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135-673: The Pomo are a Native American people of California . Historical Pomo territory in Northern California was large, bordered by the Pacific Coast to the west, extending inland to Clear Lake , mainly between Cleone and Duncans Point . One small group, the Tceefoka ( Northeastern Pomo ), lived in the vicinity of present-day Stonyford , Colusa County , where they were separated from the majority of Pomo lands by Yuki and Wintuan speakers. The name Pomo derives from

270-470: A conflation of the Pomo words [pʰoːmoː] and [pʰoʔmaʔ] . It originally meant "those who live at red earth hole" and was once the name of a village in southern Potter Valley , near the present-day community of Pomo , Mendocino County . The word may also have referred to the local deposits of red magnesite (mined and utilized for making red beads ) or to the reddish, earthen clay soil of

405-485: A permaculture . Different tribes encountered non-Native European explorers and settlers at widely different times. The southern and central coastal tribes encountered European explorers in the mid-16th century. Tribes such as the Quechan or Yuman Indians in present-day southeast California and southwest Arizona first encountered Spanish explorers in the 1760s and 1770s. Tribes on the coast of northwest California, like

540-400: A diverse group of nations and peoples that are indigenous to the geographic area within the current boundaries of California before and after European colonization . There are currently 109 federally recognized tribes in the state and over forty self-identified tribes or tribal bands that have applied for federal recognition . California has the second-largest Native American population in

675-684: A feast. As they sat down to eat, the cannon was fired and many Indians were killed. The father of Captain Jack was among the survivors of that attack. Since then the Modocs resisted the intruders notoriously. Additionally, when in 1846 the Applegate Trail cut through the Modoc territory, the migrants and their livestock damaged and depleted the ecosystem that the Modoc depended on to survive. By 1900,

810-518: A few times, he becomes desperate, and resolve upon a war of extermination. This is a common feeling among our people who have lived upon the Indian frontier ... That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected. While we cannot anticipate this result but with painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power or wisdom of man to avert. Some local communities like

945-575: A group of Northern Pomo people bought 7 acres in Coyote Valley. In 1880, another Northern Pomo group bought 100 acres along Ackerman Creek (now known as Pinoleville)". In 1881, Yokaya Rancheria was financed by central Pomo people. Once the Pomo Indians had bought the land, it was time to make money. Baskets were in so much demand at this point, even though they were once used for trade and bartering with other tribes and people, they now became

1080-537: A group of consultants, Oliver Wozencraft , George Barbour, and Redick McKee to make treaties with the indigenous peoples of California in 1851. Leaders throughout the state signed 18 treaties with the government officials that guaranteed 7.5 million acres of land (or about 1/7th of California) in an attempt to ensure the future of their peoples amid encroaching settler colonialism . Anglo-American settlers in California responded with dissatisfaction and contempt at

1215-453: A healer spirit. A later shamanistic movement was the "Messiah Cult", introduced by the Wintun people. It was practiced through 1900. This cult believed in prophets who had dreams, "waking visions" and revelations from "presiding spirits", and "virtually formed a priesthood". The prophets earned much respect and status among the people. The record of Pomo myths, legends, tales, and histories

1350-471: A knife stone (obsidian core) which is black like jet and 20 cm or slightly less in length, and they make it cylindrical and as thick as the calf of the leg, and they place the stone between the feet, and with a stick apply force to the edges of the stone, and at every push they give a little knife springs off with its edges like those of a razor." As the distribution of obsidian sources in Mesoamerica

1485-403: A regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology ; this prevented larger, catastrophic fires and sustained a low-density "wild" agriculture in loose rotation. By burning underbrush and grass, the natives revitalized patches of land and provided fresh shoots to attract food animals. A form of fire-stick farming was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle;

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1620-543: A series of massacres and conflicts between settlers and the indigenous peoples of California lasting from about 1846 to 1873 that is generally referred to as the California genocide . The negative impact of the California Gold Rush on both the local indigenous inhabitants and the environment were substantial, decimating the people still remaining. 100,000 native people died during the first two years of

1755-609: A small amount of material, greatly contributed to obsidian's widespread use. One example is the presence of Pachuca obsidian from central Mexico, where Mexico City is now, and ostensibly under the control of Teotihuacan, in the Maya area during the Early Classic . While the Maya had access to a number of local obsidian sources more readily available and (relatively) easily obtained, including El Chayal its main source, Pachuca obsidian remained an important trade good. The Olmec , from

1890-478: A state-enabled policy of elimination was carried out against its aboriginal people known as the California genocide in the establishment of Anglo-American settler colonialism . The Native population reached its lowest in the early 20th century while cultural assimilation into white society became imposed through Indian boarding schools . Native Californian peoples continue to advocate for their cultures, homelands, sacred sites, and their right to live. In

2025-418: A technique employing a pressure flaking -like technique that removed blades from a polyhedral core , was ubiquitous throughout Mesoamerica. Modern attempts to redesign production techniques are heavily based on Spanish records and accounts of witnessed obsidian knapping. Motolinia , a 16th-century Spanish observer, left this account of prismatic blade production: It is in this manner: First they get out

2160-461: A unified group. Instead, they lived in small groups or bands linked by lineage and marriage. According to certain linguistic hypotheses, the Pomo descend from Hokan -speaking peoples; per this theory, a Hokan-speaking people migrated into the upland valley regions near Clear Lake ca. 7000 BCE , where their language evolved into Proto-Pomoan. Another theory places the Pomoan ancestral community in

2295-405: Is a strong indicator of the size and complexity of native California trade networks. The next phase, named the "Smith Phase" after the Pomo consultants, lasted from 1300 CE to the mid-19th century. Researchers mapped 30 sites in this era, showing a gradual evolving and intensification of trends. Archery , and its associated applications, was a major technological advancement which greatly benefited

2430-506: Is considered sacred to the Pomo tribe and baskets were produced for a variety of purposes. Pomo children were cradled in baskets, acorns (a major food staple to the Pomo) were harvested in great conical burden baskets, and food was stored, cooked, and served in baskets—some even being watertight. There were even "baskets" that were made as boats to be pushed by men to carry women across rivers. A commercial market for authentic baskets developed in

