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65-698: Lupinus , commonly known as lupin , lupine , or regionally bluebonnet , is a genus of plants in the legume family Fabaceae . The genus includes over 199 species , with centers of diversity in North and South America . Smaller centers occur in North Africa and the Mediterranean . They are widely cultivated, both as a food source and as ornamental plants, but are invasive to some areas. The species are mostly herbaceous perennial plants 0.3–1.5 metres (1–5 feet) tall, but some are annual plants and

130-411: A decarbonylation pathway. In the acyl reduction pathway, a reductase converts VLCFAs into primary alcohols, which can then be converted to wax esters through a wax synthase . In the decarbonylation pathway, aldehydes are produced and decarbonylated to form alkanes, and can be subsequently oxidized to form secondary alcohols and ketones. The wax biosynthesis pathway ends with the transportation of

195-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

260-460: A few are shrubs up to 3 m (10 ft) tall. An exception is the chamis de monte ( Lupinus jaimehintonianus ) of Oaxaca in Mexico , which is a tree up to 8 m (26 ft) tall. Lupins have soft green to grey-green leaves which may be coated in silvery hairs, often densely so. The leaf blades are usually palmately divided into five to 28 leaflets, or reduced to a single leaflet in

325-436: A few species of the southeastern United States and eastern South America . The flowers are produced in dense or open whorls on an erect spike, each flower 1–2 centimetres ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 4 inch) long. The pea-like flowers have an upper standard, or banner, two lateral wings, and two lower petals fused into a keel. The flower shape has inspired common names such as bluebonnets and quaker bonnets . The fruit

390-667: A food been renewed. Lupins can be used to make a variety of foods both sweet and savoury, including everyday meals, traditional fermented foods, baked foods, and sauces. The European white lupin ( L. albus ) beans are commonly sold in a salty solution in jars (like olives and pickles ) and can be eaten with or without the skin. Lupini dishes are most commonly found in Europe, especially in Portugal , Spain , Greece , and Italy . They are also common in Brazil and Egypt . In Egypt,

455-492: A high risk of dehydration from the under sides of their leaves. "The waxy sheet of cuticle also functions in defense, forming a physical barrier that resists penetration by virus particles, bacterial cells, and the spores and growing filaments of fungi". The plant cuticle is one of a series of innovations , together with stomata , xylem and phloem and intercellular spaces in stem and later leaf mesophyll tissue, that plants evolved more than 450 million years ago during

520-651: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

585-628: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

650-425: A maternal cuticle improves offspring fitness in the moss Funaria hygrometrica and in the sporophytes of all vascular plants . In angiosperms the cuticle tends to be thicker on the top of the leaf ( adaxial surface ), but is not always thicker. The leaves of xerophytic plants adapted to drier climates have more equal cuticle thicknesses compared to those of mesophytic plants from wetter climates that do not have

715-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

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780-525: A snack. Other species, such as L. albus (white lupin), L. angustifolius (narrow-leafed lupin), and L. hirsutus (blue lupin) also have edible seeds. Consumed throughout the Mediterranean region and the Andean mountains , lupins were eaten by the early Egyptian and pre-Incan people and were known to Roman agriculturalists for their ability to improve the fertility of soils. In

845-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

910-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

975-419: Is a pod containing several seeds. The seeds contain alkaloids which lend them a bitter taste. The genus Lupinus L. and, in particular, its North American species were divided by Sereno Watson (1873) into three sections: Lupinus , Platycarpos , and Lupinnelus . Differences in habitat and in the number of ovules were the basis for this classification. A majority of the perennial and annual species from

1040-401: Is alternate. The stem is predominantly naked with waxen coating . Dominating is the monopodial type of branching. Leaflets are smooth, with waxen coating or slight pubescence, predominantly narrow. Pods are flat or orbicular, with two or more seeds. Represented by frutcuilose, fruticose and herbaceous perennial forms, or less often annual ones. Plants are cross-pollinated. Chromosome number 2 n

1105-414: Is composed of an insoluble cuticular membrane impregnated by and covered with soluble waxes . Cutin , a polyester polymer composed of inter-esterified omega hydroxy acids which are cross-linked by ester and epoxide bonds, is the best-known structural component of the cuticular membrane. The cuticle can also contain a non-saponifiable hydrocarbon polymer known as cutan . The cuticular membrane

1170-426: Is currently small, but researchers believe it has great potential. Lupin seeds are considered "superior" to soybeans in certain applications and evidence is increasing for their potential health benefits. They contain similar protein to soybean, but less fat. As a food source, they are gluten-free and high in dietary fiber , amino acids , and antioxidants , and they are considered to be prebiotic . About 85% of

1235-612: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

1300-505: Is either 36, 48, or 96. This subgenus is distributed throughout North, Central and South America, predominantly in the mining systems of the Andes and Cordillera. Some species are cultivated ( L. mutabilis , L. polyphyllus ). This subgenus includes several hundred species, requiring further analysis of their authenticity. It comprises the following species: In its current circumscription , subgenus Lupinus includes 12 species from

