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111-571: "Mattole" refers to an Athabaskan Indian people, the Mattole . They historically called themselves Mattóal or bedool , but were referred to by neighboring Wyott Indians as Medol or me'tuul . The local tradition is that Mattole means "clear water". The Mattole lived principally on the Mattole and Bear rivers. During the Bald Hills War , this tribe mustered its warriors but it was outgunned and practically exterminated because of its resistance to white settlers. The river and its 74 tributaries drain about 304 square miles (790 km), including

222-666: A 4.2 miles (6.8 km) east of the King Range National Conservation Area . About halfway to the ocean, near Honeydew, California , the river passes by Humboldt Redwoods State Park . There are numerous tributaries and creeks that feed the drainage area. Some of the largest are the Upper North Fork at Honeydew (as opposed to the North Fork at Petrolia), Honeydew, Bear, Rattlesnake, and Oil Creeks. The Mattole River has been declared by

333-621: A conical crown , with horizontal to slightly drooping branches. The trunk is remarkably straight. The bark can be very thick, up to 35 cm (1.15 ft), and quite soft and fibrous, with a bright red-brown color when freshly exposed (hence the name redwood), weathering darker. The root system is composed of shallow, wide-spreading lateral roots . The leaves are variable, being 15–25 mm ( 5 ⁄ 8 –1 in) long and flat on young trees and shaded lower branches in older trees. The leaves are scalelike, 5–10 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 3 ⁄ 8  in) long on shoots in full sun in

444-626: A considerable part of the trees' water needs. Fog in the 21st century is, however, reduced from what it was in the prior century, which is a problem that may be compounded by climate change . The northern boundary of its range is marked by two groves on mountain slopes along the north side of the Chetco River , which is on the western fringe of the Klamath Mountains , near the California–Oregon border. The northernmost grove

555-451: A healthy tree. Bark is so thick on the bole that bark beetles cannot enter there. However, the canopy branches have thin bark (see photo at right) that native bark beetles are able to bore into for egg-laying and larval growth via tunnels. Redwoods also face herbivory from mammals: black bears are reported to consume the inner bark of small redwoods, and black-tailed deer are known to eat redwood sprouts. The oldest known coast redwood

666-530: A lack of lowland passages through the Oregon Coast Range north of the Chetco River , coupled with the absence of coastal landscapes beyond storm salt-spray and tsunami inundation — for which this conifer species is highly intolerant. The native area provides a unique environment with heavy seasonal rains up to 2,500 mm (100 in) annually. Cool coastal air and fog drip keep the forest consistently damp year round. Several factors, including

777-818: A main trunk volume of 1,033 m (36,470 cu ft), and the Lost Monarch , with a main trunk volume of 988.7 m (34,914 cu ft). Albino redwoods are mutants that cannot manufacture chlorophyll . About 230 examples (including growths and sprouts) are known to exist, reaching heights of up to 20 m (66 ft). These trees survive like parasites , obtaining food from green parent trees. While similar mutations occur sporadically in other conifers, no cases are known of such individuals surviving to maturity in any other conifer species. Recent research news reports that albino redwoods can store higher concentrations of toxic metals, going so far as comparing them to organs or "waste dumps". Heights of

888-559: A model of beaver dams and pools. Research done by an ecosystem analyst from the Northwest Fisheries Science Center of NOAA Fisheries shows that salmon smolt production per beaver dam ranges from 527 to 1,174 fish, whereas production in a pool formed by large woody debris is only 6 to 15 fish. This suggests that re-establishment of beaver populations would be 80 times more effective in salmonid recovery efforts than placement along of large woody debris. In

999-583: A more storied role than the Pacific Lumber Company (1863–2008) of Humboldt County, California, where it owned and managed over 810 km (200,000 acres) of forests, primarily redwood. Coast redwood lumber is highly valued for its beauty, light weight, and resistance to decay. Its lack of resin makes it absorb water and resist fire. P. H. Shaughnessy, Chief Engineer of the San Francisco Fire Department wrote: In

1110-597: A narrow strip of land approximately 750 km (470 mi) in length and 8–75 km (5–47 mi) in width along the Pacific coast of North America; the most southerly native grove is in Monterey County, California , and the most northerly groves are in extreme southwestern Oregon. The aforementioned qualification of "native" is because the species was introduced to various locations in Victoria, Australia , in

1221-502: A national news outlet published a lengthy article that cast a favorable light on their efforts. The New York Times Magazine wrote: Not wanting to cause ecological problems by planting the trees across the Pacific Northwest, [Philip] Stielstra would eventually contact one of the foremost experts on the coast redwood, a botanist and forest ecologist named Stephen Sillett , at Cal Poly Humboldt, and ask if moving redwoods north

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1332-434: A redwood tree below the soil line, though usually within 3 m (10 ft) in depth from the soil surface. Coast redwoods develop burls as seedlings from the axils of their cotyledon , a trait that is extremely rare in conifers. When provoked by damage, dormant buds in the burls sprout new shoots and roots. Burls are also capable of sprouting into new trees when detached from the parent tree, though exactly how this happens

1443-590: A regional news article that, once again, showed strong support as well as bold statements by the group's founder. Even before the controversy developed in Washington state, professionals in Canada were documenting horticultural plantings of the California species already in place in southwestern British Columbia . In 2022 a Canadian Forestry Service publication used northward horticultural plantings, along with

1554-467: A review of research detailing redwood's paleobiogeography and current range conditions, as grounds for proposing that Canada's Vancouver Island already offered "narrow strips of optimal habitat" for extending the range of coast redwood. The authors point to a topographical "bottleneck" north of the California border that could have impeded northward migration during the Holocene. The bottleneck entails

