Makhir ben Yehudah Zakkai of Narbonne or Makhir ben Habibai of Narbonne or Natronai ben Habibi (725 - 765 CE or 793 CE) was a Babylonian-Jewish scholar and later, the supposed leader of the Jewish community of Narbonne in a region which at that time was called Septimania at the end of the eighth century.
53-451: According to a tradition preserved by Abraham ibn Daud in his Sefer ha-Qabbalah , written about 1161, Makhir was a descendant of the house of David . Ibn Daud wrote: Whatever Makhir's Babylon origins claimed by his descendants, the relation between Makhir and Charlemagne is legendary, the more famous king substituting for his father Pepin , king of the Franks , who in order to enlist
106-436: A Prime Mover , who Itself, as First Cause, can not have any other cause of motion above It, and must, therefore, be thought of as motionless. The Prime Mover is God. But this proof of the existence of God leaves still open two important questions relating to the truth of our knowledge of God: one concerning the incorporeality, and the other respecting the unity of God. As to the incorporeality of God, it follows logically from
159-512: A divine providence , or predestination , may be regarded as much nearer its solution. The objection that faith in a divine providence is inconsistent with the existence of evil in the world, because God can not be the author of evil and good at the same time, is refuted by the fact that evil has no existence in itself, but is only the natural result of the absence of actual good, and that, consequently, evil needs no creator. The defects and imperfections which appear in this world in no way contradict
212-457: A Maghario, Count of Narbonne (actually Viscount ), and in turn with an Aymeri de Narbonne , who lived in the 12th century but whom heroic poetry makes father of William of Gellone (died 813). This William was subject of at least six major epic poems composed before the era of the Crusades , including Willehalm by Wolfram von Eschenbach , (who also, in another work, was a chronicler of
265-438: A few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs, including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums , as a public service to encourage interest in
318-420: A gradual process of creation, however, would be, according to ibn Daud, a contradiction of our conception of God's mode of acting. As to the doctrine of God, Abraham ibn Daud, like Aristotle and his Arabic interpreters, proceeding from the principle of motion, and basing his argument upon the proof of the impossibility of a regressus in infinitum , arrives at the conception of a First Cause of all motion, or of
371-413: A hypothesis to satisfy the need of giving an architectonic finish to our notions, intended to mark that gradual process of things which would result, had creation really gone through all the stages of existence, from primary matter, which is imperceptible to us, to all individual things, though some of these stages may be regarded as partly existing only in abstract notions. To concede the possibility of such
424-541: A negative opinion shared by other scholars, while the broader suggestions of a Jewish principality in Southern France have likewise been disputed. Zuckerman's use of sources and analytical approach have also been criticized. Abraham ibn Daud Abraham ibn Daud ( Hebrew : אַבְרָהָם בֶּן־דָּוִד הַלֵּוִי אִבְּן דָּאוּד , romanized : ʾAvrāhām ben-Dāvīd halLēvī ʾībən Dāʾūd ; Arabic : ابراهيم بن داود , romanized : ʾIbrāhīm ibn Daʾūd )
477-555: A renunciation of a positive conception of the Divine Being; for negative statements may suffice to prevent erroneous ideas, but a positive knowledge can never be obtained through them alone. Indeed, our whole knowledge of God is limited to two certainties, (1) that It exists and (2) that Its essence is incomprehensible. In addition to the negative attributes, only relative attributes can be predicated of God; for even these latter, however many may be assumed, since they do not apply to
530-442: A sufficient explanation of the higher cognitive faculty of the prophet, as well as of his power of transcending natural law . Appointed to become an intermediary between God and man, the prophet is elevated almost to the plane of the separated intelligences, or angels . Based upon the philosophical system developed above, and after the exposition of the doctrine of faith, the problem of human free will and its relation to faith in
583-444: Is reported to have taken place publicly before a great body of men, which originated, so to say, under the control of public opinion, without having been disputed by contemporaries, and has descended with an uninterrupted continuity, is persuasive which cannot be controverted even by the professional logician. The trustworthiness of historical tradition forms a presumption in favour of the truth of prophecy . This trust only applies when
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#1732790737419636-448: Is somewhat limited through the variety of moral dispositions, partly due to natural causes, to be found both in single individuals and in entire nations. But man is able to overcome his natural disposition and appetites, and to lift himself to a higher plane of morality, by purifying and ennobling himself. The Torah, and the study of ethics which forms a part of practical philosophy and is designated, by an expression borrowed from Plato, as
689-488: The Frankish Count Theoderic and in 806 became a monk. In another identification, Zuckerman concludes that Theoderic was none other than Makhir, and that the well-documented descendants of Theoderic embodied a dynasty of Franco-Judeic kings of Narbonne, representing the union of the lineage of the exilarchs with Carolingians. However, this underlying chain of identifications has been shown to be flawed,
