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39-672: The Moscow Print Yard was first mentioned in Aufzeichnungen über den Moskauer Staat by Heinrich von Staden . It is known to have published Lenten Triodion , Triodion in Pictures , Gospel , Psalter , and other books which did not have any imprints (hence, another name for the Print Yard, the Anonymous Printing House ). On March 1 of 1564, Ivan Fyodorov and Pyotr Timofeyev (Mstislavets) published

78-641: A member, and the history of the Oprichnina was rewritten after Staden's accounts were found. He describes the targets of Ivan's terror as individual families which the Tsar believed to be dangerous to his authority, rather than against the entire boyar class as previously thought. Some historians question the authenticity of Staden's claims. Academician S.B. Veselovsky was very critical of the Notes on Muscovy . The historian D.N. Alshits , comparing Staden's text with

117-416: A year in order to dispel superstition or apostates and to congregate believers (point 6). Finally, the oath compelled bishops to swear that they would not become involved in secular affairs or legal proceedings. Peter was determined to westernize Russia during his reign, and the church was an integral part of his campaign. As mentioned earlier, the new structure of the church in many ways resembled that which

156-606: The Alphabet , reached 10,000 copies from 1657 to 1677). In 1721, the Print Yard was transferred under the authority of the Most Holy Synod , with its publishing house becoming Synodal. In the middle of the 18th century, they constructed the Baroque -style side housing together with the printing and library premises, which would close the perimeter of the yard (architects Ivan Fyodorovich Michurin and Dmitry Ukhtomsky ). In

195-628: The Julian calendar ; reorganizing the Russian army in the European style; establishing a meritocracy (as opposed to the previous system of delineating positions by aristocratic lineage); outlawing or taxing beards (which were common among the Old Believers ); etc. Peter's desire for the consolidation and standardization of authority led to the creation of the synod. With one leader (the patriarch)

234-654: The Lutheran countries of northern Europe. Although the emperor did not wield authority in matters of faith, the government effectively controlled organization, finances and policies of the church. Believing that the government should play an active role in the lives of citizens, Peter expected the church to do the same. He directed the church to form public welfare projects for the benefit of the common people. These included almshouses and Christian schools. In November 1718, Peter formed an Ecclesiastical College in St. Petersburg, as it

273-617: The Patriarchate when he began altering the administrative structure of the church. Delaying choosing a new patriarch proved economically advantageous; by restricting ecclesiastic land ownership and other financial luxuries of the clergy, the state saved money. This gave Peter further incentive to abolish the Patriarchy. In 1711, reform allotted the Senate jurisdiction over all peoples, including ecclesiastical subjects. This meant that

312-518: The Russian Orthodox Church , he also challenged traditional Russian values, which were rooted in religion and a social structure defined by boyars and aristocracy, merchants, clerics, peasants and serfs. He did so by implementing enlightenment ideals—except for any that would have resulted in democratizing the Russian government, tolerating political or religious dissent, or encouraging the free growth of thought or ideas; establishing

351-530: The Great inspired the creation of the Most Holy Synod. The new Imperial Age saw radical change and developments in economic, social and cultural aspects of Russian life. Peter traveled twice to Europe and made reforms that reflected his desire to westernize Russia and worked to Russify the European models to better fit his nation. Beyond forming the synod in an effort to enfeeble the power and authority of

390-497: The Moscow Print Yard published 30 books (1000 copies each) between the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Proofreaders Andronik Timofeyev Nevezha and Ivan Andronikov Nevezha influenced the formation of a certain style of Moscow Cyrillic editions from the 17th century. Karion Istomin is known to have worked at the Print Yard first as a proofreader (from 1682) and then its inspector (1698–1701). From 1703 to 1711,

429-426: The Moscow Print Yard published the first Russian newspaper, Vedomosti . In 1710, proofreader Fedor Polikarpov-Orlov (future director of the publishing house from 1726 to 1731) presented a copy of the Alphabet ( Азбука ) with the pictures of ancient and contemporary Slavonic letters to Peter the Great . Between 1564 and 1711, the Moscow Print Yard published approximately 700 kinds of books (some of them, such as

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468-513: The Prussian state archives, but no link to Staden was discovered until a few years later. His accounts are the most insightful and descriptive of the day, and displayed the disorder of the Russian government under Ivan the Terrible. Heinrich von Staden calls Tsar Ivan a "horrid tyrant", but wrote more neutrally than his contemporaries. His narratives of the Oprichnina are the only ones written by

507-426: The appropriate method for dealing with heretics and oppositionists. The third section designates that monks of their dioceses were not to travel outside diocese limits, unless for an urgent matter, and only then with written permission. The oath prohibited the building of any unnecessary churches (point 4) and the hiring on of any unessential clerics (point 5). The oath required clergy to visit their diocese at least once

546-498: The chambers of the Print Yard in two. These buildings housed the Bookprinting Prikaz and Proofreading Chamber . In 1679, they dismantled the so-called old "Big Chamber" building in the Print Yard, which was adjacent to the wall of Kitai-gorod. Stonemasons S. Dmitriyev and I. Artemyev supervised the erection of a new building over the old foundation, which would later be painted by court icon painter L. Ivanov and house