1665-561: A sign of reticulate evolution (in which two species hybridize and give rise to a third) among the three genera. However, the long evolutionary history of the three genera (the earliest fossil remains being from the Jurassic ) make resolving the specifics of when and how Sequoia originated once and for all a difficult matter—especially since it in part depends on an incomplete fossil record. The species name "sempervirens" means "evergreen", thought to be because of its previous placement in

1776-494: A variety of amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles. Old-growth redwood stands provide habitat for the federally threatened spotted owl and the California-endangered marbled murrelet . The height of S. sempervirens is closely tied to fog availability; taller trees become less frequent as fog becomes less frequent. As S. sempervirens ' height increases, transporting water via water potential to

1887-672: A viability of about 1%, and do not generally reach the highest levels of viability until age 250. The rates decrease as the tree starts to get very old, with trees over 1,200 not reaching viability rates over 3%. The low viability may discourage seed predators, which do not want to waste time sorting chaff (empty seeds) from edible seeds. Successful germination often requires a fire or flood, reducing competition for seedlings. The winged seeds are small and light, weighing 3.3–5.0 mg (200–300 seeds/g; 5,600–8,500/ounce). The wings are not effective for wide dispersal, and seeds are dispersed by wind an average of only 60–120 m (200–390 ft) from

1998-479: Is about 2,200 years old; many others in the wild exceed 600 years. The numerous claims of older redwoods are incorrect. Because of their seemingly timeless lifespans, coast redwoods were deemed the "everlasting redwood" at the turn of the century; in Latin , sempervirens means "ever green" or "everlasting". Redwoods must endure various environmental disturbances to attain such great ages. In response to forest fires,

2109-457: Is absorbed through multiple pathways. Leaves directly take in fog from the surrounding air through the epidermal tissue , bypassing the xylem . Coast redwoods also absorb water directly through their bark. The uptake of water through leaves and bark repairs and reduces the severity of xylem embolisms, which occur when cavitations form in the xylem preventing the transport of water and nutrients. Fog may also collect on redwood leaves, drip to

2220-569: Is also debated, since it may fall in either the Pacific Coast group – if that exists – or into the Northern group. The records of Nicola are so poor – Krauss describes them as "too few and too wretched" (Krauss 2005) – that it is difficult to make any reliable conclusions about it. Nicola may be intermediate between Kwalhioqua–Tlatskanai and Chilcotin . Similarly to Nicola, there is very limited documentation on Tsetsaut . Consequently, it

2331-578: Is an evergreen , long-lived, monoecious tree living 1,200–2,200 years or more. This species includes the tallest living trees on Earth, reaching up to 115.9 m (380.1 ft) in height (without the roots ) and up to 8.9 m (29 ft) in diameter at breast height . These trees are also among the longest-living trees on Earth . Before commercial logging and clearing began by the 1850s, this massive tree occurred naturally in an estimated 810,000 ha (2,000,000 acres) along much of coastal California (excluding southern California where rainfall

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2442-530: Is an outline of the classification according to Keren Rice , based on those published in Goddard (1996) and Mithun (1999). It represents what is generously called the "Rice–Goddard–Mithun" classification (Tuttle & Hargus 2004:73), although it is almost entirely due to Keren Rice. Branches 1–7 are the Northern Athabaskan (areal) grouping. Kwalhioqua–Clatskanai (#7) was normally placed inside

2553-416: Is debatably part of the Pacific Coast subgroup, but has marginally more in common with the Northern Athabaskan languages than it does with the Pacific Coast languages (Leer 2005). It thus forms a notional sort of bridge between the Northern Athabaskan languages and the Pacific Coast languages, along with Nicola (Krauss 1979/2004). Using computational phylogenetic methods, Sicoli & Holton (2014) proposed

2664-537: Is difficult to place it in the family with much certainty. Athabaskanists have concluded that it is a Northern Athabaskan language consistent with its geographical occurrence, and that it might have some relation to its distant neighbor Tahltan. Tsetsaut, however, shares its primary hydronymic suffix ("river, stream") with Sekani, Beaver, and Tsuut'ina – PA *-ɢah – rather than with that of Tahltan, Tagish, Kaska, and North and South Tutchone – PA *-tuʼ (Kari 1996; Kari, Fall, & Pete 2003:39). The ambiguity surrounding Tsetsaut

2775-615: Is distantly related to the Athabaskan–Eyak group to form the Na-Dene family , also known as Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit (AET). With Jeff Leer 's 2010 advances, the reconstructions of Na-Dene (or Athabascan–Eyak–Tlingit) consonants, this latter grouping is considered by Alaskan linguists to be a well-demonstrated family. Because both Tlingit and Eyak are fairly remote from the Athabaskan languages in terms of their sound systems, comparison

2886-597: Is home to three salmonid species listed as threatened under the Federal Endangered Species Act : chinook and coho salmon , and steelhead . Coho salmon are additionally listed as threatened under the California State Endangered Species Act. The Mattole Salmon Group counted just three adult Coho salmon in the river in the 2009-2010 winter (and only one redd ), which is the lowest number of coho counted since

2997-473: Is in late winter with maturation about 8–9 months after. Each cone scale bears three to seven seeds , each seed 3–4 mm ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 16  in) long and 0.5 mm ( 1 ⁄ 32  in) broad, with two wings 1 mm ( 1 ⁄ 16  in) wide. The seeds are released when the cone scales dry and open at maturity. The pollen cones are ovular and 4–6 mm ( 3 ⁄ 16 – 1 ⁄ 4  in) long. Its genetic makeup