2565-662: Is distinct from Pachuca obsidian because of its internal opacity (e.g., it is a more milky or clouded green). Substantial research has been carried out to decipher the Guatemala region sources. As mentioned earlier, the Guatemalan region includes the El Chayal, Ixtepeque, and San Martin Jilotepeque sources, located in southern/southeastern Guatemala. Obsidian originating from Guatemala was widely used in Mesoamerica and

2700-635: Is extensive. The body of narratives is classed within the Central California cultural pattern. Carex roots are used to make baskets, and used to tend fishing traps. They are also used to make torches. Pomo baskets made by Pomo Indian women of Northern California are recognized worldwide for their exquisite appearance, range of technique, fineness of weave, and diversity of form and use. While women mostly made baskets for cooking, storing food, and religious ceremonies, Pomo men also made baskets for fishing weirs, bird traps, and baby baskets. Making

2835-618: Is found as far north as the Yucatán Peninsula , moving via a well-developed long-distance trade network that inter-connected much of the Maya area. Newer and tentative additions to the Guatemalan source area are Jalapa and Sansare . However, the El Chayal area is often seen as subsuming these two into one large source area. The Pre Classic Monte Alto culture and the Olmecs also used the Tajumulco Volcano source, in

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2970-487: Is found in many of these tombs in addition to evidence of its use in temple dedications, potlaching , or offerings . For example, flakes have been found in association with stelae offerings and related to specific gods at the Maya site of Tikal . Its ritualized use is not, however, restricted to high-status political and religious contexts, and it was clearly used within mundane domestic and household rituals. Most of

3105-402: Is generally limited, many areas and sites lacked a local obsidian source or direct access to one. As a result, tool curation through edge-rejuvenation and/or re sharpening was commonly used on larger-mass tools, such as bifaces, to prolong the tool's (and the raw material's) utility. While prismatic blades were generally not curated (in the traditional sense) due to their small size, utility of

3240-627: Is in the process of revival due to efforts by Clear Lake Pomo Cultural Preservation Foundation. The Pomo Indian cultures are several ethnolinguistic groups that make up a single language family in Northern California. Pomo cultures originally encompassed hundreds of independent communities. Like many other Native groups, the Pomo Indians of Northern California relied upon fishing, hunting, and gathering for their daily food supply. They ate salmon, wild greens, gnats, mushrooms, berries, grasshoppers, rabbits, rats, and squirrels. Acorns were

3375-451: Is indicated by a lack of production debitage , including polyhedral cores, decortical flakes, and large percussion flakes , among rural occupations. Obsidian was generally transported, where applicable, along coastal trade routes. Of primary importance is the circum-peninsular trade route that linked the southeast Maya area to the Gulf coast of Mexico. Examples of evidence of this include

3510-564: Is likewise found most frequently in privileged settings. As the Late Classic period progressed, obsidian became increasingly accessible to the lower classes of Maya civilization. Nevertheless, the Maya upper classes continued to remain in possession of the more prestigious Teotihuacan green obsidian. In the Teotihuacan culture obsidian was perhaps traded at a loss of human effort in transport across long distances. The profit from

3645-445: Is obtained by either quarrying source sites or in nodule form from riverbeds or fractured outcrops. Following the removal of cortex (when applicable), bifacial , unifacial , and expedient flake stone tools could be produced through lithic reduction . The use of pecking, grinding, and carving techniques may also be employed to produce figurines , jewelry, eccentrics , or other types of objects. Prismatic blade production,

3780-493: Is obvious considering that the material can be used to make some of the sharpest edges on earth. Obsidian was also used in a variety of non-utilitarian contexts. Objects made of obsidian were used as associated grave goods, employed in sacrifice (in whatever form), and in art. Some non-utilitarian forms include miniature human effigies , ear spools and labrets with gold and turquoise workings, carved animal figurines , beads , vases , and as pieces of masks . Obsidian

3915-532: The Bureau of Indian Affairs , and Federal and State funding for Tribal TANF/CalWORKs programs. The California genocide was not acknowledged as a genocide by non-native people for over a century in California. In the 2010s, denial among politicians, academics, historians, and institutions such as public schools was commonplace. This has been credited to a lingering unwillingness of settler descendants who are "beneficiaries of genocidal policies (similar to throughout

4050-624: The La Jolla complex and the Pauma Complex , both dating from c. 6050–1000 BCE. From 3000 to 2000 BCE, regional diversity developed, with the peoples making fine-tuned adaptations to local environments. Traits recognizable to historic tribes were developed by approximately 500 BCE. The indigenous people practiced various forms of sophisticated forest gardening in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands to ensure availability of food and medicine plants. They controlled fire on

4185-655: The Miwok , Yurok , and Yokut , had contact with Russian explorers and seafarers in the late 18th century. In remote interior regions, some tribes did not meet non-natives until the mid-19th century. At the time of the establishment of the first Spanish Mission in 1769, the most widely accepted estimates say that California's indigenous population was around 340,000 people and possibly more. The indigenous peoples of California were extremely diverse and made up of ten different linguistic families with at least 78 distinct languages. These are further broken down into many dialects, while

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4320-805: The Russian River Valley, a missionary colonized and baptized the Makahmo Pomo people of the Cloverdale area. Many Pomo left the valley because of this. One such group fled to the Upper Dry Creek Area. The archeology surveyors of the Lake Sonoma region believe that European and Euro-American encroachment was the reason why Pomo villages became more centralized; the people retreated to the remote valley to band together for defense and mutual support. The Pomo suffered from

4455-544: The Sonoma region, where coastal redwood ( Sequoia sempervirens ) forests met with inland valleys and mixed woodlands , bolstered by Clear Lake and its abundant natural resources. Around 4000 BCE to 5000 BCE , some of these people relocated into the areas of today's Russian River Valley and northward, near present-day Ukiah . Their language diverged into western, southern, central and northern Pomoan, respectively. Another people, possibly Yukian speakers, lived first in

4590-724: The Spanish Empire in 1821, a liberal sect of the First Mexican Republic passed an act to secularize the missions , which effectively ended religious authority over native people in Alta California . The legislation was primarily passed from liberal sects in the Mexican government, including José María Luis Mora , who believed that the missions prevented native people from accessing "the value of individual property." The Mexican government did not return