742-485: The "doctrine of the healing of souls," are the guiding stars to this exalted plane; but no scientific presentation of practical philosophy approaches in this regard the lofty heights of the Scriptures, wherein are clearly expressed the most sublime moral principles known to philosophers. The ceremonial laws also serve the purpose of moral education. Therefore, they too qualify as moral laws; although when compared with
795-519: The 'crown of Torah' from Babylonia to Spain. The account described in Sefer ha-Qabbalah contains numerous impossibilities and inaccuracies. Jewish historian Gerson Cohen noted that the alleged leader of the Spanish royal fleet, Abd al-Rahman III , died some thirty years before the story took place, and that the legend of Rabbi Moshe, disguised as a pauper, surprising scholars in a Torah study session
848-835: The Jews of Narbonne in his efforts to keep the Umayyad Saracens at bay, granted wide-ranging powers in return for the surrender of Moorish Narbonne to him in 759. The Annals of Aniane and the Chronicle of Moissac both attribute this action to the Gothic leaders of Narbonne, rising up and massacring the Saracen garrison. Pepin with his sons Carloman and Charles redeemed this pledge in 768, granting to Makhir and his heirs extensive lands, an act that called forth an unavailing protest from Pope Stephen III . In 791 Charlemagne confirmed
901-515: The Jews) at Narbonne. The place of residence of the Makhir family at Narbonne was designated in official documents as "Cortada Regis Judæorum". Arthur Zuckerman maintains that Makhir was actually identical with Natronai ben Habibi , an exilarch deposed and exiled in a dispute between two branches of the family of Bostanai in the late eighth century. Zuckerman further identified Makhir (Natronai) with
954-481: The Mediterranean. In each place where the rabbis were sold as slaves, the local Jewish communities bought their freedom. One of the slaves was Rabbi Hanoch ben Moshe who was freed in the Spanish city of Córdoba . When he began attending Torah classes and giving brilliant answers to questions, the community recognized him as a prodigious scholar and made him their leader; this transferred what Dara Horn called
1007-492: The Perplexed , Abraham ibn Daud's العقيدة الرفيعة Al-'aqida ar-Rafi'a ("The Sublime Creed") ( Emunah Ramah ), a work to which Maimonides himself was indebted for many valuable suggestions, received scant notice from later philosophers. The only Jewish philosophical works that Ibn Daud had before him, according to his own statement, were Saadia's Emunoth ve-Deoth , and "The Fountain of Life" by Solomon ibn Gabirol . On
1060-545: The PhD level and beyond (as of 2024). Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes, usually just
1113-404: The authority of Aristotle in all matters transcendental, Ibn Daud was not able to extricate himself; and, therefore, he rather tries to glide over the existing difficulties than to solve them. For he represents the course of creation as a series of creative acts; which recalls Gabirol's doctrine concerning the succession of the various substances. But he himself subsequently admits that this was only
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#17327907374191166-467: The beginning through revelation. As to moral truths, it may be even assumed as probable that the philosophers did not attain to them through independent study, but rather under the influence of the doctrines of Holy Scripture. It is true that on certain points ibn Daud could not always avoid conflict with the doctrines of Aristotle: this was especially true regarding Aristotle's theory of creation . According to Aristotle, all coming into being results from
1219-414: The conception of a plurality in its essence would, at the same time, nullify the notion of the necessity of Its existence. For the consolidation of this plurality into a unity must have been effected by another being different from itself; hence the existence of this plural being would be no more necessary, that is, determined by its own essence, but would be dependent upon that other being which brought about
1272-421: The core sciences, a competency examination, experience with teaching undergraduates and participating in outreach programs, work on research projects under the student's supervising professor, completion of a PhD thesis , and passing a final oral exam . Throughout the PhD training, a successful student is financially supported with a stipend . While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers,
1325-536: The data) or theoretical astronomy . Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science , solar astronomy , the origin or evolution of stars , or the formation of galaxies . A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology , which studies the Universe as a whole. Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical . Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze
1378-903: The data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work. Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy , astrobiology , stellar astronomy , astrometry , galactic astronomy , extragalactic astronomy , or physical cosmology . Astronomers can also specialize in certain specialties of observational astronomy, such as infrared astronomy , neutrino astronomy , x-ray astronomy , and gravitational-wave astronomy . Historically , astronomy