3108-533: Is insufficient to transport water to leaves beyond this range. Further studies have indicated that this maximum requires fog, which is prevalent in these trees' natural environment. A tree reportedly 114.3 m (375 ft) in length was felled in Sonoma County by the Murphy Brothers saw mill in the 1870s, another claimed to be 115.8 m (380 ft) and 7.9 m (26 ft) in diameter

3219-793: Is located within Alfred A. Loeb State Park and Siskiyou National Forest at the approximate coordinates 42°07'36"N 124°12'17"W. The southern boundary of its range is the Los Padres National Forest 's Silver Peak Wilderness in the Santa Lucia Mountains of the Big Sur area of Monterey County, California. The southernmost grove is in the Southern Redwood Botanical Area , just north of the national forest's Salmon Creek trailhead and near

3330-560: Is not sufficient) and the southwestern corner of coastal Oregon within the United States. Being the tallest tree species, with a small range and an extremely long lifespan, many redwoods are preserved in various state and national parks; many of the largest specimens have their own official names. The name sequoia sometimes refers to the subfamily Sequoioideae , which includes S. sempervirens along with Sequoiadendron (giant sequoia) and Metasequoia (dawn redwood). Here,

3441-466: Is one of the Algonquian languages and therefore not itself an Athabaskan language. The name was assigned by Albert Gallatin in his 1836 (written 1826) classification of the languages of North America. He acknowledged that it was his choice to use this name for the language family and the associated ethnic groups: "I have designated them by the arbitrary denomination of Athabascas, which derived from

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3552-477: Is regular. The terrain also made it harder for loggers to get to the trees and to get them out after felling . The trees above the fog layer, above about 700 m (2,300 ft), are shorter and smaller due to the drier, windier, and colder conditions. In addition, Douglas-fir , pine , and tanoak often crowd out redwoods at these elevations. Few redwoods grow close to the ocean, due to intense salt spray, sand, and wind. Coalescence of coastal fog accounts for

3663-730: Is the Hyperion tree , measuring 115.61 m (379.3 ft). The tree was discovered in Redwood National Park during mid-2006 by Chris Atkins and Michael Taylor , and is thought to be the world's tallest living organism. The previous record holder was the Stratosphere Giant in Humboldt Redwoods State Park at 112.84 m (370.2 ft) (as measured in 2004). Until it fell in March 1991,

3774-475: Is the reconstructed ancestor of the Athabaskan languages. Sequoia sempervirens Sequoia sempervirens ( / s ə ˈ k w ɔɪ . ə ˌ s ɛ m p ər ˈ v aɪ r ən z / ) is the sole living species of the genus Sequoia in the cypress family Cupressaceae (formerly treated in Taxodiaceae ). Common names include coast redwood , coastal redwood and California redwood . It

3885-434: Is unusual among conifers, being a hexaploid (6n) and possibly allopolyploid (AAAABB). Both the mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes of the redwood are paternally inherited . Scottish botanist David Don described the redwood as Taxodium sempervirens , the "evergreen Taxodium ", in his colleague Aylmer Bourke Lambert 's 1824 work A description of the genus Pinus . Austrian botanist Stephan Endlicher erected

3996-503: Is usually done between them and the reconstructed Proto-Athabaskan language. This resembles both Tlingit and Eyak much more than most of the daughter languages in the Athabaskan family. Although Ethnologue still gives the Athabaskan family as a relative of Haida in their definition of the Na-Dene family, linguists who work actively on Athabaskan languages discount this position. The Alaska Native Language Center , for example, takes

4107-498: Is why it is placed in its own subgroup in the Rice–Goddard–Mithun classification. For detailed lists including languages, dialects, and subdialects, see the respective articles on the three major groups: Northern Athabaskan , Pacific Coast Athabaskan , Southern Athabaskan . For the remainder of this article, the conventional three-way geographic grouping will be followed except as noted. The Northern Athabaskan languages are

4218-425: Is yet to be studied. Shoot clones commonly sprout from burls and are often turned into decorative hedges when found in suburbia. Coast redwood is one of the most valuable timber species in the lumbering industry. In California, 3,640 km (899,000 acres) of redwood forest are logged, virtually all of it second growth. Though many entities have existed in the cutting and management of redwoods, perhaps none has had

4329-547: The California Academy of Sciences , William P. Gibbons (1812-1897) described in 1893 the hollow shell of a coast redwood in the Oakland Hills of Alameda County with diameter of 9.9 metres (32 ft) at breast height. This tree's girth is rivalled by the " Fieldbrook Stump" of Humboldt County with a diameter of 9.8 metres (32 ft) at 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) from the ground. Coast redwoods have

4440-544: The Pacific Northwest , led to the formation of a citizen group in Seattle, Washington undertaking assisted migration of this species hundreds of miles north of its native range . In contrast to cautionary statements made by forestry professionals assessing other tree species for assisted migration, the citizens involved with the group known as PropagationNation had met with little controversy until in 2023

4551-482: The Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . Fairly solid evidence indicates that coast redwoods were the world's largest trees before logging, with numerous historical specimens reportedly over 122 m (400 ft). The theoretical maximum potential height of coast redwoods is thought to be limited to between 122 and 130 m (400 and 427 ft), as evapotranspiration

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4662-679: The San Luis Obispo County line. The largest and tallest populations are in California's Redwood National and State Parks ( Del Norte and Humboldt counties) and Humboldt Redwoods State Park , with the overall majority located in the large Humboldt County. The ancient range of the genus is considerably greater, with relatives of the coast redwood living in Europe and Asia prior to the Quaternary geologic period. In recent geologic time there have been considerable shifts in