4725-482: The University of Missouri Research Reactor Center at the University of Missouri (which performs neutron activation analysis ), has divided Mesoamerica into nine sub-regions with one or more obsidian sources in each. These subdivisions, while effective at systemizing the source characteristics and allowing for a more easily visualized distribution of sources, are still tentative. They are as follows: Sources in

4860-567: The Warm Springs and Upper Dry Creek areas. Bowls and mortars and pestles appeared in this phase, probably used by women to pound acorns (as opposed to the milling stones used for seeds). The sites were more settled and, likewise, more "complex". Trade took place on a larger scale beyond the region. Decorative beads and ornaments were made in this phase, and approximately half of the artifacts were made of obsidian. Steatite or soapstone objects were also found, which must have been imported into

4995-439: The absolute or relative dating of an obsidian sample. The degree of hydration (i.e., water absorbed into the material) observed indicates how long it has been since the obsidian surface was exposed (i.e., through flaking). Obsidian hydration dating is at times, however, unreliable. The rate of hydration can vary tremendously depending on annual rainfall and humidity levels, among other factors, and how these have varied since

5130-585: The infectious diseases brought by the Euro-American migrants, including cholera and smallpox . They did not have immunity to such diseases and fatalities were high. In 1837 a deadly epidemic of smallpox, originating in settlements at Fort Ross , caused numerous deaths of native people in the Sonoma and Napa regions. Mission treatment of Pomo was similar to that of slavery, and many Pomo died due to inhospitable living conditions. The Russian River Valley

5265-775: The volcanic regions of the Sierra Madre Mountains as they run through Mexico and Guatemala . These resources, however, are still quite abundant in the archaeological record and their origins can be traced by their physical and geological properties. Before discussing these obsidian sources, a definition of what an obsidian source is must be established, as many of the terms used allow for different and competing interpretations. Sidrys et al. (1976) stated that an obsidian source area includes several outcroppings of obsidian, limited in spatial extent, which may or may not have common chemical features and may or may not have been used by ancient humans. Michael D. Glascock, of

5400-403: The 18 treaties of 1851–1852 that were never ratified and were classified. In 1944 and in 1946, native peoples brought claims for reimbursements asking for compensations for the lands affected by treaties and Mexican land grants. They won $ 17.5 million and $ 46 million, respectively. Yet, the land agreed to in the treaties was not returned. The American Indian Religious Freedom Act was passed by

5535-449: The 21st century, language revitalization began among some California tribes. The Land Back movement has taken shape in the state with more support to return land to tribes. There is a growing recognition by California of Native peoples' environmental knowledge to improve ecosystems and mitigate wildfires . The traditional homelands of many tribal nations may not conform exactly to the state of California's boundaries. Many tribes on

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5670-472: The American settlers embraced a policy of elimination toward indigenous people in California. In his second state address in 1851, Burnett framed an eliminatory outlook toward native people as one of defense for the property of white settlers : The white man, to whom time is money, and who labors hard all day to create the comforts of life, cannot sit up all night to watch his property; and after being robbed

5805-437: The California landscape, altering native people's relationship to the land as well as key plant and animal species that had been integral to their ways of life and worldviews for thousands of years. The missions further perpetuated cultural genocide against native people through enforced conversion to Christianity and the prohibition of numerous cultural practices under threat of violence and torture, which were commonplace at

5940-520: The Clear Lake Basin. Over a thousand prehistoric charmstones and numerous arrowheads have been unearthed at Tolay Lake, southern Sonoma County, attributed to both Pomo and Coast Miwok people. A sacred site, the lake is a ceremonial gathering and healing place. Both of these Skaggs-Phase sites contained millstones and other handstones for grinding seed and nuts. The villages may have been used for hunting or temporary camps. Obsidian

6075-914: The Cross Creek Site, Santa Barbara Channel Islands , Santa Barbara Coast's Sudden Flats, and the Scotts Valley site, CA-SCR-177 . The Arlington Springs Man is an excavation of 10,000-year-old human remains in the Channel Islands. Marine shellfish remains associated with Kelp Forests were recovered in the Channel Island sites and at other sites such as Daisy Cave and Cardwell Bluffs dated between 12,000 and 9000 cal BP. Prior to European contact, indigenous Californians had 500 distinct sub-tribes or groups, each consisting of 50 to 500 individual members. The size of California tribes today are small compared to tribes in other regions of

6210-560: The Gulf coast likewise obtained its obsidian also from El Chayal in Guatemala (Andrews (1990: 13). It is unclear if trade for foreign obsidian contributed to the growth of Maya polities, or if it simply served as a mode for obtaining superior items or human labor. Generally, obsidian came into the Maya area via larger central places, such as Tikal, Uaxactun , and Palenque . Obsidian artifacts and tools were then redistributed to smaller and potentially dependent centers and communities. This

6345-607: The Indigenous Californian tribes except for the Yuman/Quechan , who numbered 2,759 in the state. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, there are currently over one hundred federally recognized native groups or tribes in California including those that spread to several states. Federal recognition officially grants the Indian tribes access to services and funding from

6480-578: The Miwok Pomo and Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria. Many of her baskets are in museums in Yosemite, Mono Lake and other museums; she even presented her baskets to Queen Elizabeth II . The materials for baskets were sedge root, willow shoots and roots, bulrush or blackroot, redbud shoots, sometimes bracken fern and a variety of colorful bird feathers, abalone and other types of shells, magnesite beads and sometimes glass beads. Redbud shoots, used for

6615-514: The Modoc population decreased by 75 to 88% as a result of seven anti-Modoc campaigns started by the whites. There is evidence that the first massacre of the Modocs by non-natives took place as early as 1840. According to the story told by a chief of the Achumawi tribe (neighboring to Modocs), a group of trappers from the north stopped by the Tule lake around the year 1840 and invited the Modocs to

6750-564: The Pomo Indians to work in very intense and unorthodox conditions, and sexually abused the Pomo women. The Pomo men were forced to work in harsh conditions and were not given any respect by the settlers. Exasperated with the violence and oppression of Stone and Kelsey, they rebelled. The Pomo men set up a sneak attack and killed both Stone and Kelsey. Because of the deaths of Kelsey and Stone, United States lieutenant J. W. Davidson and captain Nathaniel Lyon sent an army to retaliate against

