The Botanical and Zoological Codes of nomenclature treat the concept of synonymy differently.
85-612: Pinus radiata ( syn. Pinus insignis ), the Monterey pine , insignis pine or radiata pine , is a species of pine native to the Central Coast of California and Mexico (on Guadalupe Island and Cedros island ). It is an evergreen conifer in the family Pinaceae . P. radiata is a versatile, fast-growing, medium-density softwood, suitable for a wide range of uses and valued for rapid growth, as well as desirable lumber and pulp qualities. Its silviculture reflects
170-493: A nomen oblitum , and the junior name declared a nomen protectum . This rule exists primarily to prevent the confusion that would result if a well-known name, with a large accompanying body of literature, were to be replaced by a completely unfamiliar name. An example is the European land snail Petasina edentula ( Draparnaud , 1805). In 2002, researchers found that an older name Helix depilata Draparnaud, 1801 referred to
255-692: A carnivore is neither a dog nor a bear, they call it a cat. A later use can be found in the title of a 1969 paper "On lumpers and splitters ..." by the medical geneticist Victor McKusick . Reference to lumpers and splitters in the humanities appeared in a debate in 1975 between J. H. Hexter and Christopher Hill , in the Times Literary Supplement . It followed from Hexter's detailed review of Hill's book Change and Continuity in Seventeenth Century England , in which Hill developed Max Weber 's argument that
340-458: A branch, attached at an oblique angle. The bark is fissured and dark grey to brown. When not cut short by disease or harvesting, it has a lifespan of 80 to 90 years. The specific epithet radiata refers to the cracks which radiate from the umbo of the cone scales. It is closely related to bishop pine and knobcone pine , hybridizing readily with both species; it is distinguished from the former by needles in threes (not pairs), and from both by
425-476: A century of research, observation and practice. It is often considered a model for growers of other plantation species. Although P. radiata is extensively cultivated as a plantation timber in many temperate parts of the world, it faces serious threats in its natural range, due to the introduction of a fungal parasite, the pine pitch canker ( Fusarium circinatum ). P. radiata is a coniferous evergreen tree growing to 15–30 m (50–100 ft) tall in
510-417: A common ancestor or protolanguage ) as the only valid proof of kinship, and consider genetic relatedness to be the question of interest. American linguists of recent decades tend to be splitters. Lumpers are more willing to admit techniques like mass lexical comparison or lexicostatistics , and mass typological comparison, and to tolerate the uncertainty of whether relationships found by these methods are
595-418: A different genus, a variety is moved to a different species, etc. Synonyms also come about when the codes of nomenclature change, so that older names are no longer acceptable; for example, Erica herbacea L. has been rejected in favour of Erica carnea L. and is thus its synonym. To the general user of scientific names, in fields such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science, etc.,
680-405: A different status. For any taxon with a particular circumscription , position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time (this correct name is to be determined by applying the relevant code of nomenclature ). A synonym cannot exist in isolation: it is always an alternative to a different scientific name. Given that the correct name of a taxon depends on
765-623: A fungal disease native to the southeast United States and found (in 1986) to have been introduced to California. When trees begin to die of the disease, they attract bark beetles which provide a pathway for infection of other trees. In some stands, 80–90% of trees are infected. If the disease is introduced in agroforestry areas dependent upon P. radiata , such as New Zealand, it could have catastrophic effects in those countries as well. Sphaeropsis blight ( Diplodia pinea ) infects P. radiata in California and causes serious damage to plantations of
850-503: A good situation, P. radiata can reach its full height in 40 years or so. Though a combination of biotic and abiotic factors determines the natural distribution of P. radiata , humans have broadly expanded its distribution up and down the California coast, even reaching Oregon . As timber P. radiata is suitable for a wide variety of uses, and has a resinous fragrance while being worked. It holds screws and nails well and takes paint and stain without difficulty, and modern kiln dried timber
935-437: A junior subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the rank of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the same type species; these are objective synonyms. In many cases researchers established new generic names because they thought this was necessary or did not know that others had previously established another genus for the same group of species. An example is the genus Pomatia Beck, 1837, which
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#17327727056961020-428: A listing of "synonyms", a "synonymy", often contains designations that for some reason did not make it as a formal name, such as manuscript names, or even misidentifications (although it is now the usual practice to list misidentifications separately ). Although the basic principles are fairly similar, the treatment of synonyms in botanical nomenclature differs in detail and terminology from zoological nomenclature, where