4773-503: The "Dyerville Giant" was the record holder. It, too, stood in Humboldt Redwoods State Park and was 113.4 m (372 ft) high and estimated to be 1,600 years old. This fallen giant has been preserved in the park. The largest known living coast redwood is Grogan's Fault, discovered in 2014 by Chris Atkins and Mario Vaden in Redwood National Park, with a main trunk volume of at least 1,084.5 cubic meters (38,299 cu ft) Other high-volume coast redwoods include Iluvatar , with

4884-445: The 1930s for experimental reasons and have since flourished. The prevailing native elevation range is 30–750 m (100–2,460 ft) above sea level, occasionally down to 0 and up to about 900 m (3,000 ft). They usually grow in the mountains where precipitation from the incoming moisture off the ocean is greater. The tallest and oldest trees are found in deep valleys and gullies, where year-round streams can flow, and fog drip

4995-653: The Athabaskan family into three groups, based on geographic distribution: The 32 Northern Athabaskan languages are spoken throughout the interior of Alaska and the interior of northwestern Canada in the Yukon and Northwest Territories , as well as in the provinces of British Columbia , Alberta , Saskatchewan and Manitoba . Five Athabaskan languages are official languages in the Northwest Territories, including Chipewyan ( Dënesųłıné ), Dogrib or Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì , Gwich'in (Kutchin, Loucheux), and

5106-634: The California Coastal Commission as a 303(d) impaired waterbody that flows into a Marine Protected Area (Punta Gorda State Marine Reserve). Areas in the Mattole River watershed are being restored to revive habitat that was degraded by a combination of early industrial-style timber harvest techniques and associated road construction, naturally erosive geology, and damage by two 100-year floods , which occurred in 1955 and 1964. The Mattole River and Range Partnership, consisting of

5217-493: The Mattole Restoration Council (MRC) was formed. Their purpose being to combine the restoration efforts with landowners and residents. They issued "Elements of Recovery," a catalog of prescriptions and erosional sources in 1987. It mapped and categorized areas of tributary drainage and erosional features on the watershed. This project revealed the number of roads, including both active and abandoned roads in

5328-404: The Mattole Restoration Council, Mattole Salmon Group, and Sanctuary Forest, undertakes this work with the collaboration of watershed landowners and funding from multiple private and sources. The river is used for recreation and agricultural, municipal and industrial water supply. It also provides wildlife habitat, including cold freshwater habitat for fish migration and spawning. The Mattole River

5439-575: The Mattole also support bigleaf maple , red alder , Fremont cottonwood , Oregon ash , and willow . Arthur W. Way County Memorial Park is on the north bank of and adjacent to the river. In the 1850s, Euro-American settlers started ranching and agricultural traditions on the land. This would inhibit contraction of disease and decrease the native Mattole tradition of relying on river resources. Post World War II: Logging of Douglas fir became an increased practice for this period of building construction and

5550-403: The Mattole basin. Techniques and expertise for this project were developed at Redwood National Park. In 1991, MRC's Douglas fir reforestation project showed a survival rate of 70 to 80 percent. This increased shade, aiding in the hatching of eggs which require a cool temperature. Rock wing and small wing deflectors were installed and protected about 400 yards of the riverbank from 1977 to 1984. Of

5661-499: The Mattole salmon project by Freeman House. They began incubating salmon eggs, clearing logjams and obstacles for fish migration and plant trees to sustain the riverbanks. They will choose to take care of the salmon before they work on their homesteads. Freeman House released the first Mattole Restoration Newsletter was issued in 1983. Its concepts encouraged residents to fight for fine timber, abundant fish, productive grasslands, and rich and varied plant and animal communities. In 1983,

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5772-461: The Mattole were damaged as a result. Logging boomed from 1955 to 1964 and two historically large floods greatly changed the structure of the Mattole streams. After the floods of 1964, sediment yields averaged 16,370 tons per square mile of watershed area, approximately .25 inches per year averaged across the watershed's area. At this time the erosion rates in the Mattole River were approximately 0.001 inches per year. Erosion increases dirt and debris in

5883-560: The Mill Creek Watershed Conservancy, the Upper Mattole River and Forest Cooperative and the Mattole River and Range Partnership fosters the Mattole River habitat restoration work and serves as a model for other communities wanting to work cooperatively to repair anadromous salmonid habitat. Recently the group planned a pilot project to decrease winter runoff and increase summer flows, by using

5994-609: The Northern and Southern variants of Slavey . The seven or more Pacific Coast Athabaskan languages are spoken in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. These include Applegate, Galice, several Rogue River area languages, Upper Coquille, Tolowa, and Upper Umpqua in Oregon ; Eel River, Hupa, Mattole–Bear River, and Tolowa in northern California ; and possibly Kwalhioqua-Clatskanie in Washington . The seven Southern Athabaskan languages are isolated by considerable distance from both

6105-684: The Northern group – has been called a "cohesive complex" by Michael Krauss (1973, 1982). Therefore, the Stammbaumtheorie or family tree model of genetic classification may be inappropriate. The languages of the Southern branch are much more homogeneous and are the only clearly genealogical subgrouping. Debate continues as to whether the Pacific Coast languages form a valid genealogical grouping, or whether this group may instead have internal branches that are tied to different subgroups in Northern Athabaskan. The position of Kwalhioqua–Clatskanai