6885-529: The Pomo also manufactured elaborate jewelry made from abalone and clamshells. Assembled during the winter, during the summer the Pomo would travel from various sites along the coast where they would fish and gather all of their materials needed to create their jewelry. The Pomo Indians would create stunning, beautiful, and intricate forms of jewelry that were worn during celebrations and rituals, and even given as gifts. Both of these traditions of creation and culture have slowly dispersed and have become less common over

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7020-564: The Pomo changed with the arrival of Russians at Fort Ross (1812 to 1841) on the Pacific coastline, and Spanish missionaries and European-American colonists coming in from the south and east. The Pomo native to the coastline and Fort Ross were known as the Kashaya . They interacted and traded with the Russians. The Spanish missionaries stole or enslaved many of the southern Pomo from

7155-451: The Pomo people's way to make money and build their newly found empires. Women had preserved Pomo basket weaving traditions, which made a huge change for the Pomo people. The baskets were wanted all over California; it was a piece of art that traders wanted. Grandmothers and daughters taught other Pomo women, who had lost the tradition of basket weaving, how to make the all-powerful baskets. Within this time period in addition to basket weaving,

7290-664: The Pomo people. During the Bloody Island Massacre of 1850, on an island in Clear Lake the 1st Dragoons US Cavalry slaughtered between 60 and 100 people, mostly women and children of the Clear Lake Pomo and neighboring tribes. Shortly after the massacre, during 1851 and 1852, four reservations for the Pomo were established by the United States government in California. Pomo were also part of

7425-541: The Postclassic period. Earlier depictions of obsidian is usually restricted to their appearance as razors or lancets , and it is commonly believed that the material was not associated with weapons such as clubs or spears until later phases in Mesoamerica. In the Aztec writing system, a curved prismatic blade represents the phonetic value itz (Taube 1991) and results in the term itztli , as mentioned. Obsidian

7560-707: The Russian River Valley and Lake Sonoma areas prior to being displaced by the Pomo, who subsequently took over the region. Modern archaeological analyses and discoveries have suggested that the local native economy, which was based on women processing acorns by mortar and pestle , and first observed by the Spanish upon their arrival in Central California , may have developed during the Mostin Culture period (ca. 8500 BP –6300 BP) in

7695-478: The Santa Rosa Plain to Mission San Rafael, at present-day San Rafael, between 1821 and 1828. Only a few Pomo speakers went to Mission Sonoma , the other Franciscan mission, located on the north side of San Francisco Bay. The Pomo who remained in the present-day Santa Rosa area of Sonoma County were often called Cainameros in regional history books from the time of Spanish and Mexican occupation. In

7830-521: The Spanish, and Euro-Americans have impacted these languages, and many are no longer spoken due to language shift to English, accelerated by policies such as the 1887 ban on the teaching in Native American languages put into place by John DeWitt Clinton Atkins . There are about twelve Pomo language varieties that are still in use by Pomo people. One, xay tsnu , which is spoken by Elem Pomo,

7965-547: The U.S. federal government, who reimbursed money to the state for the militias. Most of inland California including California deserts and the Central Valley was in possession of native people until the acquisition of Alta California by the United States. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in 1848 inspired a mass migration of Anglo-American settlers into areas where native people had avoided sustained encounters with invaders. The California Gold Rush involved

8100-526: The U.S. government in 1978, which gave indigenous people some rights toward practicing their religion. In practice, this did not extend or include religious freedom in regard to indigenous people's religious relationship to environmental sites or their relationship with ecosystems. Religion tends to be understood as separate from the land in American Judeo-Christian terms, which differs from indigenous terms. While in theory religious freedom

8235-530: The United States generally)." This meant that the genocide was largely dismissed, distorted, and denied, sometimes through trivialization or even humor to create a self-positive image of settlers. Obsidian use in Mesoamerica Due to its glassy internal structure, obsidian is relatively easy to work, as it breaks in very predictable and controlled ways via conchoidal fracturing . This contributed to its prolific use throughout Mesoamerica. It

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8370-645: The United States in 1813, it was still being implemented as late as 1903 in Southern California. The last native removal in U.S. history occurred in what has been referred to as the Cupeño trail of tears , when the people were forced off of their homeland by white settlers, who sought ownership of what is now Warner Springs . The people were forced to move 75 miles from their home village of Cupa to Pala, California . The forced removal under threat of violence also included Luiseño and Kumeyaay villages in

8505-567: The United States. Most tribes practiced forest gardening or permaculture and controlled burning to ensure the availability of food and medicinal plants as well as ecosystem balance. Archeological sites indicate human occupation of California for thousands of years. European settlers began exploring their homelands in the late 18th century. This began with the arrival of Spanish soldiers and missionaries who established Franciscan missions that instituted an immense rate of death and cultural genocide . Following California statehood ,

8640-417: The United States. Of these, 8,578 reside in California. Pomo, also known as Pomoan or less commonly Kulanapan, is a language family that includes seven distinct and mutually unintelligible languages, including Northern Pomo , Northeastern Pomo , Eastern Pomo , Southeastern Pomo , Central Pomo , Southern Pomo , and Kashaya . John Wesley Powell classified the language family as Kulanapan in 1891, using

8775-512: The United States. Prior to contact with Europeans, the California region contained the highest Native American population density north of what is now Mexico . Because of the temperate climate and easy access to food sources, approximately one-third of all Native Americans in the United States were living in the area of California. Early Native Californians were hunter-gatherers , with seed collection becoming widespread around 9,000 BCE. Two early southern California cultural traditions include

8910-461: The Valley of Mexico, which fell under Teotihuacan control during the Early Classic , were Pachuca , Otumba , and Chicoloapan . Obsidian from Pachuca is notable because of its unique green-gold color and its internal purity which makes it one of the highest quality obsidian sources in Mesoamerica. It was much sought after and widely traded. Green obsidian is also found in the area of Tulancingo, but

9045-532: The activity of the Russian-American Company . A Russian explorer, Baron Ferdinand von Wrangell , visited California in 1818, 1833, and 1835. Looking for a potential site for a new outpost of the company in California in place of Fort Ross , Wrangell's expedition encountered the native people north of San Francisco Bay . He noted that local women, who were used to physical labor, seemed to be of stronger constitution than men, whose main activity

