Misplaced Pages

#594405

102-403: It was used as a substitute site for the anniversaries of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch , after a 1939 assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler by Georg Elser rendered the original site, the nearby Bürgerbräukeller unusable. 48°08′52″N 11°33′30″E  /  48.14778°N 11.55833°E  / 48.14778; 11.55833 This article about a Bavarian building or structure

204-680: A cross pattée . When the Quadriga of the Goddess of Peace was retrieved from Paris at Napoleon's fall, it was re-established atop Berlin's Brandenburg Gate . An Iron Cross was inserted into Peace's laurel wreath , making her into a Goddess of Victory . In 1821 Schinkel crowned the top of his design of the National Monument for the Liberation Wars with an Iron Cross, becoming name-giving as Kreuzberg (cross mountain) for

306-552: A platinum frame that he was wearing at the time of his surrender to the allies in 1945. The Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross (also called Iron Cross with Golden Rays) was pinned to the left breast, above the Iron Cross 1st Class. Like the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, it was for bestowal upon successful general officers. The Star of the Grand Cross was awarded only twice, both to Field Marshals who already held

408-474: A German decoration (rather than Prussian), and continued the tradition of issuing it in various classes. Legally, it is based on the "Enactment for the re-introduction of the Iron Cross" ( Verordnung über die Erneuerung des Eisernen Kreuzes ) of 1 September 1939. The Iron Cross of World War II was divided into three main series of decorations: the Iron Cross (the lowest), the Knight's Cross (intermediate), and

510-409: A German monarch. There was also the "1957" issue, a replacement medal for holders of the 1939 series which substituted an oak-leaf cluster for the banned swastika. When the Iron Cross was reauthorized for World War I in 1914, it was possible for individuals who had previously been awarded one in 1870 to be subsequently granted another. These recipients were recognized with the award of a clasp featuring

612-595: A division named the Feldherrnhalle Regiment, and there was also an SA Feldherrnhalle Division. Der neunte Elfte (9 November, literally 'the ninth of the eleventh') became one of the most important dates on the Nazi calendar, especially following the seizure of power in 1933. Annually until the fall of Nazi Germany, the putsch would be commemorated nationwide, with the major events taking place in Munich. On

714-449: A few seconds ... Hitler had turned them inside out, as one turns a glove inside out, with a few sentences. It had almost something of hocus-pocus, or magic about it. Hitler ended his speech with: "Outside are Kahr, Lossow and Seisser. They are struggling hard to reach a decision. May I say to them that you will stand behind them?" The crowd in the hall backed Hitler with a roar of approval. He finished: You can see that what motivates us

816-657: A man". He was determined to put down the putsch with or without Lossow. Danner set up a command post at the 19th Infantry Regiment barracks and alerted all military units. Meanwhile, Captain Karl Wild, learning of the putsch from marchers, mobilised his command to guard Kahr's government building, the Commissariat , with orders to shoot. Around 23:00, Major-General von Danner, along with fellow generals Adolf Ritter von Ruith  [ de ] and Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein , compelled Lossow to repudiate

918-523: A march against Germany's Weimar Republic government. But circumstances differed from those in Italy. Hitler came to the realisation that Kahr sought to control him and was not ready to act against the government in Berlin. Hitler wanted to seize a critical moment for successful popular agitation and support. He decided to take matters into his own hands. Hitler, along with a large detachment of SA , marched on

1020-404: A miniaturized 1914 Iron Cross on a metal bar. The award was quite rare, since by this time there were few in service who held the 1870 Iron Cross. In World War II it was also possible for a holder of the 1914 Iron Cross to be awarded a second or higher grade of the 1939 Iron Cross. In such cases, a " 1939 Clasp " ( Spange ) would be worn on the original 1914 Iron Cross. For the 1st Class award,

1122-473: A pin which exhibited three Iron Crosses with an exaggerated swastika, thereby consolidating the awards. In some cases, Minox miniature cameras were given to people together with an Iron Cross. As modern German law prohibits the production and display of items containing Nazi insignia , the West German government authorized replacement Iron Crosses in 1957 with a trifoliate Oak Leaf Cluster in place of

SECTION 10

#1732765836595

1224-552: A qualified test pilot and development engineer and decorated in August 1943. Other DRK female auxiliaries who received the Iron Cross for acts of bravery are Hanny Weber, Geolinde Münchge, Elfriede Gunia, Ruth Raabe, Ilse Daub, Greta Graffenkamp, Elfriede Muth, Ursula Kogel, Liselotte Schlotterbeck, Rohna von Ceuern, Anna Wohlschütz, and Dr. Elizabeth Potuz. Two non-German female auxiliaries of the German Red Cross were awarded

1326-474: A ruling triumvirate. Hitler announced that he would hold 14 mass meetings beginning on 27 September 1923. Afraid of the potential disruption, one of Kahr 's first actions was to ban the announced meetings, placing Hitler under pressure to act. The Nazis, with other leaders in the Kampfbund , felt they had to march upon Berlin and seize power or their followers would turn to the communists. Hitler enlisted