1365-609: Is impregnated with cuticular waxes and covered with epicuticular waxes , which are mixtures of hydrophobic aliphatic compounds , hydrocarbons with chain lengths typically in the range C16 to C36. Cuticular wax is known to be largely composed of compounds which derive from very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) , such as aldehydes , alcohols , alkanes , ketones , and esters . Also present are other compounds in cuticular wax which are not VLCFA derivatives, such as terpenoids , flavonoids , and sterols , and thus have different synthetic pathways than those VLCFAs. The first step of

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1430-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

1495-526: Is synthesized exclusively by the epidermal cells. The plant cuticle is a layer of lipid polymers impregnated with waxes that is present on the outer surfaces of the primary organs of all vascular land plants. It is also present in the sporophyte generation of hornworts , and in both sporophyte and gametophyte generations of mosses . The plant cuticle forms a coherent outer covering of the plant that can be isolated intact by treating plant tissue with enzymes such as pectinase and cellulase . The cuticle

1560-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

1625-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

1690-824: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

1755-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

1820-516: The American continent described by Watson were referred to Lupinus . Some annual species with two ovules in the ovary and two seeds in the pod ( L. densiflorus , L. microcarpus , etc.) were attributed to the Platycarpos section. Section Lupinnelus consisted of one species ( L. uncialis ), with axillary and solitary flowers, scarcely reflexed banner, and also with two ovules in

1885-534: The Collins explanation is improbable. Certain species, such as the yellow bush lupin ( L. arboreus ), are considered invasive weeds when they appear outside their native ranges. In New Zealand , lupines are viewed as invasive and a severe threat in some cases. L. polyphyllus has escaped into the wild and grows in large numbers along main roads and streams on the South Island . A similar spread of

1950-473: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

2015-520: The Mediterranean region and Africa with at least four ovules or seedbuds in the ovary: The status of the following binomials is unresolved: The following hybrids have been described: While some sources believe the origin of the name to be in doubt, the Collins Dictionary definition asserts that the word is 14th century in origin, from the Latin lupīnus "wolfish" from lupus "wolf" as it

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2080-685: The Romans, who cultivated the plants throughout the Roman Empire where the lupin is still known in extant Romance languages by names such as lupini . Seeds of various species of lupins have been used as a food for over 3,000 years around the Mediterranean and for as long as 6,000 years in the Andes . Lupins were also used by many Native American peoples of North America such as the Yavapai . The Andean lupin or tarwi ( Lupinus mutabilis )

2145-766: The Western Australian Department of Agriculture and Food during the 1950s and '60s led to more sweet lupin crops produced in Western Australia now than anywhere else in the world. Bluebonnets , including the Texas bluebonnet ( L. texensis ), are the state flowers of Texas . Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

2210-584: The Western Hemisphere, with a minimum two or more ovules or seedbuds. Subgenus Lupinus consists of 12 species from Africa and the Mediterranean, with a minimum of four ovules or seedbuds. The taxonomy of Lupinus has always been confusing. How many distinct species exist or how they might be organized within the genus is not clear. The plants are variable and the taxa are not always distinct from one another. Some American taxa have been described as complexes rather than separate species. Estimates of

2275-419: The atmosphere into ammonia via a rhizobium – root nodule symbiosis , fertilizing the soil for other plants. This adaptation allows lupins to be tolerant of infertile soils and capable of pioneering change in barren and poor-quality soils. The genus Lupinus is nodulated by Bradyrhizobium soil bacteria. In the early 20th century, German scientists attempted to cultivate a sweet variety of lupin lacking

2340-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

2405-492: The biosynthesis pathway for the formation of cuticular VLCFAs, occurs with the de novo biosynthesis of C16 acyl chains (palmitate) by chloroplasts in the mesophyll, and concludes with the extension of these chains in the endoplasmic reticulum of epidermal cells . An important catalyzer thought to be in this process is the fatty acid elongase (FAE) complex. To form cuticular wax components, VLCFAs are modified through either two identified pathways, an acyl reduction pathway or

2470-719: The bitter taste, making it more suitable for both human and animal consumption. Many annual species of lupins are used in agriculture and most of them have Mediterranean origin. While originally cultivated as a green manure or forage , lupins are increasingly grown for their seeds, which can be used as an alternative to soybeans . Sweet (low alkaloid ) lupins are highly regarded as a stock feed , particularly for ruminants , but also for pigs and poultry and more recently as an ingredient in aqua-feeds. Three Mediterranean species of lupin, blue (narrow-leafed) lupin , white lupin , and yellow lupin , are widely cultivated for livestock and poultry feed. The market for lupin seeds for human food

2535-477: The cross-allergenicity of peanut and lupin, the European Commission , as of 2006, has required that food labels indicate the presence of "lupin and products thereof" in food. Lupin plants can be colonized by the fungus Diaporthe toxica which can cause a mycotoxicosis known as lupinosis when ingested by grazing animals. The legume seeds of lupins, commonly called lupin beans, were popular with