9180-584: The appreciation for American Indian art has been on the rise, and the art has become in demand – specifically Pomo Indian basketry. Dr. Joallyn Archambault, director of the American Indian Program at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History says: "Since the 1880s, when Pomo baskets first became sought after, the Pomo have changed their lifestyles enormously." Pomo today live normal modern lifestyles, but

9315-675: The area, rich in hematite (also mined for use). In the Northern Pomo dialect, -pomo or -poma was used as a suffix after the names of places, to mean a subgroup of people of the place. By 1877 , the meaning of the word Pomo had been broadened, at least in the English language , to refer to not only the Pomo language but the entire group of people speaking it, as well—the people known as Pomo, today. The people called Pomo were originally linked by location, language, and cultural expression. They were not socially or politically linked as

9450-550: The area. During the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the government attempted to force indigenous peoples to further break the ties with their native culture and assimilate into white society. In California, the federal government established such forms of education as the reservation day schools and American Indian boarding schools . Three of the twenty-five off-reservation Indian boarding schools were in California, and ten schools total. New students were customarily bathed in kerosene and their hair

9585-530: The artists and communities. Dealers and collectors may have exploited the lucrative basket market, but it still paid well enough to provide income to Pomo women where hunting and gathering were no longer feasible and money was needed for survival. Today you will see rare baskets being sold for the prices mentioned above. Due to the time and preparation necessary to weave these pieces of art; basket weavers today have more requests than they can fulfill, and many customers wait months before receiving orders. The rarity of

9720-425: The basket itself. Pomo women sometimes spent months or years making such gift baskets. The materials used to make the baskets—including, but not limited to, swamp canes, saguaro cactuses, rye grass, black ash, willow shoots, sedge roots, the bark of redbud, the root of bulrush, and the root of the gray pine—were harvested annually. After being picked, the materials are dried, cleaned, split, soaked, and dyed. Sometimes

9855-665: The basket weavers are still heralded and praised within the community for their artistic ability and skill. One of those basket weavers is Julia F. Parker . She is a master weaver, having woven under Lucy Telles . Her childhood was rough, constantly moving around until boarding school after her parents' death at 6. Lucy had taught Julia because of her perceived interest in preserving Indian culture and specifically basketry. Julia Parker became cultural demonstrator after Lucy Telles death in 1956. She continued in her studies and later studied Pomo basketry with Pomo master weaver Elsie Allen (1899–1990) at Ukiah and several others. Julia belongs to

9990-577: The baskets and the skill are required in making them in what makes them valuable. The demand is greater than the supply, and collectors facilitate a high demand for these artistically made baskets. The United States acknowledges many groups of native people of the United States as " federally recognized tribes ", classifying them as "domestic dependent nations" under the jurisdiction of the federal government, but with some autonomy from their respective states, including California. Many other self-identified Native American groups are not federally recognized. Since

10125-457: The baskets required great skill and knowledge in collecting and preparing the needed materials. Materials for weaving baskets changed with the seasons and years. The Pomo usually covered a basket completely with the vivid red feathers of the pileated woodpecker until the surface resembled the smoothness of the bird itself. With the feathers, 30-50 to every inch, beads were fastened to the basket's border and hung pendants of polished abalone shell from

10260-623: The baskets that signify different cultural meanings. For example, the Dau is a pattern woven into a basket by creating a small change in the stitching to create a small opening between two stitches. The Dau is the design that is also called the Spirit Door. This Spirit Door allows good spirits to come and circulate inside of the basket while the good or bad spirits are released. Although baskets were made for decorating homes and as gifts, they were centrally used in Pomo daily life as well. Basket weaving

10395-521: The blade's ends. Unfortunately, the majority of the material record is out of context yet the implications and interpretations that are drawn from artwork are substantial and reflect a corpus of beliefs and ideology involving obsidian. Some of the more significant portrayals of obsidian use involve blood-letting and warfare. One example includes the macuahuitl , a broad–faced club studded along its edges by obsidian prismatic blades. These weapons are predominantly used in ritual warfare and generally date to

10530-486: The boarding schools. Native people recognized the American Indian boarding schools as institutionalized forces of elimination toward their native culture . They demanded the right for their children to access public schools. In 1935, restrictions that forbid native people from attending public schools were removed. It was not until 1978 that native people won the legal right to prevent familial separation that

10665-441: The city of Shasta authorized "five dollars for every Indian head." In this period, 303 volunteer militia groups of 35,000 men were formed by the settlers. In the fiscal year of 1851–1852, California reimbursed approximately $ 1 million of expenses for militia groups engaged in "the suppression of Indian hostilities", although in fact, they were massacring native people. Volunteer militia groups were also indirectly subsidized by

10800-551: The collection of the Imperial Academy of Sciences . He described the locals that he met on his trip to Cape Mendocino as "the untamed Indian tribes of New Albion , who roam like animals and, protected by impenetrable vegetation, keep from being enslaved by the Spanish". After about a decade of conservative rule in the First Mexican Republic , which formed in 1824 after Mexico gained independence from

10935-474: The darker reddish colors in basket designs are gathered in October. Good redbud is hard to obtain around Ukiah, so it is usually found at Clear Lake. All these materials are gathered with a thankful heart and the gatherers talk continuously to the plants. They were, after all, living things that were giving themselves for something useful and beautiful. In order to preserve the soil and creek banks, sedge gathering

11070-549: The dropping of 11,000 pounds of granular hexazinone on 3,075 acres of the Stanislaus National Forest in 1996 by the USFS, deformed plants and sickened wildlife that are culturally and religiously significant to native people. California has the largest population of Native Americans out of any state, with 1,252,083 identifying an "American Indian or Alaska Native" tribe as a component of their race (14.6% of

11205-718: The eastern border with Nevada have been classified as Great Basin tribes , while some tribes on the Oregon border are classified as Plateau tribes . Tribes in Baja California who do not cross into California are classified as indigenous peoples of Mexico . The Kumeyaay nation is split by the Mexico-United States border . Evidence of human occupation of California dates from at least 19,000 years ago. Archeological sites with dates that support human settlement in period 12,000 -7,000 ybp are: Borax Lake ,