1428-678: A sarcophagus bearing their name. In June 1945 the Allied Commission removed the bodies from the Ehrentempels and contacted their families. They were given the option of having their loved ones buried in Munich cemeteries in unmarked graves or having them cremated , a common practice in Germany for unclaimed bodies. On 9 January 1947, the upper parts of the structures were blown up. Iron Cross The Iron Cross (German: Eisernes Kreuz , listen , abbreviated EK)

1530-618: A tactical mistake, Hitler decided to leave the Bürgerbräukeller shortly thereafter to deal with a crisis elsewhere. Around 22:30, Ludendorff released Kahr and his associates. The Bund Oberland, under the command of Max Ritter von Müller, was sent to seize weapons from the Army Engineer Barracks under the pretence of performing training manoeuvres. Oskar Cantzler, captain of the 1st company of the 7th Engineer Battalion, did not believe them, but allowed them to perform

1632-453: A variety of very crude anti-German propaganda versions of the Iron Cross were created by the Allies, and sold to raise money for the war effort and the relief of Belgian refugees . One was inscribed "FOR KULTUR" in raised letters, another "FOR BRUTALITY." Yet another showed the names of French and Belgian towns attacked or destroyed during the retreat from Mons on the ends of the upper arms of

1734-571: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Beer Hall Putsch German government victory [REDACTED] Kampfbund [REDACTED]   Weimar Republic The Beer Hall Putsch , also known as the Munich Putsch , was a failed coup d'état by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler , Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff and other Kampfbund leaders in Munich , Bavaria , on 8–9 November 1923 , during

1836-465: Is neither self-conceit nor self-interest, but only a burning desire to join the battle in this grave eleventh hour for our German Fatherland ... One last thing I can tell you. Either the German revolution begins tonight or we will all be dead by dawn! Hitler, Ludendorff, et al. , returned to the main hall's podium, where they gave speeches and shook hands. The crowd was then allowed to leave the hall. In

1938-643: The Sturmabteilung (SA, literally "Storm Detachment"), the paramilitary wing of the NSDAP. On 26 September 1923, following a period of terror and political violence, Bavarian Prime Minister Eugen von Knilling declared a state of emergency, and Gustav Ritter von Kahr was appointed Staatskomissar ("state commissioner"), with dictatorial powers to govern the state. Along with von Kahr , Bavarian state police chief Colonel Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow formed

2040-547: The Bürgerbräukeller , where Kahr was making a speech in front of 3,000 people. On the evening of 8 November 1923, 603 SA surrounded the beer hall and a machine gun was set up in the auditorium. Hitler, surrounded by his associates Hermann Göring , Alfred Rosenberg , Rudolf Hess , Ernst Hanfstaengl , Ulrich Graf , Johann Aigner, Adolf Lenk , Max Amann , Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter , Wilhelm Adam , Robert Wagner and others (some 20 in all), advanced through

2142-828: The Imperial German Army , and the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic , while the Balkenkreuz (bar cross) variant was used by the Wehrmacht . The Iron Cross is now the emblem of the Bundeswehr , the modern German armed forces. King Frederick William III of Prussia established the Iron Cross award on 17 March 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars (EK 1813). The award was backdated to

SECTION 20

#1732765836595

2244-661: The Kampfbund were scurrying around to arm themselves from secret caches, and seizing buildings. At around 03:00, the first casualties of the putsch occurred when the local garrison of the Reichswehr spotted Röhm's men coming out of the beer hall. They were ambushed while trying to reach the Reichswehr barracks by soldiers and state police; shots were fired, but there were no fatalities on either side. Encountering heavy resistance, Röhm and his men were forced to fall back. In

2346-613: The Löwenbräukeller . These reports reached Major Sigmund von Imhoff of the state police. He immediately called all his green police units and had them seize the central telegraph office and the telephone exchange, although his most important act was to notify Major-General Jakob von Danner , the Reichswehr city commandant of Munich. As a proud war hero, Danner loathed the "little corporal" and those " Freikorps bands of rowdies". He also did not much like his commanding officer, Generalleutnant Otto von Lossow , "a sorry figure of

2448-648: The Muslim SS members to receive the award, SS Obersturmführer Imam Halim Malkoč was granted the Iron Cross (2nd Class) in October 1943 for his role in suppressing the Villefranche-de-Rouergue mutiny . He, together with several other Bosnian Muslims, was decorated with the EK II personally by Himmler in the days after the mutiny. Because of his Muslim faith, he wore only the ribbon, and not

2550-594: The Prussian Military Merit Cross ), but is seen as a supplement of existing awards of the Bundeswehr . In the United States, the Iron Cross was adopted by outlaw motorcycle clubs in the 1960s, as a symbol of rebellion and probably for shock value . From biker subculture it spread to rock and heavy metal subcultures, becoming part of heavy metal fashion . Lemmy Kilmister of the influential band Motörhead often wore one. in