1105-422: A more and more unwieldy definition, with members having less and less mutually in common. This can lead to definitions which are little more than conventionalities, or groups which join fundamentally different examples. Splitting often leads to " distinctions without difference ", ornate and fussy categories, and failure to see underlying similarities. For example, in the arts, " Romantic " can refer specifically to
1190-618: A negative effect on local ecology. In its plantations there are usually no other tree species, while its shady undergrowth does not allow the existence of a rich stratum of scrub. 13% of the wood cut annually in Spain comes from this pine. The cultivar P. radiata (Aurea Group) 'Aurea' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . P. radiata is widely used in private gardens and public landscapes in temperate California, and similar climates around
1275-442: A period of German poetry roughly from 1780 to 1810, but would exclude the later work of Goethe , among other writers. In music it can mean every composer from Hummel through Rachmaninoff , plus many that came after. Software engineering often proceeds by building models (sometimes known as model-driven architecture ). A lumper is keen to generalize, and produces models with a small number of broadly defined objects. A splitter
1360-621: A program to remove the goats essentially complete by 2005, hundreds of young Guadalupe pines have started to grow up in habitat fenced after 2001, the first significant new growth in about 150 years. Possible accidental introduction of pine pitch canker is considered the biggest threat at present to the survival of the Guadalupe Island pine population. The University of California 's Russell Reservation forestry research station hosts an orchard planted with 73 P. radiata seedlings from Guadalupe Island and plays an important role in conserving
1445-513: A range of 274 to 312 genera for ferns alone. By contrast, the system of Christenhusz & Chase (2014) used 5 lycophyte and about 212 fern genera. The number of fern genera was further reduced to 207 in a subsequent publication. Defending PPG I, Schuettpelz et al. (2018) argue that the larger number of genera is a result of "the gradual accumulation of new collections and new data" and hence "a greater appreciation of fern diversity and [..] an improved ability to distinguish taxa". They also argue that
1530-533: A religion such as Shaivism , Vaishnavism , or Shaktism , according to which deity they believe to be the supreme creator of the universe. Various "holistic" approaches to religion can prioritise themes such as individual spirituality, the New-Age -style essential oneness of multiple religious traditions, or religious fundamentalism . Physicist and philosophy writer Freeman Dyson has suggested that one can broadly, if over-simplistically, divide "observers of
1615-434: A species, or simple ignorance about an earlier description, may lead a biologist to describe a newly discovered specimen as a new species. A common reason for objective synonyms at this level is the creation of a replacement name. A junior synonym can be given precedence over a senior synonym, primarily when the senior name has not been used since 1899, and the junior name is in common use. The older name may be declared to be
1700-418: A synonym is a name that was previously used as the correct scientific name (in handbooks and similar sources) but which has been displaced by another scientific name, which is now regarded as correct. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as "a taxonomic name which has the same application as another, especially one which has been superseded and is no longer valid". In handbooks and general texts, it
1785-481: A taxon, some of this (including species descriptions, distribution, ecology and more) may well have been published under names now regarded as outdated (i.e., synonyms) and so it is again useful to know a list of historic synonyms which may have been used for a given current (valid) taxon name. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the same type and same rank (more or less the same taxon, although circumscription may vary, even widely). This may be species-group taxa of
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#17327727056961870-522: Is adapted to cope with stand-killing fire disturbance. Its cones are serotinous , i.e. they remain closed until opened by the heat of a forest fire; the abundant seeds are then discharged to regenerate on the burned forest floor. The cones may also burst open in hot weather. In its native range, P. radiata is associated with characteristic flora and fauna. It is the co-dominant canopy tree, together with Cupressus macrocarpa , which also naturally occurs only in coastal Monterey County . Furthermore, one of
1955-482: Is converted to pulp to make newsprint. Higher grade timber is used in house construction. P. radiata is used chipped to make particle board sheets, commonly used in flooring. Other sheet products are hardboard, softboard and ply. Most ply is structural and available in 7–22 mm (0.28–0.87 in) sizes. A small amount of higher grade ply is used to produce thinner (4 and 7 mm or 0.16 and 0.28 in) ply suitable for furniture, cabinet work and boat building. This
