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36-518: The Maidu people are geographically dispersed into many subgroups or bands who live among and identify with separate valleys, foothills, and mountains in northeastern Central California. The three subcategories of Maidu are: Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. Alfred L. Kroeber estimated the 1770 population of the Maidu (including

72-480: A decline of more than 90%. On this Cook rendered his harshest criticism: The first (factor) was the food supply ... The second factor was disease. ... A third factor, which strongly intensified the effect of the other two, was the social and physical disruption visited upon the Indian. He was driven from his home by the thousands, starved, beaten, raped, and murdered with impunity. He was not only given no assistance in

108-421: A factor of two or more. Stephen Powers initially estimated that the pre-contact population of the state was 1,520,000. He later reduced this figure to 705,000. C. Hart Merriam offered the first detailed analysis. He based his estimates on mission records and extrapolated that to non-missionized areas. His estimate for the state as a whole was 260,000. Alfred L. Kroeber made a detailed re-analysis, both for

144-625: A language that some linguists believe was related to the Penutian family. While all Maidu spoke a form of this language, the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary differed sufficiently that Maidu separated by large distances or by geographic features that discouraged travel might speak dialects that were nearly mutually unintelligible. The four principal divisions of the language were Northeastern Maidu or Yamonee Maidu (known simply as Maidu ); Southern Maidu or Nisenan ; Northwestern Maidu or Konkow ; and Valley Maidu or Chico . The Maidu inhabited areas in

180-416: A long and tedious process that was undertaken by the women and children. The acorns had to be shelled, cleaned, and then ground into meal. This was done by pounding them with a pestle on a hard surface, generally a hollowed-out stone. The tannic acid in the acorns was leached out by spreading the meal smoothly on a bed of pine needles laid over sand. Cedar or fir boughs were placed across the meal and warm water

216-463: A substantial portion of the aboriginal population. By one estimate, at least 4,500 California Indians were killed between 1849 and 1870. Historian Benjamin Madley recorded the numbers of killings of California Indians between 1846 and 1873 and estimated that during this period at least 9,400 to 16,000 California Indians were killed by non-Indians, mostly occurring in more than 370 massacres (defined as

252-524: Is so fine that a magnifying glass is needed to see the strands. In addition to making closely woven, watertight baskets for cooking, they made large storage baskets, bowls, shallow trays, traps, cradles, hats, and seed beaters. They used dozens of different kinds of wild plant stems, barks, roots and leaves. Some of the more common were fern roots, red bark of the redbud, white willow twigs and tule roots, hazel twigs, yucca leaves, brown marsh grassroots, and sedge roots. By combining these different kinds of plants,

288-706: The California Gold Rush , it is estimated that miners and others killed about 4,500 Indigenous people of California between 1849 and 1870. As of 2005, California is the state with the largest self-identified Native American population according to the U.S. Census at 696,600. Historians have calculated the Native Californian population prior to European entry into the region using a number of different methods, including: Few analysts claim that these methods yield accurate numbers. The estimates developed by different analysts commonly vary by

324-485: The California Statehood Act on September 9, 1850. In the latter half of the 19th century both State and Federal authorities, incited aided and financed miners, settlers, ranchers and people's militias to enslave, kidnap, murder and exterminate a major proportion of displaced Native American Indians, sometimes contemptuously referred to as "Diggers", using many of the same policies of violence against

360-486: The population of Indigenous peoples of California . Estimates prior to and after European contact have varied substantially. Pre-contact estimates range from 133,000 to 705,000 with some recent scholars concluding that these estimates are low. Following the arrival of Europeans in California, disease and violence—termed the California Genocide —reduced the population to as low as 25,000. During and after

396-405: The "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise"). Professor Ed Castillo , of Sonoma State University, provides a higher estimate: "The handiwork of these well armed death squads combined with the widespread random killing of Indians by individual miners resulted in

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432-412: The 21st century, after more than eight generations of close interaction between Native Californians and individuals of European, Asian, African, and other Native American descent, there can be little objective basis for quantifying the Native Californian component within the state's population. However, reservation rolls and census self-descriptions provide some information. Kuksu religion Kuksu