2652-702: The Sudetenland and the Memel region ). After post-war German armed forces began seeing active service, first in Kosovo and then in Afghanistan , a campaign began to revive the Iron Cross and other military medals, since Germany had no awards specifically for active military service. In 2007, a petition to the German parliament to revive the Iron Cross decoration was initiated, quickly receiving over 5,000 signatures. On 13 December 2007 parliament decided to let

2754-475: The Weimar Republic . Approximately two thousand Nazis marched on the Feldherrnhalle , in the city centre, but were confronted by a police cordon, which resulted in the deaths of 15 Nazis, four police officers, and one bystander. Hitler escaped immediate arrest and was spirited off to safety in the countryside. After two days, he was arrested and charged with treason . The putsch brought Hitler to

2856-524: The 16 fallen were the first losses and the ceremony was an occasion to commemorate everyone who had died for the movement. On 9 November 1935, the dead were taken from their graves and to the Feldherrnhalle . The SA and SS carried them down to the Königsplatz , where two Ehrentempel ('honour temples') had been constructed. In each of the structures, eight of the dead Nazis were interred in

2958-593: The 1870 Iron Cross who were still in service in 1895 were authorized to purchase and wear above the cross a Jubiläumsspange ("Jubilee clip"), a 25-year clasp consisting of the numerals "25" on three oak leaves. William Manley is possibly the only recipient of both the Iron Cross and the Victoria Cross . He was awarded the Iron Cross for service with an ambulance unit in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. Emperor Wilhelm II reauthorized

3060-457: The 1870, 1914 and 1939 series of Iron Crosses have the year "1813" appearing on the lower arm, symbolizing the year the award was created. The 1813 decoration also has the initials "FW" for King Friedrich Wilhelm III , while the next two have a "W" for the respective kaisers, Wilhelm I and Wilhelm II . The final version shows a swastika representing the Nazi Party instead of a letter for

3162-405: The 1990s, this other use of the Iron Cross had spread from bikers to skateboarders and many extreme sports enthusiasts and became part of the logo of several related clothing companies. The Anti-Defamation League states that the version of the symbol with a swastika has been commonly used by neo-Nazis and other white supremacists as a hate symbol since it was discontinued following World War II, but

Löwenbräukeller - Misplaced Pages Continue

3264-699: The 2nd Class version was as a ribbon through one of the button holes in the recipient's tunic. The Grand Cross was intended for senior generals of the Prussian or (later) the German Army. An even higher decoration, the Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross (also called the Blücher Star ), was awarded only twice, to Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher in 1813 and to Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg in 1918. A third award

3366-899: The Bavarian government. The trial judge, Neithardt, was sympathetic toward Hitler and held that the relevant laws of the Weimar Republic could not be applied to a man "who thinks and feels like a German, as Hitler does." The result was that the Nazi leader remained in Germany. Though Hitler failed to achieve his immediate goal, the putsch did give the Nazis their first national attention and propaganda victory. While serving their "fortress confinement" sentences at Landsberg am Lech , Hitler, Emil Maurice and Rudolf Hess wrote Mein Kampf . The putsch had changed Hitler's outlook on violent revolution to effect change. From then his modus operandi

3468-609: The Black Cross was featured on the Prussian war flag alongside the Black Eagle. It was designed by neoclassical architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel , based on Friedrich Wilhelm III. The design is ultimately derivative of the black cross used by the Teutonic Order . This heraldic cross took various forms throughout the order's history, including a Latin cross , a cross potent , cross fleury , and occasionally also

3570-521: The DAP on 12 September 1919. He soon realised that he was in agreement with many of the underlying tenets of the DAP, and rose to its top post in the ensuing chaotic political atmosphere of postwar Munich. By agreement, Hitler assumed the political leadership of a number of Bavarian revanchist "patriotic associations", called the Kampfbund . This political base extended to include about 15,000 members of

3672-596: The Eastern Front, Magda Darchniger, decorated in 1942, Marga Droste, who remained at her post in the Wilhelmshaven hospital despite her own wounds during a bombing in 1942, Ilse Schulz and Grete Fock, who served in the African campaign, Liselotte Hensel and Miss Holzmann, who were both decorated in 1943 for bravery during a bombing of Hamburg, and the countess Melitta Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg , acting as

3774-693: The Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian Army under Captain Karl Mayr , of which Hitler became an agent. Captain Mayr ordered Hitler, then an army Gefreiter (not the equivalent of lance corporal, but a special class of private) and holder of the Iron Cross , First Class, to infiltrate the tiny Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (" German Workers' Party ", abbreviated DAP). Hitler joined

3876-595: The Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds ( Oberst Hans-Ulrich Rudel ). Like the Knight's Cross, the Grand Cross ( Großkreuz ) was worn suspended from the collar. It was reserved for general officers for "the most outstanding strategic decisions affecting the course of the war". The only recipient during the Second World War was Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring , who was awarded