2040-677: Is encouraged. The Kuitpo Forest , 40 kilometres (25 miles) south-east of the Adelaide city centre , is a planted forest of Monterey Pine trees. 30 kilometres (19 miles) west of the Sydney city centre , there is a forest of introduced Monterey Pine trees in Prospect Hill , in the suburb of Pemulwuy . P. radiata has greatly replaced the Valdivian temperate rain forests , where vast plantations have been planted for timber, again displacing
2125-483: Is knot and crack free and glued with resorcinol waterproof glue . Since the 1990s finger jointed joinery-grade wood has become available in up to 6 m (19 ft 8 in) lengths in a wide range of profiles. In 1958, New Zealand boat designer Des Townson started building 186 eleven-foot (3.35 m), cold-moulded Zephyr-class dinghies , using P. radiata . In 2011 these hand-built boats fetched very high prices and were generally in excellent condition. The bark
2210-469: Is not a single coherent path in the development of liturgical texts. Liturgical texts must not be taken solely at face value; often there are hidden agendas in texts. The idea of a single Hindu religion is essentially a lumper's concept, sometimes also known as Smartism (on the basis of the Smārta synthesis). Hindu splitters, and individual adherents, often identify themselves on the other hand as adherents of
2295-410: Is not correct for the circumscription , position, and rank of the taxon as considered in the particular botanical publication. It is always "a synonym of the correct scientific name", but which name is correct depends on the taxonomic opinion of the author. In botany the various kinds of synonyms are: In botany, although a synonym must be a formally accepted scientific name (a validly published name):
2380-448: Is often expanded in taxonomic literature to include pro parte (or "for part") synonyms. These are caused by splits and circumscriptional changes. They are usually indicated by the abbreviation "p.p." For example: Lumpers and splitters Lumpers and splitters are opposing factions in any academic discipline that has to place individual examples into rigorously defined categories . The lumper–splitter problem occurs when there
2465-434: Is reluctant to generalize, and produces models with a large number of narrowly defined objects. Conversion between the two styles is not necessarily symmetrical. For example, if error messages in two narrowly defined classes behave in the same way, the classes can be easily combined. But if some messages in a broad class behave differently, every object in the class must be examined before the class can be split. This illustrates
2550-455: Is sometimes used, but must be encased in epoxy resin to exclude moisture. The wood is normally kiln dried to 12% moisture in 6 m (19 ft 8 in) long, clear lengths. It is available treated with a range of chemical salts, or untreated. Chemical salt treatment is well proven and such timber is frequently used in the ground as posts and poles as part of structures such as retaining walls and pole houses. The name applied to this treatment
2635-413: Is tanalized wood. H1 and H2 treatment is suited to indoor use. H3 is the standard house timber and this grade is used for fence palings. H4 and H5 are the standard for inground use. In New Zealand, a 1995 change to no longer require borate treatment in house framing timber was a key factor in the leaky homes crisis , but since 2003 a series of changes have now improved the regulations. Lower grade timber
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2720-601: Is technically called synonymization. Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting. Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognizing differences or commonalities between organisms. For example, the number of genera used in Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG) I has proved controversial. PPG I uses 18 lycophyte and 319 fern genera. The earlier system put forward by Smith et al. (2006) had suggested
2805-416: Is the desire to create classifications and assign examples to them, for example, schools of literature , biological taxa , and so on. A "lumper" is a person who assigns examples broadly, judging that differences are not as important as signature similarities. A "splitter" makes precise definitions, and creates new categories to classify samples that differ in key ways. The earliest known use of these terms
2890-530: Is the most extensively used wood in New Zealand. Use of pine in construction did not become widespread until forced by wartime shortages. It had been used in Southland from about 1920, but doubts were being expressed about it as late as 1945, when at least one MP considered it only suitable for interior studding. Experiments in pressure treatment with water-soluble preservatives were made from 1943. In
2975-508: Is used as a substrate for potting and re-potting orchids. P. radiata is the most common species of Christmas tree in Australia and New Zealand. In California, P. radiata is commonly planted to block wind or noise, or for ornamental reasons. Synonym (taxonomy) Unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have
3060-411: Is useful to have synonyms mentioned as such after the current scientific name, so as to avoid confusion. For example, if the much-advertised name change should go through and the scientific name of the fruit fly were changed to Sophophora melanogaster , it would be very helpful if any mention of this name was accompanied by "(syn. Drosophila melanogaster )". Synonyms used in this way may not always meet