11340-440: The end of the century. The mass decline in population has been attributed to disease and epidemics that swept through Spanish missions in the early part of the century, such as an 1833 malaria epidemic, among other factors including state-enabled massacres that accelerated under Anglo-American rule. In the early 19th century, Russian exploration of California and contacts with indigenous people were usually associated with

11475-505: The evidence that supports the many theories about obsidian use in Mesoamerica comes from the artwork of the region. This artwork is seen in many forms including the aforementioned obsidian figurines, ear spools, beads, and vases. Stele and large carvings, sculpture, and murals on architecture also depict obsidian. Typically, the material's visual depiction in artwork is generally associated with autosacrifice and other types of sacrifice, including images of prismatic blades with bloody hearts on

11610-411: The experience of the researcher, visual sourcing has a number of advantages. Primarily, it is a cheap method that allows for the analysis of an entire obsidian assemblage. This is in comparison to trace element analysis which, due to high costs, allows for the analysis of only a small sample , preferably one that is statistically representative. Obsidian hydration dating is a method that allows for

11745-641: The following as a legal practice: Any person could go before a Justice of Peace to obtain Indian children for indenture. The Justice determined whether or not compulsory means were used to obtain the child. If the Justice was satisfied that no coercion occurred, the person obtain a certificate that authorized him to have the care, custody, control and earnings of an Indian until their age of majority (for males, eighteen years, for females, fifteen years). Raids on native villages were common, where adults and children were threatened with fatal consequence for refusing what

11880-524: The forced relocation known as the "Marches to Round Valley" in 1856, conducted by the U.S. federal government. By using bullwhips and guns, white settlers demanded relocation to reservations of the Pomo Indian. The justification given was that to protect their culture, the Pomo Indians had to be removed from their ancestral land. Richerson & Richerson stated that before the European conquests there

12015-480: The future would have in store. It was a time to build, a time to connect, a time of hope, and a time of change. The Pomo Indians did not have enough money to buy land. The Pomo men decided to work for ranchers and the woman went back to making baskets. The "white" people loved the baskets, especially the designer, feathered ones, which led to a basketry movement. Finally, in 1878, the Pomo Indians bought their first piece of land in California. Paula Giese noted, "In 1878,

12150-456: The gold rush alone. Settlers took land both for their camps and to farm and supply food for their camps. The surging mining population resulted in the disappearance of many food sources. Toxic waste from their operations killed fish and destroyed habitats. Settlers viewed indigenous people as obstacles for gold, so they actively went into villages where they raped the women and killed the men. Sexual violence against native women and young girls

12285-491: The higher quantities of obsidian found among coastal sites, such as small island occupations off the coast of Belize , then at sites located in-land. Obsidian, called itztli in the Nahuatl language , has been found at nearly every Mesoamerican archaeological site . Items made from this material had both utilitarian and ritual use. In many areas, it was available to all households regardless of socio-economic status, and

12420-404: The history of the tribe but more evident in today's culture. Pomo basket weaving is still valued and honored today, not only by the Pomo Indians themselves, but also by amateur enthusiasts, buyers for curio dealers, and scientific collectors. The Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria are a federally recognized American Indian tribe of Coast Miwok and Southern Pomo Indians. During the past 30 years,

12555-491: The lands to tribes, but made land grants to settlers of at least partial European ancestry, transforming the remaining parts of mission land into large land grants or ranchos . Secularization provided native people with the opportunity to leave the mission system, yet left many people landless , who were thus pressured into wage labor at the ranchos. The few Indigenous people who acquired land grants were those who have proven their Hispanicization and Christianization . This

12690-605: The late 20th century, some states have begun to give formal recognition to tribes in varying ways. The Pomo groups presently recognized by the United States are based in Sonoma , Lake , and Mendocino counties. They include the following tribes: Many Pomo were impacted by the California Rancheria Termination Acts and lost lands due to lack of understanding the tax system, along with predation by merchants who took advantage of land-rich but cash-poor tribal members. Along with losing their lands,

12825-461: The latter part of the 19th century, lasting from about 1876 to the 1930s. Two Pomo people who capitalized on this market were William Ralganal Benson and his wife, Mary Knight Benson and the Bensons may have been the first California Indians who supported themselves solely by crafting and selling their baskets to collectors and museums. Even though most of their original land was taken over, this

12960-437: The materials are also boiled over a fire and set in the sun to dry. Women traditionally wove Pomo baskets with great care and technique. The three different techniques of Pomo basket weaving are plaiting, coiling, and twining. One drying method was wrapping maiden fern in blue clay and placing underground for several days. This prevented fading in the sun or when cooking mush. There are many different designs that are woven into

13095-707: The matter, who stated that the construction of the road would destroy the religions of the three tribes. However, no protection was provided through the Religious Freedom Act. The National Park Service mandates a no-gathering policy for cultural or religious purposes and the United States Forest Service (USFS) requires a special permit and fee, which prohibits native people's religious freedom. A 1995 mandate that would have provided conditional opportunities for gathering for this purpose failed to pass. Pesticide use in forests, such as

13230-435: The missions. The population of Native California was reduced by 90% during the 19th century—from more than 200,000 in the early 19th century to approximately 15,000 at the end of the century. The majority of this population decline occurred in the latter half of the century, under American occupation. While in 1848, the population of native people was about 150,000, by 1870 it fell to 30,000, and fell further to 16,000 by

13365-496: The missions. In that same period, 63,789 deaths at the missions were recorded, indicating the immense death rate . This massive drop in population has been attributed to the introduction of diseases, which rapidly spread while native people were forced into close quarters at the missions, as well as torture, overworking, and malnourishment at the missions. The missions also introduced European invasive plant species as well as cattle grazing practices that significantly transformed

13500-621: The most important staple in their diet. The division of labor in Pomo Indian communities typically involved gathering and preparation of plant-based foods by women, while men were hunters and fishers. The Pomo people participated in shamanism ; one form this took was the Kuksu religion , which was held by people in Central and Northern California. It included elaborate acting and dancing ceremonies in traditional costume, an annual mourning ceremony, puberty rites of passage , shamanic intervention with