3978-532: The Grand Cross (the highest). The Knight's Cross replaced the Prussian Pour le Mérite or "Blue Max". Hitler did not care for the Pour le Mérite , as it was a Prussian order that could be awarded only to officers. The ribbon of the medal (2nd class and Knight's Cross) was different from the earlier Iron Crosses as the color red was used in addition to the traditional black and white (black and white were

4080-796: The Grand Cross: in 1815 to Gebhard von Blücher for his part in the Battle of Waterloo , and in March 1918 to Paul von Hindenburg for his conduct of the 1918 Spring Offensive on the Western Front . It is often called the Blücher Star ( Blücherstern ) , after its first recipient. A Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross was manufactured in World War II, but never formally instituted or awarded. The only known example, based on

4182-498: The Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes , often simply Ritterkreuz ) recognized military valour or successful leadership. The Knight's Cross was divided into five degrees: In total, 7,313 awards of the Knight's Cross were made. Only 883 received the Oak Leaves; 160 both the Oak Leaves and Swords (including Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (posthumously)); 27 with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds; and one with

Löwenbräukeller - Misplaced Pages Continue

4284-524: The Iron Cross on 5 August 1914, at the start of World War I . During these three periods, the Iron Cross was an award of the Kingdom of Prussia, although—given Prussia's pre-eminent place in the German Empire formed in 1871—it tended to be treated as a generic German decoration. The 1813, 1870, and 1914 Iron Crosses had three grades: Although the obverse of the medals of each class was identical,

4386-406: The Iron Cross were given entitlements and often wore signifying articles, such as an Iron Cross signet ring or cloth Iron Cross which could be affixed to clothing. Also, during the Nazi period, those attaining more than one award, for example, an officer who had attained an Iron Cross 2nd Class, an Iron Cross 1st Class, and the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with the Oak Leaves, were entitled to wear

4488-735: The Iron Cross: Norwegian nurse Anne Gunhild Moxnes in April 1944, and an unknown Belgian nurse in 1942. A young member of the female youth organisation of the Third Reich, Ottilie Stephan, was also awarded the Iron Cross in February 1945 under unknown circumstances. At least two Iron Cross, 1st class, recipients were women, test pilot ( Flugkapitän ) Hanna Reitsch and in January 1945 German Red Cross sister Else Grossmann. One of

4590-554: The Iron Crosses 1st Class were stitched in ribbon to the left uniform breast. By order of 1 June 1813, the 2nd form was created in cast iron with silver borders, and 8 loops on the reverse, to be fixed to the left uniform breast. In 1817 a total of 670 chevaliers had received the Iron Cross 1st Class. King Wilhelm I of Prussia authorized further awards on 19 July 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War . Recipients of

4692-537: The Ministry of Defence decide the matter. On 6 March 2008, President Horst Köhler approved a proposal by Minister of Defense Franz Josef Jung to institute a new award for bravery. The Ehrenzeichen der Bundeswehr (Badge of Honor of the German Armed Forces) series was instituted on 10 October 2008. However, it does not have the traditional form of the Iron Cross (instead more closely resembling

4794-514: The Prussian military archives were destroyed during World War II. The multitude of awards reduced the status and reputation of the decoration. Among the holders of the 1914 Iron Cross, 2nd class, and 1st Class was Adolf Hitler , who served as an Austrian citizen in the Bavarian Army with the rank of Gefreiter (lance-corporal), he received these medals for showing bravery on the field of battle. Most photographs of Hitler show him wearing his EKI in standard fashion on his left breast. In 1914,

4896-457: The SA had disrupted a meeting of the Bayernbund ('Bavaria Union') which Otto Ballerstedt , a Bavarian federalist, was to have addressed, and the Nazi troublemakers were arrested as a result. Hitler ended up serving just over a month of a three-month jail sentence. Judge Georg Neithardt was the presiding judge at both of Hitler's trials. Hitler's trial began on 26 February 1924 and lasted until 1 April 1924. Lossow acted as chief witness for

4998-451: The SS stood guard between a lower plaque. Passers-by were required to give the Nazi salute . The putsch was also commemorated on three sets of stamps. Mein Kampf was dedicated to the fallen and, in the book Ich Kämpfe (given to those joining the party c. 1943), they are listed first even though the book lists hundreds of other dead. The header text in the book read "Though they are dead for their acts they will live on forever." The army had

5100-420: The Spange appears as an eagle with the date "1939". This was pinned to the uniform above the original medal. Although they were two separate awards in some cases the holders soldered them together. A cross has been the symbol of Germany's armed forces (now the Bundeswehr ) since 1871. On 17 March 1813 King Frederick William III of Prussia, who had fled to non-occupied Breslau (today Wrocław ), established

5202-523: The University of Munich rioted and marched to the Feldherrnhalle to lay wreaths. They continued to riot until 9 November, when they learned of Hitler's arrest. Kahr and Lossow were called Judases and traitors. Two days after the putsch, Hitler was arrested and charged with high treason in the special People's Court . Some of his fellow conspirators, including Rudolf Hess, were also arrested, while others, including Hermann Göring and Ernst Hanfstaengl, escaped to Austria . The Nazi Party's headquarters