585-483: The church proved too great of a threat to Peter's rule, and he was unwilling to share power. When the conservative Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, Peter left the position unfilled and instead Archbishop Stephen Yavorsky , a supporter of reform, administered the church for roughly twenty years. In 1721 the church officially came under the cloak of the Russian national government with the Spiritual Order, which

624-403: The council and each member would get one vote when determining a dispute. Formed as a reaction to Peter's views of Russia as compared to Western Europe, the synod was a concentration of clerics who had received extensive formal higher education. It worked to gain as much of the disputed church property as possible, and after assuming control of the patriarchal domain the synod was accountable for

663-715: The course of his church reform . Its establishment was followed by the abolition of the Patriarchate. The synod was composed partly of ecclesiastical persons, partly of laymen appointed by the Tsar . Members included the Metropolitans of Saint Petersburg , Moscow and Kiev , and the Exarch of Georgia . Originally, the Synod had ten ecclesiastical members, but the number later changed to twelve. A series of reforms by Peter

702-574: The dwindling power of the church. The church was made politically subject to the government, instead of the traditional relationship between church and state, in which rulers, such as Ivan IV , felt in some ways subject to the approval of the Orthodox Church in order to remain a legitimate sovereign. Peter used the Synod to find and punish dissident Russians. An addition in 1722 to the Ecclesiastic Regulation, which replaced

741-724: The emperor to invade Muscovite Russia, restore the region to the Teutonic Order , and be rewarded. Seemingly after 1578 he worked for George John I, Count Palatine of Veldenz , and was involved in Swedish affairs. Between 1578 and 1582 Staden worked as a sort of spy for the Teutonic Order. He sent his proposal to the Order's Grand Master , and later to the Kings of Poland and Sweden. Historians discovered this document in 1839 in

780-564: The end of the 17th century, the staff of the Print Yard already numbered 165 people. It was placed under the authority of the Big Palace Prikaz ( Приказ Большого дворца ) and published the so-called menology books ( Анфологион , or Anfologion , 1660), polemical works, translations, textbooks ( Букварь 'Primer' by Vasily Burtsov-Protopopov , 1634; Грамматика 'Grammar' by Meletiy Smotritsky , 1648; Арифметика , or 'Arithmetics' by Leonty Magnitsky , 1703, etc.). All in all,

819-1069: The historical realities of the epoch and with the newly discovered documents, came to the conclusion that Staden was not in Oprichnina at all, but only pretended to be oprichnik, in order to raise his status in the eyes of Emperor Rudolph, his patron and addressee of notes on Muscovy. According to Alshits, many of Staden's reports on Ivan the Terrible's Russian resemble the stories of Baron Munchausen's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia . Most Holy Synod Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: The Most Holy Governing Synod ( Russian : Святейший Правительствующий Синод , romanized :  Svyateyshiy Pravitel'stvuyushchiy Sinod , pre-reform orthography : Святѣйшій Правительствующій Сѵнодъ , Svyatěyshìy Pravitel'stvuyushchìy Sÿnod )

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858-657: The late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Print Yard building on Nikolskaya Street was dismantled and replaced with a monumental edifice for the Synodal Publishing House (1811–1815, architect Ivan Mironovsky ). In the 19th century, the publishing house's buildings were perceived as a single architectural ensemble with the towers and walls of Kitai-gorod, with the extensions and alterations by future generation architects ( Mikhail Chichagov , Nikolai Artleben , S. Slutsky and others). The state monopoly on publishing continued until 1783 when some private publishing

897-473: The limit; for example, he refrained from secularizing church lands. Under the synod, the church became more tolerant of various denominations, even extending this policy to the Old Believers for a period of time. Intermarriage between Orthodox and Western Christians was permitted starting in the year of the Synod's formation. The synod was intended, presumably, to mirror the church-state relationship in

936-528: The lives of 6000 people. It was to be revered absolutely in all things and possessed "patriarchal power, honour, and authority". The primary duties of the synod were to supervise the direction of the Orthodox faith, instruct people on religious matters, celebrate feasts and determine questions of order and ritual. As mentioned before, the synod also suppressed heretics, judged miracles and relics and prevented Russian citizens from practicing witchcraft. The synod

975-526: The new premises. In 1625, several underground storage rooms and tunnels were built, leading to the Kremlin. The fire of 1634 destroyed all of the buildings belonging to the Print Yard. In 1642–1643, several new stone chambers for the publishing house were built under the supervision of an apprentice from Stoneworks Prikaz named T. Shaturin. In 1644, an apprentice, I. Neverov, and a foreigner named Christopher erected Gothic stone gates with towers, which divided

1014-464: The patriarch as the church head, required clerics to report any seditious confessions. Before the creation of the Most Holy Synod, Peter was concerned personally with improvements in the church. He was particularly interested in improving the education of the clerics, since many were illiterate and unable to administer sacraments. At the time Peter established the synod, he also issued the Spiritual Order, mentioned above. One key aspect of this edict