6216-460: The Pacific Coast grouping, but a recent consideration by Krauss (2005) does not find it very similar to these languages. A different classification by Jeff Leer is the following, usually called the "Leer classification" (Tuttle & Hargus 2004:72–74): Neither subgrouping has found any significant support among other Athabaskanists. Details of the Athabaskan family tree should be regarded as tentative. As Tuttle and Hargus put it, "we do not consider

6327-593: The Pacific Coast languages and the Northern languages. Reflecting an ancient migration of peoples, they are spoken by Native Americans in the American Southwest and the northwestern part of Mexico . This group comprises the six Southern Athabaskan languages and Navajo. The following list gives the Athabaskan languages organized by their geographic location in various North American states, provinces and territories (including some languages that are now extinct). Several languages, such as Navajo and Gwich'in, span

6438-645: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported Mattole spawning runs were 10,000 Chinook salmon and 4,000 coho salmon. Later in 1964, a survey from the California Department of Fish and Game reported Mattole spawning runs were 10,000 Chinook salmon and 4,000 coho salmon. During the 1980s, reports showed the Chinook salmon run fell to 3,000. This number dropped even lower in 1990 and 1991, when Chinook salmon run fell to 100 and coho salmon fell to approximately 100 as well. The American Fisheries Society classified

6549-417: The accumulation of dense undergrowth and woody debris. Thus, even a naturally occurring ground fire could threaten to spread upwards and become a canopy fire spreading uncontrollably over a widening area. Coast redwood reproduces both sexually by seed and asexually by sprouting of buds, layering, or lignotubers . Seed production begins at 10–15 years of age. Cones develop in the winter and mature by fall. In

6660-452: The boundaries: these languages are repeated by location in this list. For alternative names for the languages, see the classifications given later in this article. Eyak and Athabaskan together form a genealogical linguistic grouping called Athabaskan–Eyak (AE) – well- demonstrated through consistent sound correspondences , extensive shared vocabulary, and cross-linguistically unique homologies in both verb and noun morphology . Tlingit

6771-504: The canopy, where branch bark is thin and leaves are vulnerable. In the millions of years that predated human evolution, this level of protection worked well against natural fires originating from lightning strikes. When the first humans arrived in North America, redwoods thrived in regions where ground fires were intentionally set by indigenous populations on a seasonal basis. However, when peoples arrived from other continents in

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6882-444: The circumference of the tree trunk. Within a short period after sprouting, each sprout develops its own root system, with the dominant sprouts forming a ring of trees around the parent root crown or stump. This ring of trees is called a "fairy ring". Sprouts can achieve heights of 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in) in a single growing season. Redwoods may also reproduce using burls . A burl is a woody lignotuber that commonly appears on

6993-567: The coast redwood's range in North America. Coast redwood bark has been found in the La Brea Tar Pits , showing that 25,000–40,000 years before the present redwood trees grew as far south as the Los Angeles during the last ice age . The authors of a 2022 paper suggest, "Were it not for the remarkable ability to sprout after fire, many southern forests may have lost their Sequoia component long ago." As to previous redwood range to

7104-689: The early 1990s residents of the lower Mattole River (Humboldt County, CA) watershed created the Mattole Watershed Alliance to work on improving Mattole River conditions toward the common goal of preserving populations of wild salmonids. The common plant associations within the Mattole include the following: (1) coast redwood forest (in the southern headwaters), (2) mixed coast Douglas-fir and hardwood primarily tanoak and Pacific madrone forest, (3) mixed chaparral, primarily manzanita , mountain whitethorn , California scrub oak , and coyote brush , and (4) grasslands. Riparian zones of

7215-517: The early nineteenth century. The trees were felled by ax and saw onto beds of tree limbs and shrubs to cushion their fall. Stripped of their bark, the logs were transported to mills or waterways by oxen or horse. Loggers then burned the accumulated tree limbs, shrubs, and bark. The repeated fires favored secondary forests of primarily redwoods as redwood seedlings sprout readily in burned areas. The introduction of steam engines let crews drag logs through long skid trails to nearby railroads, furthering

7326-466: The early stages, the cones look like flowers , and are commonly called "flowers" by professional foresters, although this is not strictly correct. Coast redwoods produce many cones, with redwoods in new forests producing thousands per year. The cones themselves hold 90–150 seeds, but viability of seed is low, typically well below 15% with one estimate of average rates being 3 to 10 percent. The viability does increase with age, trees under 20 years old have

7437-523: The eastern side of the King Range , and flows through Mattole Valley before emptying into the Pacific Ocean . Although the Mattole River's source is at about 1,780 feet (540 m) elevation, its tributaries originate as high as 4,000 feet (1,200 m) above sea level. The North Fork of the Mattole River enters the river main stem just west of Petrolia. For most of its length, the river is only

7548-402: The following classification for the Athabaskan languages based exclusively on typological (non-lexical) data. However, this phylogenetic study was criticized as methodologically flawed by Yanovich (2020), since it did not employ sufficient input data to generate a robust tree that does not depend on the initial choice of the "tree prior", i.e. the model for the tree generation. Proto-Athabaskan

7659-541: The forest floor, and be absorbed by the tree's roots. This fog drip may form 30% of the total water used by a tree in a year. Redwoods often grow in flood-prone areas. Sediment deposits can form impermeable barriers that suffocate tree roots, and unstable soil in flooded areas often causes trees to lean to one side, increasing the risk of the wind toppling them. Immediately after a flood, redwoods grow their existing roots upwards into recently deposited sediment layers. A second root system then develops from adventitious buds on