13635-575: The name first introduced by George Gibbs in 1853. This name for the language family is derived from the name of one Eastern Pomo village on the south shore of Clear Lake. Stephen Powers (1877) was the first to refer to this entire language family with the name "Pomo", and the geographic names that have been used to refer to the seven individual Pomoan languages (e.g. Southeastern Pomo) were introduced by Samuel Barrett (1908). The Pomoan languages became severely endangered after European-American colonization of their native territory. Contacts with Russians,

13770-467: The nation-wide total). This population grew by 15% between 2000 and 2010, much less than the nation-wide growth rate of 27%, but higher than the population growth rate for all races, which was about 10% in California over that decade. Over 50,000 indigenous people live in Los Angeles alone. However, the majority of Indigenous people in California today do not identify with the tribes indigenous to

13905-531: The northern and mountainous areas of the state, which had avoided some earlier waves of violence due to their more remote locations. Near the end of the period associated with the California genocide, the final stage of the Modoc Campaign was triggered when Modoc men led by Kintpuash (AKA Captain Jack) murdered General Canby at the peace tent in 1873. However, it's not widely known that between 1851 and 1872

14040-490: The origins of an artifact's material can be determined. It is clear that obsidian was a critical material in Precolumbian Mesoamerican economies; it is ubiquitous throughout the region, and found in the material record of all cultures and time periods. The low bulk of obsidian in transport , which therefore required less effort in trade, and the large quantity of useful items that could be produced from

14175-496: The people in the village to government lands and burned the village houses. From 1891 to 1935, starting with National Thorn , the artist Grace Hudson painted over 600 portraits, mainly of Pomo individuals living near her in the Ukiah area. Her style was sympathetic and poignant, as she portrayed domestic native scenes that would have been fast disappearing in that time. In 1770 there were about 8,000 Pomo people; in 1851 population

14310-501: The people were organized into sedentary and semi-sedentary villages of 400-500 micro-tribes. The Spanish began their long-term occupation in California in 1769 with the founding of Mission San Diego de Alcalá in San Diego . The Spanish built 20 additional missions in California, most of which were constructed in the late 18th century. From 1769 to 1832, an estimated total of 87,787 baptisms and 24,529 marriages had been conducted at

14445-418: The piece was first produced (or how they vary if the piece moved from one ecological zone to another). Due to the nature of the geological formation of obsidian, and the impact that each unique formation incidence has on the appearance and geochemical properties of each source, the material serves as an excellent medium by which long-distance trade can be studied. In performing trace-element or visual analyses,

14580-514: The population of native people who survived the eliminatory policies and acts carried out in the 19th century was estimated at 16,000 people. Remaining native people continued to be the recipients of the U.S. policies of cultural genocide throughout the 20th century. Many other native people would experience false claims that they were "extinct" as a people throughout the century. Although the American policy of Indian removal to force indigenous peoples off of their homelands had begun much earlier in

14715-431: The population. The production of shell beads (and drills to create holes in beads), remained important, with drills being found in high numbers. Numerous clamshell beads, a major currency among the peoples of Central California, were also found, also suggesting a vast trade network. There were an estimated 8,000 to 21,000 Pomo among 70 tribes speaking seven Pomo languages at the time of European contact. The way of life of

14850-467: The region through trade, as the rocks do not exist locally. Relatively soft and easy to carve, soapstone was used to make beads, pendants , as well as mortars. The largest and only substantial steatite mine in California existed on Catalina Island , one of the Channel Islands off the coast of what is now Los Angeles County . The existence of steatite in Pomo and Northern California native sites

14985-547: The southwest of Guatemala, a source that was almost forgotten during the Classic and Post Classic periods. Obsidian , a volcanic glass , comes from several geological sources in Mesoamerica, as listed above. Each of these sources has a distinctive “fingerprint” of trace elements that proportionally vary due to the individual circumstances of each source's formation. Neutron activation analysis (NAA) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) are two analytical methods used to identify

15120-415: The spirit world, and an all-male society that met in subterranean dance rooms. The Pomo believed in a supernatural being, the Kuksu or Guksu (depending on their dialect), who lived in the south and who came during ceremonies to heal their illnesses, along with spirits from six cardinal directions, and Coyote as their ancestor and creator god . Medicine men dressed up as Kuksu , their interpretation of

15255-509: The state, rather they are of Indigenous Mexican or Central American ancestry, or of tribes from other parts of the United States, such as the Cherokee or Navajo . Of the state's 934,970 indigenous people who specified a Native American tribe, 297,708 identified as " Mexican American Indian" , 125,344 identified as "Central American Indian" , and 125,019 identified as Cherokee. 108,319 identified with "all other tribes," which includes all of

15390-494: The tools may have been maintained by changing their function. In other words, as the edge of a blade lost its sharpness after long-term use, the blade may have been used in scraping activities, which does not require a very sharp edge, than as a cutting implement. Other curation techniques of prismatic blades involve reshaping them into other tool types, such as projectile points and awls . Obsidian sources in Mesoamerica are limited in number and distribution, and are restricted to

15525-406: The trade lay in prestigious high-status items received in return. Obsidian has both been seen as a key element to Teotihuacan's rise to power and as a side trade element that simply augmented their already developing wealth. Obsidian forms part of many high-status items, such as valuable ear-spools , but these obsidian ear-spools have also been discovered in exclusively lower-status settings. Thus

15660-420: The treaties, believing the native people were being reserved too much land. Despite making agreements, the U.S. government sided with the settlers and tabled the treaties without informing the signees. They remained shelved and were never ratified. The California genocide continued after the California Gold Rush period. By the late 1850s, Anglo-American militias were invading the homelands of native people in

15795-701: The tribes lost their status as federally recognized tribes and the ability to access federal clinics that served other federally recognized tribes. In a decision dated July 19, 1983 the United States District Court for the Northern District of California restored the status of 17 California rancherias in Hardwick v. United States . Indigenous peoples of California Indigenous peoples of California , commonly known as Indigenous Californians or Native Californians , are

15930-499: The types and amounts of trace elements. These data are then statistically compared to data already available for the known sources. Visual sourcing is the process by which the source of obsidian artifacts are determined by the analysis of not only their visual appearance (e.g., color, inclusions, etc.) but also their physical attributes, such as surface texture, light reflection , internal opacity , and so on. While not as reliable as trace element analysis, and completely dependent on