1431-493: The divine revelations apply to important public matters, but not when they relate to less important matters, or to the personal affairs of a single individual. Thus, as ibn Daud remarks (perhaps referring to the miracles attributed to Jesus ), the authenticity of the Torah would be in a difficult situation if, instead of being based historically certain miracles such as those of Moses , it were supported only by private miracles such
1484-406: The doctrine of the negative attributes, already accepted by Bahya ibn Paquda . and by Judah ha-Levi from the older Arabic theology. According to Ibn Daud, only negative attributes, in the strict and proper sense, can be imputed to God; so that, whatever multiplicity of these negative attributes may be ascribed to It, no multiplicity in the essence of God can result. Certainly this is equivalent to
1537-568: The doctrines of faith and the ethical laws proper, they have only a subordinate importance, just as the Bible also attribute to the sacrifices a relatively minor importance in comparison with the moral laws. Astronomer An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth . Astronomers observe astronomical objects , such as stars , planets , moons , comets and galaxies – in either observational (by analyzing
1590-447: The essence of God but only to Its relation to the world, produce no modification in the notion of the unity of the Divine Being. From the speculative doctrines of faith, the truth of which can be proved only by reasoning, are to be distinguished the historical dogmas whose authenticity is based principally upon divine revelation, or (more precisely) upon the historical tradition of such a revelation. The tradition concerning an event that
1643-474: The field is popular among amateurs . Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties . The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. As with any hobby , most people who practice amateur astronomy may devote
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1696-489: The field. Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in physics, mathematics , sciences, and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write, and present papers are part of the higher education of an astronomer, while most astronomers attain both a Master's degree and eventually a PhD degree in astronomy, physics or astrophysics . PhD training typically involves 5-6 years of study, including completion of upper-level courses in
1749-468: The first strict Aristotelian among the Jews—who considered Aristotle and his Arabic commentators, Alfarabi and Ibn Sina , to be the only true philosophers —Ibn Daud was provoked to constant opposition by the doctrines of Gabirol, who represented Neoplatonism . Impartial enough to accord to childlike faith its full rights, Ibn Daud desired also to defend the rights of reason, and, consequently, resisted with
1802-433: The fundamental doctrines of Judaism and those of philosophy, and, wherever they seem to contradict one another, to seek a mode of reconciling them. Ibn Daud insists that, however highly philosophy may be valued, the religion of Judaism is preferable. Knowledge, which had been acquired by philosophers through the evolution of several thousand years, and after overcoming the most serious errors, had been bestowed upon Judaism from
1855-525: The fusion of matter into a certain form; matter, therefore, is the necessary basis for any genesis; primary matter itself, as the substance common to all things existent, must, therefore, be without beginning and must be eternal. But the acceptance of pre-existent and eternal matter cannot be reconciled with the Biblical history of creation, which implies a creation out of nothing , and subject to time. From this conflict, which later caused Maimonides to dispute
1908-694: The majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The American Astronomical Society , which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America , has approximately 8,200 members (as of 2024). This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology , and engineering , whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises about 12,700 members from 92 countries who are involved in astronomical research at
1961-651: The notion of infinity which belongs to the First Cause of motion that no corporeal thing can be infinite itself; nor can infinite force be attributed to it. But the Prime Mover is infinite; for, since it itself is without motion, its force also remains unaffected by the motion of change and transformation. Therefore, the Prime Mover—that is, God—cannot be corporeal. But as a being of necessary existence, God must also be absolutely simple and single; inasmuch as
2014-498: The notion of possibility is not at all antagonistic to the omniscience of God; for it is easily conceivable that God from the beginning regulated creation, so that for certain cases both alternatives should be "possible" events; that the Creator, in order to grant to human liberty the opportunity to display its own energy, left the final issue of certain actions undecided even for His own knowledge. Ibn Daud admits that human free will
2067-495: The notion of possibility, by which one of two alternatives may occur. This does not limit divine omniscience in any way; unless, misled by common usage, one should designate as "possible" those things whose undetermined state results not from their own essence, but only from our deficient knowledge of the essence. But this kind of possibility, which, indeed, is no possibility at all, must be eliminated from God as quite irreconcilable with His omniscience . In its strict and precise form,
2120-416: The one hand, he fully recognized the merits of Saadia Gaon , although he does not adopt his views on the freedom of the will, notwithstanding that the solution of this problem was to be the chief aim and purpose of his whole system. On the other hand, his attitude toward Gabirol was entirely antagonistic, and even in the preface to his "Emunah Ramah" he pitilessly condemned Gabirol's "Fountain of Life." Being