7770-413: The genus Sequoia in his 1847 work Synopsis coniferarum , giving the redwood its current binomial name of Sequoia sempervirens . It is unknown how Endlicher derived the name Sequoia. See Sequoia Etymology . The redwood is one of three living species, each in its own genus, in the subfamily Sequoioideae . Molecular studies have shown that the three are each other's closest relatives, generally with

7881-495: The group began surveys in 2004. This is far below the 19th-century historical estimates of 17,000 to 20,000 adults annually, or the 1950s and 1960s estimates of 8,000 and 5,000 annually, respectively. In 2010–2011 ten coho were counted and five redds, but these numbers are 95% lower than 2006–2007. Each salmon run is on a three-year cycle. The Mattole Restoration Council, the Mattole Salmon Group, Sanctuary Forest,

7992-455: The heavy rainfall, create a soil with fewer nutrients than the trees need, causing them to depend heavily on the entire biotic community of the forest, and making efficient recycling of dead trees especially important. This forest community includes coast Douglas-fir , Pacific madrone , tanoak , western hemlock , and other trees, along with a wide variety of ferns , mosses , mushrooms , and redwood sorrel . Redwood forests provide habitat for

8103-513: The largest group in the Athabaskan family, although this group varies internally about as much as do languages in the entire family. The urheimat of the Athabaskan family is most likely in the Tanana Valley of east-central Alaska. There are many homologies between Proto-Athabaskan vocabulary and patterns reflected in archaeological sites such as Upward Sun, Swan Point and Broken Mammoth (Kari 2010). The Northern Athabaskan group also contains

8214-493: The leaves becomes increasingly difficult due to gravity. Despite the high rainfall that the region receives (up to 100 cm), the leaves in the upper canopy are perpetually stressed for water. This water stress is exacerbated by long droughts in the summer. Water stress is believed to cause the morphological changes in the leaves, stimulating reduced leaf length and increased leaf succulence. To supplement their water needs, redwoods use frequent summer fog events. Fog water

8325-525: The magnificent trees regain lost territory. In December 2023, the Associated Press exclusively reported criticism from professionals in the region and nationally: While beginning to favor experiments in assisted population migration of more southerly genetics of the main native timber tree, Douglas-fir , professionals were united against large-scale plantings of California redwoods into the Pacific Northwest. The next month, January 2024, carried

8436-447: The most linguistically conservative languages, particularly Koyukon, Ahtna, Dena'ina, and Dakelh/Carrier (Leer 2008). Very little is known about Tsetsaut, and for this reason it is routinely placed in its own tentative subgroup. The Nicola language is so poorly attested that it is impossible to determine its position within the family. It has been proposed by some to be an isolated branch of Chilcotin. The Kwalhioqua–Clatskanie language

8547-580: The newly buried trunk and the old root system dies. To counter lean, redwoods increase wood production on the vulnerable side, creating a supporting buttress. These adaptations create forests of almost exclusively redwood trees in flood-prone regions. Coast redwoods are resistant to insect attack, fungal infection, and rot. These properties are conferred by concentrations of terpenoids and tannic acid in redwood leaves, roots, bark, and wood. Despite these chemical defenses, redwoods are still subject to insect infestations; none, however, are capable of killing

8658-531: The north, an upright fossil stump of a coast redwood on a beach in central Oregon was documented 257 km (160 mi) north of the current range. The ability of Coast Redwood to live for more than a thousand years, along with its unusual capacity to resprout from its root crown when felled by natural or human causes, have earned this species the label of "carbon-sequestration champion." Its potential to contribute toward climate change mitigation , as well as its demonstrated ability to thrive in coastal regions of

8769-512: The original name of the lake." The four spellings— Athabaskan , Athabascan , Athapaskan , and Athapascan —are in approximately equal use. Particular communities may prefer one spelling over another (Krauss 1987). For example, the Tanana Chiefs Conference and Alaska Native Language Center prefer the spelling Athabascan . Ethnologue uses Athapaskan in naming the language family and individual languages. Although

8880-518: The parent tree. Seedlings are susceptible to fungal infection and predation by banana slugs , brush rabbits , and nematodes . Most seedlings do not survive their first three years. However, those that become established grow rapidly, with young trees known to reach 20 m (66 ft) tall in 20 years. When canopy space is not available, small trees can remain suppressed for up to 400 years before accelerating their growth rate. Coast redwoods can also reproduce asexually by layering or sprouting from

8991-411: The past few centuries, indigenous fire practices were disallowed — even in the few places where the first peoples were permitted to continue living. Flammable brush and young trees thus accumulated. Clearcut logging further hampered a return to a fire-resistant tall canopy. Governmental policies aimed at suppressing all natural and human-caused fires, even in parks and wilderness areas, amplified

9102-422: The points of difference between the two models ... to be decisively settled and in fact expect them to be debated for some time to come." (Tuttle & Hargus 2004:74) The Northern group is particularly problematic in its internal organization. Due to the failure of the usual criteria of shared innovation and systematic phonetic correspondences to provide well-defined subgroupings, the Athabaskan family – especially

9213-643: The position that recent improved data on Haida have served to conclusively disprove the Haida-inclusion hypothesis. Haida has been determined to be unrelated to Athabaskan languages. A symposium in Alaska in February 2008 included papers on the Yeniseian and Na-Dené families. Edward Vajda of Western Washington University summarized ten years of research, based on verbal morphology and reconstructions of

9324-527: The proto-languages, indicating that these languages might be related. The internal structure of the Athabaskan language family is complex, and its exact shape is still a hotly debated issue among experts. The conventional three-way split into Northern, Pacific Coast, and Southern is essentially based on geography and the physical distribution of Athabaskan peoples rather than sound linguistic comparisons. Despite this inadequacy, current comparative Athabaskan literature demonstrates that most Athabaskanists still use