SECTION 50

#1732765836595

5304-415: The World War I version but with the 1939 Iron Cross centerpiece, was found by Allied forces at the end of the war, and it is now in the museum at West Point . It is likely that Reichsmarschall Göring was the intended eventual recipient. He was the only holder of the World War II Iron Cross Grand Cross, and both the previous recipients of the Star had already received the Grand Cross. Officers awarded

5406-409: The action was not directed at the police and Reichswehr, but against "the Berlin Jew government and the November criminals of 1918". Dr. Karl Alexander von Mueller, a professor of modern history and political science at the University of Munich and a supporter of Kahr, was an eyewitness. He reported: I cannot remember in my entire life such a change in the attitude of a crowd in a few minutes, almost

5508-409: The armed militia organisation Reichskriegsflagge , were shot down accidentally in a burst of machine gun fire during the occupation of the War Ministry as the result of a misunderstanding with II/Infantry Regiment 19. Also honoured as a martyr in Mein Kampf was Karl Kuhn (born 7 July 1875), a head waiter in a restaurant. Allegedly he took part in the putsch as a member of the Freikorps Oberland, and

5610-491: The attention of the German nation for the first time and generated front-page headlines in newspapers around the world. His arrest was followed by a 24-day trial, which was widely publicised and gave him a platform to express his nationalist sentiments. Hitler was found guilty of treason and sentenced to five years in Landsberg Prison , where he dictated Mein Kampf to fellow prisoners Emil Maurice and Rudolf Hess . On 20 December 1924, having served only nine months, Hitler

5712-437: The auditorium under heavy guard. Heinz Pernet , Johann Aigne and Scheubner-Richter were dispatched to pick up Ludendorff, whose personal prestige was being harnessed to give the Nazis credibility. A telephone call was made from the kitchen by Hermann Kriebel to Ernst Röhm , who was waiting with his Bund Reichskriegsflagge in the Löwenbräukeller , another beer hall, and he was ordered to seize key buildings throughout

5814-407: The award was presented. It was worn with a 57 mm (2.2 in) wide ribbon bearing the same colors as the Knight's Cross and 2nd Class ribbons. The award case was in red leather with the eagle and the swastika outlined in gold. The original Grand Cross presented to Göring (personally by Hitler) was destroyed during an air raid on his Berlin home. Göring had extra copies made, one of them with

5916-602: The birthday (10 March) of his late wife, Queen Louise , who was the first person to receive it (posthumously). The Iron Cross was also awarded during the Franco-Prussian War (EK 1870), World War I (EK 1914), and World War II (EK 1939). During World War II, the Nazi regime made their own version by superimposing a swastika on the medal. The Iron Cross was usually a military decoration only, though some were awarded to civilians for performing military roles, including Hanna Reitsch and Melitta Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg for being civilian test pilots during World War II. Since

6018-428: The black and white colors on the ribbon were reversed. The ribbon color for the 1939 EKII was black/white/red/white/black. Since the Iron Cross was issued over several different periods of German history, it was annotated with the year indicating the era in which it was issued. For example, an Iron Cross from World War I bears the year "1914", while the same decoration from World War II is annotated "1939". The reverse of

6120-405: The city. At the same time, co-conspirators under Gerhard Rossbach mobilised the students of a nearby infantry officers' school to seize other objectives. Hitler became irritated by Kahr and summoned Ernst Pöhner , Friedrich Weber , and Hermann Kriebel to stand in for him while he returned to the auditorium flanked by Rudolf Hess and Adolf Lenk. He followed up on Göring's speech and stated that

6222-414: The colors of Prussia, while black, white, and red were the colors of Nazi Germany). Hitler also created the War Merit Cross as a replacement for the non-combatant version of the Iron Cross. It also appeared on certain Nazi flags in the upper left corner. The sides of the cross were curved, like most original iron crosses. The standard 1939 Iron Cross was issued in the following two grades: The Iron Cross

SECTION 60

#1732765836595

6324-492: The course of events had been stained with blood, came to be known as the Blutfahne ('blood flag') and was brought out for the swearing-in of new recruits in front of the Feldherrnhalle when Hitler was in power. Shortly after he came to power, a memorial was placed at the south side of the Feldherrnhalle crowned with a swastika . The back of the memorial read Und ihr habt doch gesiegt! ('And you triumphed nevertheless!'). Behind it, flowers were laid, and either policemen or

6426-446: The cross. Three Finnish Jews were awarded the Iron Cross: Major Leo Skurnik and Captain Salomon Klass of the Finnish Army and nurse Dina Poljakoff from the Lotta Svärd organization. All three refused the award. The Spanish double-agent Juan Pujol García , known to the Germans as Arabel and the British as Garbo received the 2nd Class Iron Cross, and an MBE from King George VI four months later. The Knight's Cross of

