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Mantuano

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Mantuano is a denomination assigned, first in Caracas and later in the rest of Venezuela , to the blancos criollos (white creole) belonging to the local aristocracy . The term was in use from the 18th century until well into the 19th century. The mantuanos hardly surpassed a hundred heads of family by the end of the 18th century.

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51-493: The mantuanos were also called " grandes cacaos ", because they became rich with the cultivation and commercialization of cocoa . They were also called blancos criollos . The name blanco criollo only indicates that a person was born in America and was a descendant of Spaniards, while the word mantuano refers to members of the local elite. Other whites who also had the same birthplace and ancestry of Spanish origin, such as

102-497: A cold or dry/wet season. Evergreen trees also lose leaves, but each tree loses its leaves gradually and not all at once. Most tropical rainforest plants are considered to be evergreens, replacing their leaves gradually throughout the year as the leaves age and fall, whereas species growing in seasonally arid climates may be either evergreen or deciduous. Most warm temperate climate plants are also evergreen. In cool temperate climates, fewer plants are evergreen. In such climates, there

153-731: A higher soil acidity and lower soil nitrogen content. This is the case with Mediterranean evergreen seedlings, which have unique C and N storages that allow stored resources to determine fast growth within the species, limiting competition and bolstering survival. These conditions favor the growth of more evergreens and make it more difficult for deciduous plants to persist. In addition, the shelter provided by existing evergreen plants can make it easier for younger evergreen plants to survive cold and/or drought. Evergreen plants can have decorative as well as functional uses. In months where most other plants are dormant, evergreens with their sturdy structure, and vibrant foliage are popular choices to beautify

204-420: A larger volume of parenchyma and air spaces per unit leaf area. They have larger leaf biomass per unit leaf area, and hence a lower specific leaf area . Construction costs do not differ between the groups. Evergreens have generally a larger fraction of total plant biomass present as leaves (LMF), but they often have a lower rate of photosynthesis. Deciduous trees shed their leaves usually as an adaptation to

255-776: A relatively high proportion code for polyphenols , which constitute up to 8% of cacao pods dry weight. The cacao genome appears close to the hypothetical hexaploid ancestor of all dicotyledonous plants, and it is proposed as an evolutionary mechanism by which the 21 chromosomes of the dicots' hypothetical hexaploid ancestor underwent major fusions leading to cacao's 10 chromosome pairs. The genome sequence enables cacao molecular biology and breeding for elite varieties through marker-assisted selection, in particular for genetic resistance to fungal , oomycete and viral diseases responsible for huge yield losses each year. In 2017–18, due to concerns about survivability of cacao plants in an era of global warming in which climates become more extreme in

306-580: A tomb at the Maya archaeological site of Rio Azul . As cacao is the only known commodity from Mesoamerica containing both of these alkaloid compounds, it seems likely these vessels were used as containers for cacao drinks. In addition, cacao is named in a hieroglyphic text on one of the Rio Azul vessels. Cacao is also believed to have been ground by the Aztecs and mixed with tobacco for smoking purposes. Cocoa

357-438: Is a predominance of conifers because few evergreen broadleaf plants can tolerate severe cold below about −26 °C (−15 °F). In addition, evergreen foliage experiences significant leaf damage in these cold, dry climates. Root systems are the most vulnerable aspect of many plants. Even though roots are insulated by soil, which tends to be warmer than average air temperatures, soil temperatures that drop too low can kill

408-568: Is a small (6–12 m (20–39 ft) tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae . Its seeds - cocoa beans - are used to make chocolate liquor , cocoa solids , cocoa butter and chocolate . Although the tree is native to the tropics of the Americas , the largest producer of cocoa beans in 2022 was Ivory Coast . The plant's leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 10–50 cm (4–20 in) long and 5–10 cm (2–4 in) broad. The flowers are produced in clusters directly on

459-699: Is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from θεός ( theos ), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and βρῶμα ( broma ), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal , Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya ; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca ; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of

510-631: Is diploid, its size is 430 M bp , and it comprises 10 chromosome pairs (2n=2x=20). In September 2010, a team of scientists announced a draft sequence of the cacao genome (Matina1-6 genotype). In a second, unrelated project, the International Cocoa Genome Sequencing Consortium-ICGS, coordinated by CIRAD, first published in December 2010 (online, paper publication in January 2011), the sequence of

561-445: Is equally true of abandoned cultivated trees, making it difficult to distinguish truly wild trees from those whose parents may originally have been cultivated. In 2016, cocoa beans were cultivated on roughly 10,200,000 hectares (25,000,000 acres) worldwide. Cocoa beans are grown by large agroindustrial plantations and small producers, the bulk of production coming from millions of farmers with small plots. A tree begins to bear when it

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612-469: Is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 1,200 seeds (40 pods) are required to produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of cocoa paste . Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group,

663-573: Is home to considerable genetic diversity, and recommends that this area be considered for protection. Other projects, such as the International Cocoa Quarantine Centre , aim to combat cacao diseases and preserve genetic diversity. Phytopathogens (parasitic organisms) cause much damage to Theobroma cacao plantations around the world. Many of those phytopathogens, which include many of the pests named below, were analyzed using mass spectrometry and allow for guiding on