9435-466: The reach of loggers beyond the land near rivers previously used to transport trees. This method of harvesting, however, disturbed large amounts of soil, producing secondary-growth forests of species other than redwood such as Douglas-fir, grand fir , and western hemlock. After World War II, trucks and tractors gradually replaced steam engines, giving rise to two harvesting approaches: clearcutting and selection harvesting. Clearcutting involved felling all

9546-424: The recent great fire of San Francisco, that began April 18th, 1906, we succeeded in finally stopping it in nearly all directions where the unburned buildings were almost entirely of frame construction, and if the exterior finish of these buildings had not been of redwood lumber, I am satisfied that the area of the burned district would have been greatly extended. Because of its impressive resistance to decay, redwood

9657-436: The redwood and giant sequoia ( Sequoiadendron giganteum ) as each other's closest relatives. However, Yang and colleagues in 2010 queried the polyploid state of the redwood and speculate that it may have arisen as an ancient hybrid between ancestors of the giant sequoia and dawn redwood ( Metasequoia ). Using two different single copy nuclear genes , LFY and NLY, to generate phylogenetic trees , they found that Sequoia

9768-443: The river, because of heightened water temperatures. These temperature highs are above the level for egg development during the summer when these frogs oviposit under stream substrates. The pacific tailed frogs are also endangered, because they have morphological adaptations and biophysical constraints with temperatures so they are ecologically dependent. In 2005, Foothill yellow-legged frog were commonly encountered in all channels of

9879-468: The river, hindering waterflow and devastating the survival of the river's living organisms. The best spawning habitat areas for salmonid species were damaged in 1970 when the chain development of residential housing began. Large landowners divided their land into 40 to 200-acre squares for this development. As a result, the developments caused the transportation of sediment to slow and eventually fill great spawning habitat stream channels. A 1959 survey from

9990-501: The river. Their tadpoles are found increasingly at temperatures above 13 degrees Celsius. The adults are often found in open sun, basking on "gravel bars, boulders and cobbles," because they are "heliotherms" (their body temperature warms by sun's rays). Their eggs are deposited in shallow water in open sunlight near their cobbles and boulders. Rough-skinned newts can be found in headwater channels or terrestrial habitats. In 2010, Western fence lizards are found along alluvial channels of

10101-592: The river. This number increases as the water temperature and the level of sediment increases. They stay near the warmer climates because their invertebrate prey is more accessible here. Athabaskan Athabaskan ( / ˌ æ θ ə ˈ b æ s k ən / ATH -ə- BASK -ən ; also spelled Athabascan , Athapaskan or Athapascan , and also known as Dene ) is a large branch of the Na-Dene language family of North America , located in western North America in three areal language groups: Northern, Pacific Coast and Southern (or Apachean ). Kari and Potter (2010:10) place

10212-399: The root crown, stump, or even fallen branches; if a tree falls over, it generates a row of new trees along the trunk, so many trees naturally grow in a straight line. Sprouts originate from dormant or adventitious buds at or under the surface of the bark. The dormant sprouts are stimulated when the main adult stem gets damaged or starts to die. Many sprouts spontaneously erupt and develop around

10323-449: The same genus as Taxodium distichum (baldcypress) of the southeastern USA. Unlike coast redwood, baldcypress loses its leaves in winter. The common name "redwood", applied to both the coast redwood and the giant redwood, is a reference to the red heartwood of the trees. Common names that refer to Sequoia sempervirens alone include "California redwood", "coastal redwood", "coastal sequoia", and "coast redwood". Coast redwoods occupy

10434-674: The southeastern United States from eastern Texas to Maryland. It also does well in the Pacific Northwest (Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia), far north of its northernmost native range in southwestern Oregon. Coast redwood trees were used in a display at Rockefeller Center and then given to Longhouse Reserve in East Hampton, Long Island, New York, and these have now been living there for over twenty years and have survived at 2 °F (−17 °C). This fast-growing tree can be grown as an ornamental specimen in those large parks and gardens that can accommodate its massive size. It has gained

10545-487: The species as "high risk for extinction". 1980: The Mattole Salmon Group (MSG) was formed by local residents. Their aim is to restore the native salmon populations. The MSG created gravel-lined "hatchboxes" to substitute for the lost spawning habitat areas. Adult spawners were held until they had their eggs and these were incubated in the hatchboxes. This process jumped the survival rate of "egg-to-fry" from 15 percent to 80 percent. In 1981, local residents and activists began

10656-569: The structures, six created wide scour pools from 3 to 6 feet deep, with shade from overhead riparian vegetation. From the early 1960s to 1999, the Southern torrent salamander was encountered in undisturbed slow-flowing water. In 1997, timber harvesting limited the ancient pacific tailed frogs in the headwater channels causing the species became endangered. In 2005, the pacific tailed frogs could be found in small population sizes along old-growth forests. Their small populations are scattered along

10767-425: The successful germination of redwood seeds. A study published in 2010, the first to compare post-wildfire survival and regeneration of redwood and associated species, concluded that fires of all severity increase the relative abundance of redwood, and higher-severity fires provide the greatest benefit. Self-pruning of its lower limbs as height is gained is a crucial adaptation to prevent ground fires from rising into