3145-409: Is very easy to work. It is about 1/3 heavier than dried western red cedar . It is brittle when bent, so does not have the same load-bearing features as Oregon pine ( Douglas fir , Pseudotsuga ). P. radiata is used in house construction as weatherboards, posts, beams or plywood, in fencing, retaining walls, for concrete formers. It is also used to a limited extent in boat building where untreated ply
3230-679: The Iberian Peninsula since the nineteenth century they have been introduced mainly in the north area in order to take advantage of their wood for the manufacture of paper pulp and for shoring work in coal mines . It is found in low altitude areas of the Autonomous Communities of Galicia , Asturias , Cantabria , the Basque Country , and in the north of the Canary Islands . P. radiata forests have
3315-628: The Kaingaroa Forest (on the central plateau of the North Island), which is one of the largest planted forests in the world. Mass plantings became common from 1900 in the Rotorua area where prison labour was used. In some areas (particularly areas that were formerly grazed that have had stock removed) it is considered an invasive species (termed a wilding conifer or more commonly wilding pine ) where it has escaped from plantations. It
3400-466: The binata variety. P. radiata was introduced to Australia in the 1870s. It is "the dominant tree species in the Australian plantation estate" – so much so that many Australians are concerned by the resulting loss of native wildlife habitat. The species is widely regarded as an environmental weed across southeastern and southwestern Australia and the removal of individual plants beyond plantations
3485-451: The desert scrub on other parts of the island, forming zones of abrupt transition. The numerous groves form a mostly-monotypic forest of the species, with very few other plants besides seedlings emerging in the understory. In some areas, the edges of the forest form a zone that supports chaparral species, including Malosma laurina , Diplacus stellatus , and the endemic Eriogonum molle . With their large surfaces to condense fog,
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3570-448: The 'splitting' process'. 'Lumpers', on the other hand, point to the similarities between the diagnostic categories, and suggest that these similarities justify the creation of broader entities. Thus lumpers might see "stress" where splitters could identify (say) worry , grief , or some sort of anxiety disorder . In neuroscience, "uncertainty aversion" and "uncertainty tolerance" in semantic representations appear to correlate with
3655-503: The Americas , accompanied by controversy similar to that today. Paul F. Bradshaw suggests that the same principles of lumping and splitting apply to the study of early Christian liturgy . Lumpers, who tend to predominate in this field, try to find a single line of successive texts from the apostolic age to the fourth century (and later). Splitters see many parallel and overlapping strands which intermingle and flow apart so that there
3740-431: The Americas . At a completely different level, the splitting of a mutually intelligible dialect continuum into different languages, or lumping them into one, is also an issue that continually comes up, though the consensus in contemporary linguistics is that there is no completely objective way to settle the question. Splitters regard the comparative method (meaning not comparison in general, but only reconstruction of
3825-488: The authors have inspected the original material; a . that they take on the responsibility for the act of synonymizing the taxa. The accurate use of scientific names, including synonyms, is crucial in biomedical and pharmacological research involving plants. Failure to use correct botanical nomenclature can lead to ambiguity, hinder reproducibility of results, and potentially cause errors in medicine. Best practices for publication suggest that researchers should provide
3910-419: The beginning of § Zoology . The two are related, with only one word difference between their names.) For example, the scientific name of the red imported fire ant , Solenopsis invicta was published by Buren in 1972, who did not know that this species was first named Solenopsis saevissima wagneri by Santschi in 1916; as there were thousands of publications using the name invicta before anyone discovered
3995-425: The cones not having a sharp spine on the scales. The modern tree is vastly different from the native tree of Monterey. In plantations the tree is commonly planted at 4 square meter spacing on a wide variety of landscapes from flat to moderately steep hills. Because of selective breeding and more recently the extensive use of growth factor seedlings, forests planted since the 1990s have very straight tall trunks without
4080-421: The correct name is included among synonyms, although as first among equals it is the "senior synonym": Scientific papers may include lists of taxa, synonymizing existing taxa and (in some cases) listing references to them. The status of a synonym may be indicated by symbols, as for instance in a system proposed for use in paleontology by Rudolf Richter. In that system a v before the year would indicate that