2173-501: The resurrections by Elijah and Elisha . Relying upon the doctrines of Alfarabi and Avicenna , Ibn Daud (whom Maimonides follows in many ways in his conception of prophecy) further argues that the gift of prophecy must not be considered as a phenomenon, interrupting the continuity of the development of the human mind, but in a certain sense as the final stage of a natural evolution whose lower phases, though they must be distinguished from prophecy proper, are nevertheless connected with
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2226-477: The same faculty through a certain identity of nature. And even if the true stage of prophecy is reached, this gift is, nevertheless, still capable of progressive development, although it may exceptionally at once reach the highest perfection in particularly gifted individuals. The connection between the mind of the prophet and the higher intellects, principally with the Active Intelligence, furnishes
2279-567: The search of the Grail). The historical William, i. e. William I , Count of Toulouse led Frankish forces at the fall of Barcelona in 803. The account of the campaign in Ermold Niger 's Latin poem dates the events, as Zuckerman says, according to the Jewish calendar and portrays William, again according to Zuckerman's interpretation, as an observant Jew. Count William was actually the son of
2332-472: The status of the Jewish Principate and made the title of Nasi permanent. The Makhir family enjoyed for centuries many privileges and that its members bore the title of " nasi " (prince). Benjamin of Tudela , who visited Narbonne in 1165, speaks of the exalted position occupied by the descendants of Makhir, and the "Royal Letters" of 1364 also record the existence of a rex Iudaeorum (King of
2385-582: The time of the Geonim and to the history of the Jews in Spain. In his book he attempted to explain how the pre-Inquisition Spanish Jewish community became the centre of the Jewish world by claiming that four rabbis from Babylonia , which had been the centre of Jewish scholarship for centuries, were travelling across the Mediterranean by ship in 990. Their ship was captured by a royal Spanish fleet and all four rabbis were sold into slavery at different points around
2438-429: The title of Sefer ha-Qabbalah ( Hebrew : ספר הקבלה , lit. 'Book of Tradition'; some manuscripts give the title as Seder ha-Qabbalah , i.e. the "Order of Tradition"), in which he fiercely attacked the contentions of Karaism and justified Rabbinic Judaism by the establishment of a chain of traditions from Moses to his own time, is replete with valuable general information, especially relating to
2491-495: The unification. From the notion of absolute unity results the conception of the uniqueness of God; for if two beings of this kind could exist, the unity of God would be nullified, since to one, at least, of the units a special character must be attributed so as to distinguish it from the other. With the doctrine of the unity of God is connected the doctrine of the divine attributes, which is preceded in Abraham ibn Daud's system by
2544-464: The utmost energy any attempt to set bounds to science; regarding this as a culpable encroachment upon the Divine plan, who did not endow man with the faculty of thought without intent. True philosophy, according to Ibn Daud, does not entice us from religion; it tends rather to strengthen and solidify it. Moreover, it is the duty of every thinking Jew to become acquainted with the harmony existing between
2597-432: The wisdom and goodness of God. The defects appear only to a finite conception which considers things separately and in themselves, and not in their connection with the whole. Viewed from a higher standpoint the imperfections adhering to things or individuals would perhaps, in their relation to the whole, even prove to be perfections and advantages. The human free-will as a subjective principle has for its objective correlate
2650-653: Was a Spanish-Jewish astronomer , historian and philosopher ; born in Córdoba, Spain about 1110; who was said to have died in Toledo, Spain , a martyr about 1180. He is sometimes known by the abbreviation Rabad I or Ravad I . His maternal grandfather was Isaac Albalia . Some scholars believe he was the Arabic-into-Latin translator known as Avendauth . His chronicle, a work written in Hebrew in 1161 under
2703-498: Was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws . Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and "astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend
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#17327907374192756-560: Was nearly identical to the rise of Hillel the Elder . An astronomical work written by him in 1180 is favourably noticed by Isaac Israeli the Younger . His philosophical work, al-ʿaqida l-Rafiya (The Sublime Faith), written in 1168, in Arabic, has been preserved in two Hebrew translations: one by Solomon ben Labi, with the title Emunah Ramah ; the other by Samuel Motot. Labi's translation
2809-483: Was retranslated into German and published by Simshon Weil. Ibn Daud was the first to introduce the phase of Jewish philosophy which is generally attributed to Maimonides and which differs from former systems of philosophy mainly in its more thorough systematic form derived from Aristotle. Accordingly, Hasdai Crescas mentions Ibn Daud as the only Jewish philosopher among the predecessors of Maimonides. But having been completely overshadowed by Maimonides' Guide for
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