714-774: Is widely distributed from southeastern Mexico to the Amazon basin . There were originally two hypotheses about its domestication; one said that there were two foci for domestication, one in the Lacandon Jungle area of Mexico and another in lowland South America . More recent studies of patterns of DNA diversity, however, suggest that this is not the case. One study sampled 1241 trees and classified them into 10 distinct genetic clusters. This study also identified areas, for example around Iquitos in modern Peru and Ecuador , where representatives of several genetic clusters originated more than 5000 years ago, leading to development of

765-418: The blancos de orilla , were not part of the mantuano circle. The first written appearance of the word mantuano occurred on January 5, 1752, in documents related to the insurrection of Juan Francisco de León , according to philologist Ángel Rosenblat . Mantuano derives from the word manto ( mantle ), and was a reference to the exclusive use of this garment, to cover the head in religious services, by

816-795: The Mantuano houses of the Casanova de Iturraspe, Cortez and Pineda, the Antúnez Pacheco, Ramírez Rus, Gutiérrez de Celis, Urdaneta, Andrade, Tubiñez Bocanegra, García de la Lastra, Pérez Luzardo, Padrón Del Villar and Osorio, among others. There were other Mantuano families of great zeal and ancestry in regions still known for their large haciendas: in Perijá (such as the García, Romero and de la Vega families, among others); in La Cañada (such as

867-667: The Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in what is present-day southeast Ecuador ( Zamora-Chinchipe Province ) by the Mayo-Chinchipe culture before being introduced in Mesoamerica. In Mesoamerica, ceramic vessels with residues from the preparation of cacao beverages have been found from the Early Formative (1900–900 BC) period. For example, one such vessel found at an Olmec archaeological site on

918-568: The Swedish naturalist Linnaeus published his taxonomic binomial system and coined the genus and species Theobroma cacao . Traditional pre-Hispanic beverages made with cacao are still consumed in Mesoamerica . These include the Oaxacan beverage known as tejate . Evergreen In botany , an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional throughout

969-628: The colonial caste system , the Mantuanos were below the Crown officials and other Spaniards residing in Venezuela (the so-called peninsular whites). As a consequence, there was a rivalry between the peninsular whites and the Mantuanos for political power in the colony. The Mantuanos had conflicting relations with other social groups such as the white shore people and the pardos . The Mantuanos considered these groups as inferior. In their turn,

1020-583: The sacrifice of a dog with cacao-colored markings, additional animal sacrifices, offerings of cacao, feathers and incense, and an exchange of gifts. In a similar creation story, the Mexica ( Aztec ) god Quetzalcoatl discovered cacao ( cacahuatl : "bitter water"), in a mountain filled with other plant foods. Cacao was offered regularly to a pantheon of Mexica deities and the Madrid Codex depicts priests lancing their ear lobes (autosacrifice) and covering

1071-485: The trunk and older branches; this is known as cauliflory . The flowers are small, 1–2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 13 ⁄ 16  in) diameter, with pink calyx . The floral formula , used to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, is ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+5 ) G (5). While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by bees ( Hymenoptera ) or butterflies / moths ( Lepidoptera ), cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia biting midges . Using

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1122-753: The Amenolado variety, while the Arriba variety (such as the Nacional variety) are less commonly found in Forastero produce. Forastero trees are significantly hardier and more disease-resistant than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Major cocoa bean processors include Hershey's , Nestlé and Mars . Chocolate can be made from T. cacao through a process of steps that involve harvesting, fermenting of T. cacao pulp, drying, harvesting, and then extraction. Roasting T. cacao by using superheated steam

1173-739: The Aztec emperor consumed, and how it was carefully whipped by his attendants beforehand. Examples of cacao beans, along with other agricultural products, were brought back to Spain at that time, but it seems the beverage made from cacao was introduced to the Spanish court in 1544 by Kekchi Maya nobles brought from the New World to Spain by Dominican friars to meet Prince Philip . Within a century, chocolate had spread to France, England and elsewhere in Western Europe . Demand for this beverage led

1224-511: The French to establish cacao plantations in the Caribbean , while Spain subsequently developed their cacao plantations in their Venezuelan and Philippine colonies (Bloom 1998, Coe 1996). A painting by Dutch Golden Age artist Albert Eckhout shows a wild cacao tree in mid-seventeenth century Dutch Brazil. The Nahuatl-derived Spanish word cacao entered scientific nomenclature in 1753 after

1275-540: The Gulf Coast of Veracruz , Mexico dates cacao's preparation by pre-Olmec peoples as early as 1750 BC. On the Pacific coast of Chiapas , Mexico, a Mokaya archaeological site provides evidence of even earlier cacao beverages, to 1900 BC. The initial domestication was probably related to the making of a fermented alcoholic beverage. In 2018, researchers who analysed the genome of cultivated cacao trees concluded that