4165-649: The currently accepted binomial with author citation, relevant synonyms, and the accepted family name according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III classification. This practice ensures clear communication, allows proper linking of research to existing literature, and provides insight into phylogenetic relationships that may be relevant to shared chemical constituents or physiological effects. Online databases now make it easy for researchers to access correct nomenclature and synonymy information for plant species. The traditional concept of synonymy
4250-608: The excessive splitting of genera destabilises the usage of names and will lead to greater instability in future, and that the highly split genera have few if any characters that can be used to recognize them, making identification difficult, even to generic level. They further argue that comparing numbers of species per genus in different groups is "fundamentally meaningless". In history, lumpers are those who tend to create broad definitions that cover large periods of time and many disciplines, whereas splitters want to assign names to tight groups of inter-relationships. Lumping tends to create
4335-465: The hypothesis may be confirmed or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as the same species. When two named species are agreed to be of the same species, the older species name is almost always retained dropping the newer species name honoring a convention known as "priority of nomenclature". This form of lumping
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#17327727056964420-509: The island they are endemic to in Baja California . Some authors lump these taxa and do not recognize infraspecies . On both islands it is the only pine species, and one of the few tree species. Compared to the mainland species, which are mostly three-needled, the insular varieties have their needles in bundles of two. Their cones are also smaller, and they show greater wind resistance in regards to wind-induced toppling. P. radiata
4505-401: The junior synonym. (Incidentally, this species has since been reclassified and currently resides in the genus Bubo , as Bubo scandiacus ). One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published (and thus available ) name, the senior synonym, by default takes precedence in naming rights and therefore, unless other restrictions interfere, must be used for
4590-432: The mainland coast, the pines are found on the steep northern end of the island, at elevations of around 500 to 1,200 m (1,600 to 3,900 ft), where they follow the ridgetops and steep slopes. On Cedros Island, the pines are more abundant, being found in far greater numbers partly due to the lack of feral goats . They are found at lower elevations than on Guadalupe, at around 285 to 690 m (935 to 2,264 ft), on
4675-506: The native forests. In 2001, this species produced 5,580,724 cubic meters of lumber, or 95% of Chile's total lumber production. In 2021 1.3 million of Chile's 2.3 million ha of forest plantations were planted with Pinus radiata . The Monterey pine (always called "Radiata Pine" or Pinus radiata in New Zealand) was first introduced into New Zealand in 1859 and today 89% of the country's plantation forests are of this species. This includes
4760-449: The number of species per genus in the PPG I system is already higher than in other groups of organisms (about 33 species per genus for ferns as opposed to about 22 species per genus for angiosperms ) and that reducing the number of genera as Christenhusz and Chase propose yields the excessive number of about 50 species per genus for ferns. In response, Christenhusz & Chase (2018) argue that
4845-462: The philosophical scene" into splitters and lumpers – roughly corresponding to materialists (who imagine the world as divided into atoms) and Platonists (who regard the world as made up of ideas). In psychiatry , the 'splitters' and the 'lumpers' have fundamentally different approaches to psychiatric diagnosis and classification. First, 'splitters' emphasise the heterogeneity within the diagnostic categories and argue that this heterogeneity drives
4930-405: The pine forests in Monterey, California , was the discovery site for Hickman's potentilla , an endangered species. Piperia yadonii , a rare species of orchid , is endemic to the same pine forest adjacent to Pebble Beach . In its native range, P. radiata is a principal host for the dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium littorum . The habitat of the pines on Cedros Island contrasts greatly with
5015-573: The pines create irrigation for themselves and their associates. Towards the far northern end of the island, a succulent community mostly consisting of Dudleya is found, and the endemic Dudleya pachyphytum can sometimes be found growing under the pines in the ecotone. A remnant P. radiata stand in Pacific Grove , the Monarch Grove Sanctuary , is a prime wintering habitat of the monarch butterfly . In South Africa,
5100-416: The previously encountered subset of mugs to a future subset of mugs. However, this also posits a dilemma: Is a glass mug still a mug? That is, what are the defining principles that make something a "mug"? Establishing this is fundamental since it also affects its relationship with its close-neighbors. Conceptualizing a mug as very different from a glass creates a more clear-cut mapping between the input—that is,