10878-492: The tax value of standing trees rose as well. Since logging increased, more debris settled in the Mattole River, further damaging it. From 1947 to 1988, the old-growth coniferous forest in the watershed was decreased by 90 percent. Because of the increased industrialism of this time period, road building led to a network of roads. The basin streams became destabilized. Forest practices, like the skidding of logs downstream channels became normal practice. The streams and forestry along

10989-539: The term Athabaskan is prevalent in linguistics and anthropology, there is an increasing trend among scholars to use the terms Dené and Dené languages , which is how many of their native speakers identify it. They are applying these terms to the entire language family. For example, following a motion by attendees in 2012, the annual Athabaskan Languages Conference changed its name to the Dené Languages Conference. Linguists conventionally divide

11100-458: The term redwood on its own refers to the species covered in this article but not to the other two species. The coast redwood normally reaches a height of 60 to 100 m (200 to 330 ft), but will be more than 110 m (360 ft) in extraordinary circumstances, with a trunk diameter of 9 m (30 ft). Historically, the American naturalist , physician and founder member of

11211-461: The three-way geographic grouping rather than any of the proposed linguistic groupings given below, because none of them has been widely accepted. This situation will presumably change as both documentation and analysis of the languages improves. Besides the traditional geographic grouping described previously, there are a few comparatively based subgroupings of the Athabaskan languages. Below the two most current viewpoints are presented. The following

11322-534: The total territory of the 53 Athabaskan languages at 4,022,000 square kilometres (1,553,000 sq mi). Chipewyan is spoken over the largest area of any North American native language, while Navajo is spoken by the largest number of people of any native language north of Mexico. The word Athabaskan is an anglicized version of a Cree language name for Lake Athabasca ( Moose Cree : Āðapāskāw '[where] there are reeds one after another') in Canada . Cree

11433-450: The trees have developed various adaptations. The thick, fibrous bark of coast redwoods is extremely fire-resistant; it grows to at least a foot thick and protects mature trees from fire damage. In addition, the redwoods contain little flammable pitch or resin . Fires, moreover, appear to actually benefit redwoods by causing substantial mortality in competing species, while having only minor effects on redwood. Burned areas are favorable to

11544-501: The trees in a particular area. It was encouraged by tax laws that exempted all standing timber from taxation if 70% of trees in the area were harvested. Selection logging, by contrast, called for the removal 25% to 50% of mature trees in the hopes that the remaining trees would allow for future growth and reseeding. This method, however, encouraged growth of other tree species, converting redwood forests into mixed forests of redwood, grand fir, Sitka spruce , and western hemlock. Moreover,

11655-478: The trees left standing were often felled by windthrow ; that is, they were often blown over by the wind. The coast redwood is naturalized in New Zealand, notably at Whakarewarewa Forest, Rotorua . Redwood has been grown in New Zealand plantations for more than 100 years, and those planted in New Zealand have higher growth rates than those in California, mainly because of even rainfall distribution through

11766-517: The upper crown of older trees, with a full range of transition between the two extremes. They are dark green above and have two blue-white stomatal bands below. Leaf arrangement is spiral, but the larger shade leaves are twisted at the base to lie in a flat plane for maximum light capture. The species is monoecious , with pollen and seed cones on the same plant. The seed cones are ovoid, 15–32 mm ( 9 ⁄ 16 – 1 + 1 ⁄ 4  in) long, with 15–25 spirally arranged scales; pollination

11877-682: The year. Other areas of successful cultivation outside of the native range include Great Britain, Italy, France, Haida Gwaii , middle elevations of Hawaii, Hogsback in South Africa, the Knysna Afromontane forests in the Western Cape, Grootvadersbosch Forest Reserve near Swellendam, South Africa and the Tokai Arboretum on the slopes of Table Mountain above Cape Town, a small area in central Mexico ( Jilotepec ), and

11988-529: Was clustered with Metasequoia in the tree generated using the LFY gene, but with Sequoiadendron in the tree generated with the NLY gene. Further analysis strongly supported the hypothesis that Sequoia was the result of a hybridization event involving Metasequoia and Sequoiadendron . Thus, Yang and colleagues hypothesize that the inconsistent relationships among Metasequoia , Sequoia, and Sequoiadendron could be

12099-1031: Was cut down near Eureka in 1914, and the Lindsay Creek Tree was documented to have a height of 120 m (390 ft) when it was uprooted and felled by a storm in 1905. A tree reportedly 129.2 m (424 ft) tall was felled in November 1886 by the Elk River Mill and Lumber Company in Humboldt County, yielding 79,736 marketable board feet from 21 cuts. In 1893, a Redwood cut at the Eel River , near Scotia , reportedly measured 130.1 m (427 ft) in length, and 23.5 m (77 ft) in girth. However, limited evidence corroborates these historical measurements. Today, trees over 60 m (200 ft) are common, and many are over 90 m (300 ft). The current tallest tree

12210-610: Was extensively used for railroad ties and trestles throughout California. Many of the old ties have been recycled for use in gardens as borders, steps, house beams, etc. Redwood burls are used in the production of table tops, veneers, and turned goods. The Yurok people, who occupied the region before European settlement, regularly burned ground cover in redwood forests to bolster tanoak populations from which they harvested acorns, to maintain forest openings, and to boost populations of useful plant species such as those for medicine or basketmaking. Extensive logging of redwoods began in

12321-402: Was safe. Sillett thought planting redwoods around Seattle was a fantastic idea. ("It's not like it's going to escape and become a nuisance species," Sillett told me, before adding, "it just has so many benefits.") Another factor encouraged Stielstra too: Millions of years ago, redwoods — or their close relatives — grew across the Pacific Northwest. By moving them, Stielstra reasoned, he was helping

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