468-576: The Konkow and Nisenan) as 9,000. Sherburne F. Cook raised this figure slightly, to 9,500. Kroeber reported the population of the Maidu in 1910 as 1,100. The 1930 census counted 93, following decimation by infectious diseases and social disruption. As of 1995, the Maidu population had recovered to an estimated 3,500. The Maidu women were exemplary basketweavers, weaving highly detailed and useful baskets in sizes ranging from thimbles to huge ones 10 or more feet in diameter. The weaving on some of these baskets

504-470: The Maidu are traditionally a monotheistic people: "they greeted the sunrise with a prayer of thankfulness; at noon they stopped for meditation, and at sunset, they communed with Kadyapam and gave thanks for blessings throughout the day." A traditional spring celebration for the Maidu was the Bear Dance when the Maidu honored the bear coming out of hibernation. The bear's hibernation and survival through

540-399: The Maidu were primarily hunters and gatherers and did not farm. They practiced grooming of their gathering grounds, with fire as a primary tool for this purpose. They tended local groves of oak trees to maximize production of acorns , which were their principal dietary staple after being processed and prepared. According to Maidu elder Marie Potts: Preparing acorns as the food was

576-475: The areas directly affected by the missions and the Gold Rush . Other studies have addressed the changes that occurred within individual regions or ethnolinguistic groups. The Native Californian population reached its nadir of around 25,000 at the end of the 19th century. Based on Kroeber's estimate of 133,000 people in 1770, this represents a more than 80% decrease. Using Cook's revised figure, it constitutes

612-602: The arrival of the Franciscans in 1769. If correct, this may imply that population estimates using the beginning of the mission period as a baseline have substantially underestimated the state's pre-Columbian population. Mexican sovereignty over Alta California was short lived, as after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed to end the Mexican–American War in 1848, the U.S. took control of California and passed

648-399: The death of 100,000 Indians in the first two years of the gold rush." The decline of Native Californian populations during the late 18th and 19th centuries was investigated in detail by Cook. Cook assessed the relative importance of the various sources of the decline, including Old World epidemic diseases, violence, nutritional changes, and cultural shock. Declines tended to be steepest in

684-470: The discovery of underground dance rooms and wooden dance drums. The Patwin culture of Northern California had comparatively strong and noticeable Kuksu systems and rituals. The Maidu culture of Northern California had comparatively strong and noticeable Kuksu systems and rituals. Kuksu was personified as a spirit being by the Pomo people . Their mythology and dance ceremonies were witnessed, including

720-428: The hills and the mountains, the Maidu built their dwellings partially underground, to gain protection from the cold. These houses were sizable, circular structures 12 to 18 feet in diameter, with floors, dug as much as 3 feet below ground level. Once the floor of the house was dug, a pole framework was built. It was covered by pinebark slabs. A sturdy layer of earth was placed along the base of the structure. A central fire

756-484: The history of demographic decline during mission and post-mission periods. Initially, in 1943, Cook arrived at a figure only 7% higher than the one previously suggested by Kroeber: 133,550 (excluding the Modoc, Northern Paiute, Washoe, Owens Valley Paiute, and Colorado River Yumans). Cook later raised his estimate to 310,000. Some scholars now believe that waves of epidemic diseases reached California well in advance of

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792-537: The indigenous population that it did throughout its territory. Simultaneous to the ongoing extermination, reports of its effects were being made known to the outside world. A notable early eyewitness testimony and account: "The Indians of California" 1864, is from John Ross Browne , Custom's official and Inspector of Indian Affairs on the Pacific Coast systematically categorizing the fraud, corruption, land theft, slavery, rape and massacre perpetrated on

828-430: The many flowering plants, and corms from wildflowers also were gathered and processed as part of their diet. The men hunted deer, elk, antelope, and smaller game, within a spiritual system that respected the animals. The men captured fish from the many streams and rivers, as they were a prime source of protein. Salmon were collected when they came upstream to spawn; other fish were available year-round. Especially higher in

864-498: The northeastern Sierra Nevada. Many examples of indigenous rock art and petroglyphs have been found here. Scholars are uncertain about whether these date from previous indigenous populations of peoples or were created by the Maidu people. The Maidu incorporated these works into their cultural system, and believe that such artifacts are real, living energies that are an integral part of their world. Population of Native California The population of Native California refers to

900-499: The pool of men who headed the local Kuksu cult. They did not exercise day-to-day authority, but were primarily responsible for settling internal disputes and negotiating over matters arising between villages. The primary religious tradition was known as the Kuksu cult. This central California religious system was based on a male secret society. It was characterized by the Kuksu or "big head" dances. Maidu elder Marie Mason Potts says that