5185-422: The principle that "splits can be lumped more easily than lumps can be split". There is no agreement among historical linguists about what amount of evidence is needed for two languages to be safely classified in the same language family . For this reason, many proposed language families have had lumper–splitter controversies, including Altaic , Pama–Nyungan , Nilo-Saharan , and most of the larger families of
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#17327727056965270-645: The problem of twin leaders. The trees are pruned in three lifts so that the lower two-thirds of a mature tree is free of branches and hence of knots. In the United States, it is native to three very limited areas located in Santa Cruz , Monterey , and San Luis Obispo Counties of California. In Mexico, it is found on two islands in the Pacific Ocean, Guadalupe Island and Cedros Island. On Guadalupe Island, located 280 km (150 nmi) off of
5355-560: The respective names of 'hair-splitting' and 'lumping' are unquestionably yielding their power to the mightier power of Truth." They were then introduced more widely by George G. Simpson in his 1945 work The Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals . As he put it: ... splitters make very small units – their critics say that if they can tell two animals apart, they place them in different genera ... and if they cannot tell them apart, they place them in different species. ... Lumpers make large units – their critics say that if
5440-603: The result of linguistic divergence (descent from common ancestor) or language convergence (borrowing). Much long-range comparison work has been from Russian linguists belonging to the Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics , most notably Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Sergei Starostin . In the United States, Greenberg and Ruhlen 's work has been met with little acceptance from linguists. Earlier American linguists like Morris Swadesh and Edward Sapir also pursued large-scale classifications like Sapir's 1929 scheme for
5525-450: The rise of capitalism was facilitated by Calvinist Puritanism. Hexter objected to Hill's "mining" of sources to find evidence that supported his theories. Hexter argued that Hill plucked quotations from sources in a way that distorted their meaning. Hexter explained this as a mental habit that he called "lumping". According to him, "lumpers" rejected differences and chose to emphasize similarities. Any evidence that did not fit their arguments
5610-536: The rules of nomenclature; as for example when an older name is (re)discovered which has priority over the current name. Speaking in general, name changes for nomenclatural reasons have become less frequent over time as the rules of nomenclature allow for names to be conserved, so as to promote stability of scientific names. In zoological nomenclature, codified in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , synonyms are different scientific names of
5695-408: The same taxonomic rank that pertain to that same taxon . For example, a particular species could, over time, have had two or more species-rank names published for it, while the same is applicable at higher ranks such as genera, families, orders, etc. In each case, the earliest published name is called the senior synonym , while the later name is the junior synonym . In the case where two names for
5780-409: The same rank with the same type specimen , genus-group taxa of the same rank with the same type species or if their type species are themselves objective synonyms, of family-group taxa with the same type genus, etc. In the case of subjective synonyms , there is no such shared type, so the synonymy is open to taxonomic judgement, meaning that there is room for debate: one researcher might consider
5865-534: The same species, but this name had never been used after 1899 and was fixed as a nomen oblitum under this rule by Falkner et al. 2002. Such a reversal of precedence is also possible if the senior synonym was established after 1900, but only if the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) approves an application. (Here the C in ICZN stands for Commission, not Code as it does at
5950-407: The same taxon have been published simultaneously, the valid name is selected accorded to the principle of the first reviser such that, for example, of the names Strix scandiaca and Strix noctua (Aves), both published by Linnaeus in the same work at the same date for the taxon now determined to be the snowy owl , the epithet scandiaca has been selected as the valid name, with noctua becoming
6035-443: The species in New Zealand, Australia and South Africa, especially after hail damage to growing tips. On Guadalupe Island, var. binata is critically endangered . Most of the population was destroyed as tens of thousands of feral goats ate binata seedlings and caused soil erosion from the mid-19th century until just a few years ago. The older trees gradually died off until by 2001–2002 the population stood at only one hundred. With
6120-476: The stimulus perceived—and the output that a person needs to generate—that is, the response, such as drinking coffee. Classical work in cognitive science demonstrates that the more similar two stimuli are, the harder it is to discriminate them and respond with different behavior." Natural language processing , using algorithmic approaches such as Word2Vec, provides a way to quantify the overlap or distinguish between semantic categories between words. This can provide