16065-496: Was Los Angeles , where an 1850 city ordinance passed by the Los Angeles City Council allowed prisoners to be "auctioned off to the highest bidder for private service." Historian Robert Heizer referred to this as "a thinly disguised substitute for slavery." Auctions continued as a weekly practice for nearly twenty years until there were no California native people left to sell. The United States Senate sent

16200-552: Was a normal part of white settler life, who were often forced into prostitution or sex slavery . Kidnappings and rape of native women and girls was reported as occurring "daily and nightly." This violence against women often provoked attacks on white settlers by native men. Forced labor was also common during the Gold Rush, permitted by the 1850 Act for the Government and Protection of Indians . Part of this law instituted

16335-511: Was an estimated 3,000 Pomo Indians that lived at Clear Lake; after all of the death, disease, and killings, there were only about 400 Pomo Indians left. One ghost town in the Lake Sonoma Valley excavations was identified as Amacha, built for 100 people but hardly used. Elder natives of the region remember their grandfathers hid at Amacha in the mid-1850s, trying to evade the colonizing settlers. They tell that one day soldiers took all

16470-461: Was cut upon arrival. Poor ventilation and nutrition and diseases were typical problems at schools. In addition to that, most parents disagreed with the idea of their children being raised as whites, with students being forced to wear European style clothes and haircuts, given European names, and strictly forbidden to speak indigenous languages. Sexual and physical abuse at the schools was common. By 1926, 83% of all Native American children attended

16605-437: Was done with care. The commonly held decision would be leaving behind about half of what was found. Dyeing of the bulrush root takes about three to six months in a concoction of black walnuts, rusty metal and ashes in water. Today, new Pomo baskets might sell for as much as $ 1,000, and the more historical ones might sell for more than $ 10,000. Dealing of these baskets has not always been so lucrative and many have tried to exploit

16740-411: Was essentially slavery . Although this was in legal terms illegal , the law was established not to help protect indigenous people, so there were rarely interventions to stop kidnappings and the circulation of stolen children into the market by law enforcement. What were effectively slave auctions occurred where laborers could be "purchased" for as low as 35 dollars. A central location for auctions

16875-436: Was estimated between 3,500 and 5,000; and in 1880 estimated at 1,450. Anthropologist Samuel Barrett estimated a population of 747 in 1908, but that is probably low; fellow anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber reported 1,200 Pomo counted in the 1910 Census . According to the 1930 Census there were 1,143 Pomo, and by the 1990 Census there were 4,766. According to the 2010 United States Census , there are 10,308 Pomo people in

17010-476: Was frequently used in ritualized autosacrifice (blood-letting) activities, serving as a substitute for stingray spines. Its association with that act of bloodletting is important, as it is argued by some researchers that obsidian was seen as a type of blood originating from the earth – its use in autosacrifice is therefore especially symbolic . Objects made of obsidian were often buried in upper class tombs as special deposits or caches. Obsidian debitage

17145-472: Was hunting. He summarized his impressions of the California Indians as a people with a natural propensity for independence, inventive spirit, and a unique sense of the beautiful. Another notable Russian expedition to California was the 13-month-long visit of the scientist Ilya Voznesensky in 1840–1841. Voznesensky's goal was to gather some ethnographic, biological, and geological materials for

17280-413: Was integral to native children being brought to the boarding schools. This separation often occurred without knowledge by parents, or under white claims that native children were "unsupervised" and were thus obligated to the school, and sometimes under threatening circumstances to families. Since the 1920s, various Indian activist groups were demanding that the federal government fulfill the conditions of

17415-642: Was noted in the land acquisition of Victoria Reid , an Indigenous woman born at the village of Comicranga . The first governor of California as a U.S. state was Peter Hardenman Burnett , who came to power in 1848 following the United States victory in the Mexican–American War . As American settlers came in control of California with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , its administrators honored some Mexican land grant titles, but did not honor aboriginal land title . With this shift in power,

17550-400: Was protected, in practice, religious or ceremonial sites and practices were not protected. In 1988, Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Ass'n the U.S. Supreme Court sided with the U.S. Forest Service to build a road through a forest used for religious purposes by three nearby tribal nations in northwestern California. This was despite the recommendations of the expert witness on

17685-511: Was settled in 1850 by the 49ers , and the Lake Sonoma Valley was homesteaded out. The US government forced many Pomo on to reservations so that the European-Americans could homestead the former Pomo lands. Some Pomo took jobs as ranch laborers; others lived in refugee villages. During this time period, two settlers named Andrew Kelsey and Charles Stone enslaved many Pomo people in order to work as cowboys on their ranch. They forced

17820-463: Was the first turning point for the Pomo people. They had finally escaped the harsh road they were once a part of, and even though they had to settle on poor, isolated land, they finally got to make a stride towards tradition and basket weaving. From 1852 to 1878, many Pomo Indians tried to rekindle their cultures and find peace to what had happened to them. Many people let this time be a learning and spiritual time, where they could have visions and see what

17955-427: Was used in hunting , agriculture , food preparation, and for many other daily activities. Morphologically, obsidian was worked into a variety of tool forms, including knives, lance and projectile points , prismatic blades , general bifacial tools , and utilized flakes . Blades have been found in situ with rabbit , rodent , and mollusk remains, indicating their use in butchery . The practical use of obsidian

18090-435: Was used, albeit rarely, from Mount Konocti , in present-day Lake County . There were no petroglyphs . The population lived only along major creeks. The "Dry Creek" Phase lasted from 500 BCE to 1300 CE . During this phase, the indigenous people settled the lands more extensively, and permanently. Archaeologists believe a Pomo group took over the lands from earlier peoples during this phase. They founded 14 additional sites in

18225-527: Was widely distributed throughout Mesoamerica by trade. Its importance to Mesoamerican societies has been compared to the value and importance of steel to modern civilization. However, archaeology provides varied evidence of the individual value placed on obsidian. For example, during the Preclassic period , obsidian was a rare item in the lowland areas, found predominantly in high-status and ritual contexts. In many Maya excavations evidence of obsidian

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