6528-406: The cross; these included Rheims , Louvain and Amiens on one side, and Antwerp , Dinant and Ghent on the other, with the date 1914 on the lower arm, and a central W for Kaiser Wilhelm as on the original. Another commemorated the raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby , showing the names of these "war atrocities" on the arms of the cross. Adolf Hitler restored the Iron Cross in 1939 as

6630-422: The crowded auditorium. Unable to be heard above the crowd, Hitler fired a shot into the ceiling and jumped on a chair, yelling: "The national revolution has broken out! The hall is surrounded by six hundred men. Nobody is allowed to leave." He went on to state that the Bavarian government was deposed and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff. Hitler, accompanied by Hess, Lenk, and Graf, ordered

6732-427: The decoration on 19 July 1940 for his command of the Luftwaffe , after the Battle of France in 1940. The medal is a larger version of the Knight's Cross, measuring 63 mm (2.5 in) wide as opposed to about 44 mm (1.7 in) for the Iron Cross and 48.5 mm (1.9 in) for the Knight's Cross. It was originally intended to have outer edges lined in gold, but this was changed to silver before

6834-404: The end, Hitler served just over eight months of this sentence before his early release for good behaviour. Prison officials allegedly wanted to give Hitler deaf guards, to prevent him from persuading them to free him. Although the trial was the first time that Hitler's oratory was insufficient, he used the trial as an opportunity to spread his ideas by giving speeches in the courtroom. The event

6936-406: The event and Heinrich Himmler spoke in his place. As the war went on, residents of Munich came increasingly to dread the approach of the anniversary, concerned that the presence of the top Nazi leaders in their city would act as a magnet for Allied bombers. Every Gau (administrative region of Germany) was also expected to hold a small remembrance ceremony. As material given to propagandists said,

7038-441: The government forces forced Hitler and Ludendorff to flee Munich, it was the origin of the Blutfahne ('blood flag'), which was stained with the blood of two SA members who were shot: the flag bearer Heinrich Trambauer, who was badly wounded, and Andreas Bauriedl, who fell dead onto the fallen flag. A bullet killed Scheubner-Richter. Göring was shot in the leg, but escaped. The rest of the Nazis scattered or were arrested. Hitler

7140-407: The help of World War I general Erich Ludendorff in an attempt to gain the support of Kahr and his triumvirate. However, Kahr had his own plan with Seisser and Lossow to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler. The putsch was inspired by Benito Mussolini 's successful March on Rome . From 22 to 29 October 1922, Hitler and his associates planned to use Munich as a base for

7242-446: The hill it stands on and, 100 years later, for the homonymous quarter adjacent to it. The Black Cross was used on the naval and combat flags of the German Empire . The Black Cross was used as the German Army symbol until 1915 when a simpler Balkenkreuz replaced it. The Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic (1921–35), the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany (1935–45), and the Bundeswehr (1 October 1956 to present) also inherited

7344-574: The hosts of occasional political rallies. One of Munich's largest beer halls was the Bürgerbräukeller , which became the site where the putsch began. After the Treaty of Versailles , which ended World War I , Germany declined as a major European power. Like many Germans of the period, Hitler, who had fought in the German Army but still held Austrian citizenship at the time, believed

7446-599: The late 20th century, the symbol has also been adopted into the outlaw motorcycle subculture and heavy metal fashion . The Black Cross ( Schwarzes Kreuz ) is the emblem used by the Prussian Army and Germany's army from 1871 to the present. It was designed on the occasion of the German Campaign of 1813 , when Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia commissioned the Iron Cross as the first military decoration open to all ranks, including enlisted men. From this time,

7548-408: The manner in which each was worn differed. The Iron Cross, 1st class, employed a pin or screw posts on the back of the medal, and was worn on the left side of the recipient's uniform, like the original 1813 version. The Iron Cross 2nd Class, and the larger Grand Cross, were suspended from different ribbons: the Grand Cross from a neck ribbon, the 2nd Class from a ribbon on the chest. The usual display of

7650-437: The manoeuvres inside the building. He locked the building with the 400 men inside and positioned two machine guns at the entrance. Hitler attempted to have the men released, but Cantzler refused. Hitler considered using artillery to destroy the building but chose not to. The night was marked by confusion and unrest among government officials, armed forces, police units, and individuals deciding where their loyalties lay. Units of

7752-568: The meantime, the Reichswehr officers put the whole garrison on alert and called for reinforcements. In the morning, Hitler ordered the seizure of the Munich city council  [ de ] as hostages . By mid-morning on 9 November, Hitler realised that the putsch was going nowhere. The putschists did not know what to do and were about to give up. At this moment, Ludendorff cried out, "Wir marschieren!" ('We will march!'). Röhm's force together with Hitler's (a total of approximately 2000 men) marched out – but with no specific destination. On

7854-468: The military decoration of the Iron Cross, backdated to 10 March (the late Queen Louise 's birthday). The Iron Cross was awarded to soldiers during the Wars of Liberation against Napoleon. Before a soldier could be awarded with the Iron Cross 1st Class, he needed to have been decorated with the Iron Cross 2nd Class. It was first awarded to Karl August Ferdinand von Borcke on 21 April 1813. The first form of