1053-512: The proofreading chamber and a library. In 1653, Patriarch Nikon (who supervised the work of the Print Yard) sent a scientific expedition to the East. Its leader, A. Sukhanov, brought five hundred Greek manuscripts from Mount Athos to Moscow. These books laid the foundation for the library of the Moscow Print Yard. In 1681, they opened a Greek school on the premises of the printing house. By

1092-441: The state now had authority over issues that had been previously reserved for church authorities. With this power came the ability, in certain situations, for the state to determine clerics for administration in religious positions. In 1716 Peter formulated an oath for the bishops-elect of Vologda and Astrakhan and Yavorskii. The oath, divided into seven parts, served as a supplement to the present oath. The first two parts regard

1131-466: The very first dated book called Apostle (Апостол) at the Moscow Print Yard. In 1565, the printing house published Chasovnik ( Часовник , or Book of hours ) and then Psalter (1568). In 1612, the Moscow Print Yard was destroyed by fire, but it was soon rebuilt. In 1620, a two-story stone chamber was erected for the Print Yard, moving seven typesetters and eighty employees from the Kremlin to

1170-648: Was a self-proclaimed "adventurer in Muscovy" and wrote of his accounts at the court of Ivan IV of Russia (the Terrible) from 1578 to 1582. Staden was born the son of a burgher (bourgeoisie) in Ahlen , near Münster , Germany. His mother, Kattarina Ossenbach, died in the plague, and he had a brother, Bernhardus von Staden, a Roman Catholic priest in Ahlen, and a sister. When attending a Catholic seminary in Ahlen, Staden

1209-632: Was accused of stabbing a fellow seminarian with an awl . His cousin, Steffan Hovener, invited him to live in Livonia with him, where "he would not be disturbed." In Livonia, he worked on building the city walls, but didn't like the labor and ran away to the Wolgarten estate in Wolmar . There, the wife of Wolgarten entrusted him with her estates when she learned he could read and write in Latin and German, and

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1248-401: Was current in European countries with established churches, such as Sweden and Germany. In a broader sense, though, Peter was attempting to modernize Russia through secularization, which was a vital step in the course of European political modernization during this time. Secularization, in this instance, meant the institutionalization and expansion of the state's wealth and authority coupled with

1287-499: Was impressed with Staden and invited him to dinner; soon after, he became a member of the Tsar's political police , or Oprichnina . Staden's account of Russia, The Land and Government of Muscovy , was addressed to the Holy Roman Emperor , Rudolf II . It consisted of four parts: a petition, a description of Russia, a plan for the invasion of Russia from the north, and the author's autobiography. Staden hoped to influence

1326-577: Was learning Latvian. After Wolgarten remarried and moved away, Staden also moved, to Karkus, and became a merchant. After trouble erupted in the Livonian government, Staden sent a letter to his friend, Joachim Schroter at the border town of Dorpat , which was held by the Russians. He wrote that he would serve the Tsar Ivan IV if he were paid. He was invited to Moscow, where he met the Tsar. Ivan

1365-660: Was ostensibly written primarily by Archbishop Theophan Prokopovich . After Patriarch Adrian died, Peter, through the inspiration and encouragement of his official A.A. Kurbatov, decided to abolish the patriarchal Razryadnyi Prikaz (rank prikaz), which was in charge of civil and military administration, and redirected all matters to the appropriate prikaz, an administrative or judicial office. This event and others demonstrated that little by little, Peter's administration rendered each church division powerless and their duties transferred to paralleled governmental departments. Some scholars argue, though, that Peter did not intend to abolish

1404-401: Was permitted with great reluctance, although the state continued to exercise complete control through censorship. Some reforms occurred in 1861, but it was not until 1905 that greater freedom of the press was granted. 55°45′27″N 37°37′19″E  /  55.75750°N 37.62194°E  / 55.75750; 37.62194 Heinrich von Staden (author) Heinrich von Staden (1542–?)

1443-515: Was that it disregarded or denied the divinity of the church and characterized it as a state institution. The Holy Synod replaced the job of the patriarch with ten, and later twelve, clerics. The chief procurator (Ober-Prokuror), the first of whom was Colonel I. V. Boltin, oversaw the synod in order to verify the legality of their actions and the prompt and orderly fulfillment of their responsibilities. Peter required priests to report traitorous confessions, but he did not push his ability to control to

1482-480: Was the center of civil government. Soon, its name was changed to "Most Holy All-Ruling Synod". The synod functioned under the Ecclesiastical Regulation statute with the goal of administrating and reforming the church. The statute stated that the eleven members of the college were to be of varying classes and ranks. One president, two vice-presidents, four councilors and four assessors comprised

1521-535: Was the highest governing body of the Russian Orthodox Church between 1721 and 1917. It was abolished following the February Revolution of 1917 and replaced with a restored patriarchate under Tikhon of Moscow . The jurisdiction of the Most Holy Synod extended over every kind of ecclesiastical question and over some partly secular matters. Peter I of Russia established the Synod on January 25, 1721 in

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