6205-493: The strict definitions of the term "synonym" in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names (see below) . Changes of scientific name have two causes: they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural. A name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight (as would be the case for the fruit fly, mentioned above). A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on
6290-401: The synonymy, the ICZN, in 2001, ruled that invicta would be given precedence over wagneri . To qualify as a synonym in zoology, a name must be properly published in accordance with the rules. Manuscript names and names that were mentioned without any description ( nomina nuda ) are not considered as synonyms in zoological nomenclature. In botanical nomenclature , a synonym is a name that
6375-406: The taxon. However, junior synonyms are still important to document, because if the earliest name cannot be used (for example, because the same spelling had previously been used for a name established for another taxon), then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. For other purposes, if a researcher is interested in consulting or compiling all currently known information regarding
6460-408: The taxonomic viewpoint used (resulting in a particular circumscription, position and rank) a name that is one taxonomist's synonym may be another taxonomist's correct name (and vice versa ). Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to become one, a species is moved to
6545-404: The terms "splitters" and "lumpers" respectively. As neuroscientist Marc-Lluís Vives observes: "Our survival is possible because every day we make use of previously acquired categories to navigate the world. Every single mug we encounter is distinct, but fundamentally the same. Thanks to this powerful capacity to classify distinct stimuli under the same category, we can generalize our knowledge from
6630-574: The tree is a threat to already scarce water resources. The tree has remarkable roots. Monterey pine roots will reach downward as far as physically permitted by subterranean conditions. Roots have been discovered up to 12 meters (39 ft) long. Efforts to remove large quantities of the non-native tree in areas of South Africa have resulted in significant increases in accessible water. The three remaining wild stands of var. radiata (Monterey pine proper) are infected and under threat of extirpation from pine pitch canker caused by Fusarium circinatum ,
6715-479: The two (or more) types to refer to one and the same taxon, another might consider them to belong to different taxa. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn , based on a pair of horns. However, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ord's name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being
6800-418: The wild, but up to 60 m (200 ft) in cultivation in optimum conditions, with upward pointing branches and a rounded top. The leaves ("needles") are bright green, in clusters of three (two in var. binata ), slender, 8–15 cm (3–6 in) long and with a blunt tip. The ovulate cones are 7–17 cm (3– 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) long, brown, ovoid (egg-shaped), and usually set asymmetrically on
6885-573: The windward ridges and canyons of the north and central parts of the island. In both cases, the pines seem to be heavily dependent on locations with a high frequency of fog . In Australia, New Zealand, and Spain it is the leading introduced tree and in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Kenya, and South Africa it is a major plantation species. It is also an introduced tree on the world's most remote inhabited island, Tristan da Cunha . Two varieties of this species have been recognized, each corresponding to
6970-405: The world. It is particularly commonly grown as a landscape tree in coastal areas of California outside of its native range, where the climate is virtually identical to its native range. It is fast-growing and adaptable to a broad range of soil types and climates, though it does not tolerate temperatures below about −15 °C (5 °F). Its fast growth makes it ideal for landscapes and forestry; in
7055-545: Was established for a group of terrestrial snails containing as its type species the Burgundy or Roman snail Helix pomatia —since Helix pomatia was already the type species for the genus Helix Linnaeus, 1758, the genus Pomatia was an objective synonym (and useless). On the same occasion, Helix is also a synonym of Pomatia , but it is older and so it has precedence. At the species level, subjective synonyms are common because of an unexpectedly large range of variation in
7140-434: Was ignored as aberrant. Splitters, by contrast, emphasised differences, and resisted simple schemes. While lumpers consistently tried to create coherent patterns, splitters preferred incoherent complexity. The categorization and naming of a particular species should be regarded as a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand,
7225-472: Was thought to be Charles Darwin , in a letter to Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1857: It is good to have hair-splitters & lumpers . But according to research done by the deputy director at NCSE , Glenn Branch , the credit is due to naturalist Edward Newman who wrote in 1845, "The time has arrived for discarding imaginary species, and the duty of doing this is as imperative as the admission of new ones when such are really discovered. The talents described under
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