7956-674: The night of 8 November, Hitler would address the Alte Kämpfer ('Old Fighters') in the Bürgerbräukeller (after 1939, the Löwenbräu , in 1944 in the Circus Krone Building ), followed the next day by a re-enactment of the march through the streets of Munich. The event would climax with a ceremony recalling the 16 killed on the Königsplatz . The anniversary could be a time of tension in Nazi Germany. The ceremony

8058-656: The prosecution. Hitler moderated his tone for the trial, centring his defence on his selfless devotion to the good of the people and the need for bold action to save them, dropping his usual anti-Semitism. He claimed the putsch had been his sole responsibility, inspiring the title Führer or 'leader'. The lay judges were fanatically pro-Nazi and had to be dissuaded by the presiding Judge, Georg Neithardt , from acquitting Hitler outright. Hitler and Hess were both sentenced to five years in Festungshaft  [ de ] ('fortress confinement') for treason. Festungshaft

8160-604: The putsch. There was one member of the cabinet who was not at the Bürgerbräukeller: Franz Matt , the vice-premier and minister of education and culture. A staunchly conservative Roman Catholic , he was having dinner with the Archbishop of Munich , Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber and with the Nuncio to Bavaria , Archbishop Eugenio Pacelli (who would later become Pope Pius XII ), when he learned of

8262-560: The putsch. He immediately telephoned Kahr. When he found the man vacillating and unsure, Matt made plans to set up a rump government-in-exile in Regensburg and composed a proclamation calling upon all police officers, members of the armed forces, and civil servants to remain loyal to the government. The action of these few men spelt doom for those attempting the putsch. The next day the archbishop and Rupprecht visited Kahr and persuaded him to repudiate Hitler. Three thousand students from

8364-733: The rank of the recipient. For example, Bavarian officers received various grades of that Kingdom's Military Merit Order ( Militär-Verdienstorden ), while enlisted men received various grades of the Military Merit Cross ( Militär-Verdienstkreuz ). Prussia did have other orders and medals which it awarded on the basis of rank, and even though the Iron Cross was intended to be awarded without regard to rank, officers and NCOs were more likely to receive it than junior enlisted soldiers. During World War I, approximately 218,000 EKIs, 5,196,000 EKIIs and 13,000 non-combatant EKIIs were awarded. Exact numbers of awards are not known, since

8466-631: The spur of the moment, Ludendorff led them to the Bavarian Defence Ministry. However, at the Odeonsplatz in front of the Feldherrnhalle , they met a force of 130 soldiers blocking the way under the command of State Police Senior Lieutenant Michael von Godin  [ de ] . The two groups exchanged fire, which resulted in the deaths of 16 Nazis, four police officers, and one bystander. Although their defeat by

8568-480: The swastika, similar to the Iron Crosses of 1813, 1870, and 1914, which could be worn by World War II Iron Cross recipients. The 1957 law also authorized de-Nazified versions of most other World War II-era decorations (except those specifically associated with Nazi Party organizations, such as SS Long Service medals, or with the expansion of the German Reich , such as the medals for the annexation of Austria,

8670-434: The treaty to be a betrayal, with the country having been "stabbed in the back" by its own government, particularly as the German Army was popularly thought to have been undefeated in the field. For the defeat, Hitler scapegoated civilian leaders, Jews and Marxists , later called the "November Criminals". Hitler remained in the army in Munich after the war. He participated in various "national thinking" courses, organised by

8772-492: The triumvirate of Kahr, Seisser and Lossow into an adjoining room at gunpoint and demanded they support the putsch and accept the government positions he assigned them. Hitler had promised Lossow a few days earlier that he would not attempt a coup, but now thought that he would get an immediate response of affirmation from them, imploring Kahr to accept the position of Regent of Bavaria. Kahr replied that he could not be expected to collaborate, especially as he had been taken out of

8874-415: The use of the emblem in various forms. The traditional design in black is used on armored vehicles and aircraft, while after German reunification , a new creation in blue and silver was introduced for use in other contexts. The ribbon for the 1813, 1870 and 1914 Iron Cross (2nd Class) was black with two thin white bands, the colors of Prussia. The non-combatant version of this award had the same medal, but

8976-496: The visitor book) was later sold at auction, it was noted that Ludendorff had visited Hitler a number of times. The case of the resurfacing papers was reported in Der Spiegel on 23 June 2006; the new information (which came out more than 30 years after Shirer wrote his book, and which Shirer did not have access to) nullifies Shirer's statement. Police units were first notified of trouble by three police detectives stationed at

9078-411: Was acquitted . Both Röhm and Wilhelm Frick , though found guilty, were released. Göring, meanwhile, had fled after suffering a bullet wound to his leg, which led him to become increasingly dependent on morphine and other painkilling drugs. This addiction continued throughout his life. One of Hitler's greatest worries at the trial was that he was at risk of being deported back to his native Austria by

