result, Barotseland was claimed to be within the British sphere of influence under the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1891 , although its boundary with Angola
11800-403: The year. It is a vibrant expression of cultural identity, showcased during performances for the king at his palace, his visits to communities, weddings, and other celebrations, though it is not performed at funerals. Lozi society is highly stratified, with a monarch at the top and those of recent royal descent occupying high positions in society. The monarch, or Barotse Royal Establishment (BRE),
11918-568: Was Katanga. Initially, the Congo Free State had concluded that Katanga's copper deposits were not rich enough to justify the capital cost of building a railway to the coast, but expeditions between 1899 and 1901 proved their value. Copper deposits found in Northern Rhodesia before the First World War proved uneconomic to develop. In 1906, Union Minière du Haut Katanga was formed to exploit the Katanga mines. King Leopold wanted
12036-726: Was a small force of European civil police in the towns. The British South Africa Police were replaced by the Barotse Native Police force, which was formed in 1902 (other sources date this as 1899 or 1901). This had a high proportion of European NCOs as well as all European officers and was merged with the civil police to form the Northern Rhodesia Police in 1911. Initially, Harry Johnston in the British Central Africa Protectorate had responsibility for North Eastern Rhodesia, and Central Africa forces including Sikh and African troops were used there until 1899. Until 1903, local magistrates recruited their own local police, but in that year
12154-494: Was added for this purpose, replacing one of the nominated officials, so that the official and unofficial members each numbered eight. In 1941 one additional member was added to both the nominated officials and the elected unofficials, for a total of ten unofficials (nine elected) and nine nominated officials. In 1945, there was an increase in the number of unofficial European members representing Africans from one to three, and an additional two nominated unofficials were introduced for
12272-477: Was also largely advisory, but was later able to make recommendations for Africans to be nominated as members of the Legislative Council. In Northern Rhodesia, the British South Africa Company claimed ownership of all the unalienated land in the territory, and the right to alienate it. Europeans occupied land along the line of the railway and near the towns, but at first there was no land shortage, as
12390-621: Was also provision for a Native Court of Appeal, but if not established, appeal was to the Provincial Commissioner and thence to the High Court. From the 1890s and until after the end of BSAC administration, a policy of Direct Rule over Africans was operated, within the limits of what was possible with very small numbers of white District Officers. Except in Barotseland , these officers deprived traditional chiefs of their powers of administering justice, and deposed troublesome ones, although most chiefs accepted their reduced role as local agents of
12508-436: Was charged at different rates in different districts but was supposed to be equivalent to two months' wages, to encourage or force local Africans into the system of wage labour. Its introduction generally caused little unrest, and any protests were quickly suppressed. Before 1920, it was commonly charged at five shillings a year, but in 1920 the rate of hut tax was sharply increased, and often doubled, to provide more workers for
12626-527: Was established on which the Governor of Northern Rhodesia sat ex officio as Presiding Officer. The initial council consisted entirely of nominated members, as no procedure existed at the time for holding elections. However, the members were divided between the "official members" who held executive posts in the administration of the Protectorate, and the "unofficial members" who held no posts. In 1926,
12744-545: Was extended to cross the Victoria Falls in 1902. The next section was through Livingstone to Broken Hill , which the railway reached in 1906. The British South Africa Company had been assured that there would be plentiful traffic from its lead and zinc mines, but this did not materialise because of technical mining problems. The railway could not meet the costs of the construction loans, and the only area likely to generate sufficient mineral traffic to relieve these debts
12862-573: Was fixed in 1891 at the drainage divide between Lake Malawi and the Luangwa River , and that between North-Western Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia became the Zambezi River in 1898. The area of what became Northern Rhodesia, including Barotseland and land as far as Nyasaland to the east and to Katanga and Lake Tanganyika to the north, was placed under BSAC administration by an Order-in-Council of 9 May 1891, but no BSAC Administrator
12980-571: Was not fixed until 1905. In 1889, although Britain recognised the rights of the International Association of the Congo to large sections of the Congo basin, which formed the Congo Free State under the personal rule of King Leopold II of the Belgians , it did not accept its effective occupation of Katanga , which was known to have copper and was thought might also have gold. Rhodes, possibly prompted by Harry Johnston, wanted
13098-820: Was not until 1906 that North-Western Rhodesia received the same. In 1911 the two were amalgamated into the High Court of Northern Rhodesia . The British South African Company considered that its territory north of the Zambezi was more suitable for a largely African police force than a European one. However, at first, the British South Africa Police patrolled the north of the Zambezi in North Western Rhodesia, although its European troops were expensive and prone to diseases. This force and its replacements were paramilitaries, although there
13216-591: Was not until 20 May that the Native Tax Amendment Ordinance was signed, with rates implemented as of 1 January 1935. This retrospective increase outraged the miners, who already had grievances about low pay and poor conditions, and also with the Pass laws which had been introduced in 1927 and required Africans to have permits to live and work on the Copperbelt. It provoked an all-out Copperbelt strike which lasted from 22 May to 25 May in three of
13334-412: Was sent to Barotseland until 1895, and the first Administrator, Forbes, who remained until 1897, did little to establish an administration there. Before 1911, Northern Rhodesia was administered as two separate territories, Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia . The former was recognised as British territory by the Barotseland and North-Western Rhodesia Order-in-Council of 1899 and
13452-483: Was severely suppressed. A sharp increase in the rate of Hut tax in 1920 caused unrest, as did the 1935 increase in the tax rate on the Copperbelt. In 1935, the Northern Rhodesian government proposed to increase the rates of tax paid by African miners working on the Copperbelt, while reducing it in rural areas. Although the Provincial Commissioners had been told about the change on 11 January 1935, it
13570-532: Was specifically excluded). In 1929, the number of unofficial members was increased to seven. This failed to meet settler aspirations and in 1937 their members demanded parity if numbers with the nine official members, and seats on the Executive Council, until then wholly composed of officials: this demand was rejected. In 1938, there was the first acknowledgement of the need to represent the opinions of Africans, and one nominated unofficial European member
13688-570: Was to agree large-scale deals with major commercial mining companies. Large-scale mining on the Northern Rhodesian Copperbelt started after 1924 and was mainly financed from the United States of America and South Africa. Chester Beatty 's and Sir Edmund Davis 's Selection Trust already had an interest in the fairly small Bwana Mkubwa copper mine, which had opened in 1901 on the site of ancient mineral workings at
13806-423: Was uninterested in acquiring the territory. The granting of a royal charter to the British South Africa Company by Cecil Rhodes allowed the company to acquire Barotseland under the guise of the British government. Although under protectorate status, Lewanika eventually realized that he had been tricked and petitioned for the protectorate status to be corrected. Yet the land remained under Rhodes's control, and when
13924-527: Was within the British sphere of influence, and fixed the boundary between the British South Africa Company administered territory of North-Western Rhodesia (now in Zambia), and Portuguese Angola although its boundary with Angola was not marked-out on the ground until later. The northern border of the British territory in North-Eastern Rhodesia and the British Central Africa Protectorate was agreed as part of an Anglo-German Convention in 1890, which also fixed
#174825