936-401: The sick. A ceremony dance was named after him. He also appeared in costume at most ceremonies briefly in order to take away the villager's illnesses. All males were expected to join a ceremonial society; some of their dances were private or secret from women and children. Scholars differ in their opinions of the societies' power in the tribe: "There was no secret society of importance as there

972-523: The spirit of Kuksu or Guksu, between 1892 and 1904. The Pomo used the name Kuksu or Guksu , depending on the dialect, as the name for a red-beaked supernatural being, that lived in a sweathouse at the southern end of the world. Healing was his province and specialty. The person who played the Kuksu/Guksu in Pomo dance ceremonies was often considered the medicine man , and dressed as him when attending

1008-440: The state as a whole and for the individual ethnolinguistic groups within it. He reduced Merriam's figure by about half, to 133,000 Native Californians in 1770. Martin A. Baumhoff used an ecological basis to evaluate the potential carrying capacity and estimated an aboriginal population of 350,000. Sherburne F. Cook was the most persistent and painstaking student of the problem, examining in detail both pre-contact estimates and

1044-504: The struggle against foreign diseases, but was prevented from adopting even the most elementary measures to secure his food, clothing, and shelter. The utter devastation caused by the white man was literally incredible, and not until the population figures are examined does the extent of the havoc become evident. The population subsequently rose substantially throughout the 20th century. This recovery may represent both true demographic growth and changing patterns in ethnic self-description. In

1080-542: The tribe practiced rituals to ensure good health, bountiful harvests, hunts, fertility, and good weather. Ceremonies included an annual mourning ceremony, rites of passage , and intervention with the spirit world. A male secret society met in underground dance rooms and danced in disguises at the public dances. Among the Patwin and Maidu , Hesi developed as a subdivision of Kuksu distinguished by its female participation. Kuksu has been identified archaeologically by

1116-559: The winter symbolized perseverance to the Maidu, who identified with the animal spiritually. The Kuksu cult system was also followed by the Pomo and the Patwin among the Wintun . Missionaries later forced the peoples to adopt Christianity, but they often retained elements of their traditional practices. Stories of K'odojapem/World-maker and Wepam/ Trickster Coyote are particularly prominent in Maidu traditional narratives . The Maidu spoke

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1152-461: The women made geometric designs on their baskets in red, black, white, brown or tan. Maidu elder Marie Potts explains, "The coiled and twining systems were both used, and the products were sometimes handsomely decorated according to the inventiveness and skill of the weaver and the materials available, such as feathers of brightly plumaged birds, shells, quills, seeds or beads- almost anything that could be attached." Like many other California tribes,

1188-717: Was a religion in Northern California practiced by members within several Indigenous peoples of California before and during contact with the arriving European settlers. The religious belief system was held by several tribes in Central California and Northern California , from the Sacramento Valley west to the Pacific Ocean . The practice of Kuksu religion included elaborate narrative ceremonial dances and specific regalia. The men of

1224-572: Was among the Maidu and presumedly among the neighboring Wintun , and no organized priesthood vested with control over ceremonies." In contrast, in 1925 a witness of the Clear Lake Pomo said: "The heart of religious activities lay in a secret society called kuhma , akin to that of the Patwin and Maidu and composed chiefly of men, which managed the ritual of the ancient kuksu religion. The ethnohistorian Alfred L. Kroeber observed that Kuksu existed, but had less "specialized cosmogony ," in

1260-551: Was poured all over, a process that took several hours, with the boughs distributing the water evenly and flavoring the meal. The Maidu used the abundance of acorns to store large quantities for harder times. Above-ground acorn granaries were created by the weavers. Besides acorns, which provided dietary starch and fat , the Maidu supplemented their acorn diet with edible roots or tubers (for which they were nicknamed "Digger Indians" by European immigrants), and other plants and tubers. The women and children also collected seeds from

1296-530: Was prepared in the house at ground level. It had a stone-lined pit and bedrock mortar to hold heat for food preparation. For summer dwelling, a different structure was built from cut branches tied together and fastened to sapling posts, then covered with brush and soil. The summer shelters were built with the principal opening facing east to catch the rising sun, and to avoid the heat of afternoon sun. Maidu lived in small villages or bands with no centralized political organization. Leaders were typically selected from

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