2600-452: The cuticle have specialised surface properties that prevent contamination of plant tissues with external water, dirt and microorganisms. Aerial organs of many plants, such as the leaves of the sacred lotus ( Nelumbo nucifera ) have ultra-hydrophobic and self-cleaning properties that have been described by Barthlott and Neinhuis (1997). The lotus effect has applications in biomimetic technical materials. Dehydration protection provided by

2665-533: The described species were referred to subgen. A. Eulupinus . Subgen. B. Platycarpos included several annual species from the Eastern Hemisphere with two seedbuds and seeds in the bean (the same species, as the one specified by S. Watson). A current schema retains this distinction, but uses the nomenclature for the subgenera of Platycarpos and Lupinus . In this schema, subgenus Platycarpos (S.Wats.) Kurl. contains perennial and annual species from

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2730-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

2795-470: The garden lupin, and Lupinus arboreus , the tree lupin, are popular ornamental plants in gardens, and are the source of numerous hybrids and cultivars in a wide range of colours, including bicolors. As legumes , lupins are good companion plants in gardens, increasing the soil nitrogen for vegetables and other plants. As well as growing in the ground, lupins can do well in pots on balconies or patios. Like other legumes, lupines can fix nitrogen from

2860-737: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

2925-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

2990-633: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

3055-456: The late 18th century, lupins were introduced into northern Europe as a means of improving soil quality , and by the 1860s, the garden yellow lupin was seen across the sandy soils of the Baltic coastal plain. The successful development of lupin varieties with the necessary "sweet gene" paved the way for the greater adoption of lupins across Europe and later Australia. Further work carried out by

3120-514: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Plant cuticle A plant cuticle is a protecting film covering the outermost skin layer ( epidermis ) of leaves , young shoots and other aerial plant organs (aerial here meaning all plant parts not embedded in soil or other substrate) that have no periderm . The film consists of lipid and hydrocarbon polymers infused with wax, and

3185-629: The lupin is known in Arabic as ترمس termes , and is a popular street snack after being treated with several soakings of water, and then brined. In Portugal, Spain, and the Spanish Harlem district of New York , they are consumed with beer and wine. In Lebanon , Palestine , Israel , Jordan , and Syria the salty and chilled lupini beans are called turmus (in Arabic : تُرمُس , Hebrew : תורמוס ) and are served as part of an apéritif or

3250-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

3315-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

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3380-415: The number of lupine species generally fall between 200 and 500. One authority places the estimate at approximately 267 species worldwide. Currently, two subgenera are recognized. The ovary contains two and more ovules or seedbuds. The seed are predominantly small-sized, with an underdeveloped embryo and small amount of endosperm. Cotyledons are small-sized, with long caulicles. The first pair of true leaves

3445-491: The ovary. While Watson's work was predominantly based on study of North American species, the later research of Ascherson and Graebner (1907) extended his principle of classification to cover all lupins from the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, also using number of ovules (seedbuds) in the ovary (and thus of seeds in the pod) as the criterion for this division. They described two subgenera, Eulupinus and Platycarpos . Most of

3510-541: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

3575-477: The seed in running water to remove most of the bitter alkaloids and then cooked or toasted the seeds to make them edible, or else boiled and dried them to make kirku , reported as a pre-Columbian practice in Las Relaciones geográficas de Indias . Spanish domination led to a change in the eating habits of the indigenous peoples, and only recently (late 20th century onward) has interest in using lupins as

3640-495: The species has occurred in Sweden , Finland and Norway after the non-native species was first deliberately planted in the landscaping along the main roads. Lupins have been planted in some parts of Australia with a considerably cooler climate, particularly in rural Victoria and New South Wales . Lupins are important larval food plants for many lepidopterans (butterflies and moths). These include: Lupinus polyphyllus ,

3705-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

3770-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

3835-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

3900-576: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

3965-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

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4030-429: The wax components from the endoplasmic reticulum to the epidermal surface. The primary function of the plant cuticle is as a water permeability barrier that prevents evaporation of water from the epidermal surface, and also prevents external water and solutes from entering the tissues. In addition to its function as a permeability barrier for water and other molecules (prevent water loss), the micro and nano-structure of

4095-578: The world's lupin seeds are grown in Western Australia . Some lupins contain certain secondary compounds , including isoflavones and toxic alkaloids, such as lupinine , anagyrine and sparteine . With early detection, these can be removed through processing, although lupins containing these elements are not usually selected for food-grade products. A risk of lupin allergy exists in patients allergic to peanuts . Most lupin reactions reported have been in people with peanut allergy . Because of

4160-536: Was a widespread food in the Incan Empire ; but they have never been accorded the same status as soybeans, dry peas and other pulse crops. The pearl lupin of the Andean highlands of South America, L. mutabilis , known locally as tarwi or chocho , was extensively cultivated, but no conscious genetic improvement other than to select for larger and water-permeable seeds seems to have been made. Users soaked

4225-413: Was believed that the plant ravenously exhausted the soil. But a more likely explanation is that lupinus meant that the plants were as dangerous to livestock as wolves, because the alkaloid poisons of Lupines can sicken or kill grazing animals, especially sheep. Farmers have known since ancient Rome that lupines improve soil by adding nitrogen and loosening compacted earth with their strong root systems, so

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