9180-461: Was a military decoration in the Kingdom of Prussia , and later in the German Empire (1871–1918) and Nazi Germany (1933–1945). The design, a black cross pattée with a white or silver outline, was derived from the insignia of the medieval Teutonic Order and borne by its knights from the 13th century. As well as being a military medal, it has also been used as an emblem by the Prussian Army ,

9282-431: Was a progressive award, with the second class having to be earned before the first class and so on for the higher degrees. It is estimated that some four and a half million 2nd Class Iron Crosses were awarded during World War II, and 300,000 of the 1st Class. Thirty-nine women, chiefly female nurses from the German Red Cross were granted the Iron Cross 2nd Class. Example of such women are Elfriede Wnuk, wounded in 1942 on

9384-593: Was arrested two days later. In a description of Ludendorff's funeral at the Feldherrnhalle in 1937 (which Hitler attended but without speaking) William L. Shirer wrote: "The World War [One] hero [Ludendorff] had refused to have anything to do with him [Hitler] ever since he had fled from in front of the Feldherrnhalle after the volley of bullets during the Beer Hall Putsch." However, when a consignment of papers relating to Landsberg prison (including

9486-469: Was awarded for bravery in battle as well as other military contributions in a battlefield environment. The Iron Cross, 2nd class, came with a ribbon and the cross itself was worn in one of two different ways: Note that for everyday wear, only the ribbon was worn from the second buttonhole in the tunic. The Iron Cross, 1st class, was a pin-on medal with no ribbon and was worn centered on a uniform breast pocket, either on dress uniforms or everyday outfit. It

9588-562: Was cancelled in 1934, coming as it did after the so-called Night of the Long Knives . In 1938, it coincided with the Kristallnacht , and in 1939 with the attempted assassination of Hitler by Johann Georg Elser . With the outbreak of war in 1939, security concerns caused the re-enactment of the march to be suspended, never to be resumed. However, Hitler continued to deliver his 8 November speech through 1943. In 1944, Hitler skipped

9690-517: Was extensively covered in the newspapers the next day. The judges were impressed (Presiding Judge Neithardt was inclined to favouritism towards the defendants prior to the trial), and as a result, Hitler served just over eight months in prison and was fined 500  ℛ︁ℳ︁ . Due to Ludendorff's story that he was present by accident, an explanation he had also used in the Kapp Putsch , along with his war service and connections, Ludendorff

9792-433: Was fatally shot by the police. In reality, Kuhn was an innocent bystander. He was working as a waiter in a nearby restaurant when he stepped outside to watch, after which he was killed in the crossfire. The 15 fallen insurgents, as well as the bystander Karl Kuhn, were regarded as the first "blood martyrs" of the Nazi Party and were remembered by Hitler in the foreword of Mein Kampf . The Nazi flag they carried, which in

9894-544: Was planned for the most successful German general during World War II, but was not made after the defeat of Germany in 1945. The Iron Cross, 1st class, and the Iron Cross, 2nd class, were awarded without regard to rank. One had to possess the 2nd Class already in order to receive the 1st Class (though in some cases both could be awarded simultaneously). The egalitarian nature of this award contrasted with those of most other German states (and indeed of many other European monarchies), where military decorations were awarded based on

9996-664: Was raided, and its newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter ( The People's Observer ), was banned. In January 1924, the Emminger Reform , an emergency decree, abolished the jury as trier of fact and replaced it with a mixed system of judges and lay judges in Germany's judiciary . This was not the first time Hitler had been in trouble with the law. In an incident in September 1921, he and some men of

10098-479: Was released. Once released, Hitler redirected his focus towards obtaining power through legal means rather than by revolution or force, and accordingly changed his tactics, further developing Nazi propaganda . In the early 20th century, many of the larger cities of southern Germany had beer halls , where hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of people would socialise in the evenings, drink beer and participate in political and social debates. Such beer halls also became

10200-458: Was the mildest of the three types of jail sentence available in German law at the time; it excluded forced labour, provided reasonably comfortable cells, and allowed the prisoner to receive visitors almost daily for many hours. This was the customary sentence for those whom the judge believed to have had honourable but misguided motives, and it did not carry the stigma of a sentence of Gefängnis (common prison) or Zuchthaus (disciplinary prison). In

10302-577: Was to do everything "strictly legal". The process of "combination", wherein the conservative-nationalist-monarchist group thought that its members could piggyback on, and control, the National Socialist movement to garner the seats of power, was to repeat itself ten years later in 1933 when Franz von Papen asked Hitler to form a legal coalition government. The 15 deceased are listed in Hitler's dedication to Mein Kampf . Scheubner-Richter

10404-486: Was walking arm-in-arm with Hitler during the putsch; he was shot in the lungs and died instantly. He brought Hitler down and dislocated Hitler's shoulder when he fell. He was the only significant Nazi leader to die during the putsch. Of all the party members who died in the putsch, Hitler claimed Scheubner-Richter to be the only "irreplaceable loss". According to Ernst Röhm , Martin Faust and Theodor Casella, both members of

#594405