1326-751: The Rincón, Boscán and Urdaneta families); and in the Andean region (such as the Picón, Casanova de Iturraspe, Lares and Febres Cordero families), with their large coffee and sugar cane plantations. In Falcón , specifically in the city of Coro and the Paraguaná peninsula , the solid mansions of the Garcés, De la Colina Peredo, García de Quevedo, and Fernández de Lugo families are still standing. Theobroma cacao Theobroma cacao ( cacao tree or cocoa tree )

1377-476: The area in which they reside. The excellent water economy within the evergreen species is due to high abundance when compared to deciduous species. Whereas deciduous trees lose nutrients whenever they lose their leaves. In warmer areas, species such as some pines and cypresses grow on poor soils and disturbed ground. In Rhododendron , a genus with many broadleaf evergreens, several species grow in mature forests but are usually found on highly acidic soil where

1428-539: The area of greatest cacao genetic diversity to a bean-shaped area that encompasses Ecuador , the border between Brazil and Peru and the southern part of the Colombian–Brazilian border. Climate models indicate that at the peak of the last ice age 21,000 years ago, when habitat suitable for cacao was at its most reduced, this area was still suitable, and so provided a refugium for species. Cacao trees grow well as understory plants in humid forest ecosystems. This

1479-613: The cacao genome, of the Criollo cacao (of a landrace from Belize, B97-61/B2). In their publication, they reported a detailed analysis of the genomic and genetic data. The sequence of the cacao genome identified 28,798 protein-coding genes, compared to the roughly 23,000 protein-coding genes of the human genome . About 20% of the cacao genome consists of transposable elements , a low proportion compared to other plant species. Many genes were identified as coding for flavonoids , aromatic terpenes , theobromine and many other metabolites involved in cocoa flavor and quality traits, among which

1530-687: The cacao producers and their clients, and seeks to improve the characterization of cacao diversity, the sustainability and diversity of the cacao collections, the usefulness of the collections, and to ease access to better information about the conserved material. Some natural areas of cacao diversity are protected by various forms of conservation, for example national parks. However, a recent study of genetic diversity and predicted climates suggests that many of those protected areas will no longer be suitable for cacao by 2050. It also identifies an area around Iquitos in Peru that will remain suitable for cacao and that

1581-548: The cacao with blood as a suitable sacrifice to the gods. The cacao beverage was used as a ritual only by men, as it was believed to be an intoxicating food unsuitable for women and children. Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. At one point, the Aztec empire received a yearly tribute of 980 loads ( Classical Nahuatl : xiquipilli ) of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8,000 beans. The buying power of quality beans

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1632-487: The cocoa bean used by the Maya . Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish : 'cacao of Chuao'). The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero group, the main and most ubiquitous variety being

1683-537: The cocoa-tree". Cacao ( Theobroma cacao ) is one of 26 species belonging to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Byttnerioideae of the mallow family Malvaceae . In 2008, researchers proposed a new classification based upon morphological , geographic, and genomic criteria: 10 groups have been named according to their geographic origin or the traditional cultivar name. These groups are: Amelonado, Criollo, Nacional, Contamana, Curaray, Cacao guiana, Iquitos, Marañon, Nanay, and Purús. T. cacao

1734-676: The correct approaches to get rid of the specific phytopathogens. This method was found to be quick, reproducible, and accurate showing promising results in the future to prevent damage to Theobroma cacao by various phytopathogens. A specific bacterium Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya . Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production. The genome of T. cacao

1785-498: The domesticated cacao trees all originated from a single domestication event that occurred about 3,600 years ago somewhere in Central America. Several mixtures of cacao are described in ancient texts, for ceremonial or medicinal, as well as culinary, purposes. Some mixtures included maize , chili , vanilla ( Vanilla planifolia ), and honey. Archaeological evidence for use of cacao, while relatively sparse, has come from

1836-552: The evergreen nature of the plant, for instance: The longevity of individual leaves in evergreen plants varies from a few months to several decades (over 30 years in the Great Basin bristlecone pine ). Japanese umbrella pine is unique in that it has its own family of which it is the only species. Evergreen and deciduous species vary in a range of morphological and physiological characters. Generally, broad-leaved evergreen species have thicker leaves than deciduous species, with

1887-576: The genetic diversity conserved in field genebanks to create new varieties, because cacao has recalcitrant seeds that cannot be stored in a conventional genebank. In an effort to improve the diversity available to breeders, and ensure the future of the field genebanks, experts have drawn up A Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of Cacao Genetic Resources, as the Foundation for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy. The strategy has been adopted by

1938-727: The ladies of the Caracas aristocrats. Since 1571 there was a provision in the Laws of the Indies that prohibited other women, such as mulattoes and black women, from wearing the mantle. The emergence of the Mantuanos as a group dates back to the 16th century, as a consequence of the decrees , laws and ordinances that granted rights and privileges to the descendants of the first Spanish conquistadores and settlers in Venezuela. The Mantuanos became owners of large cocoa and tobacco plantations and cattle ranches . They also owned slaves. Some of

1989-517: The narrow band of latitudes where cacao is grown (20 degrees north and south of the equator ), the commercial company, Mars, Incorporated and the University of California, Berkeley are using CRISPR to adjust DNA for improved hardiness of cacao in hot climates. The cacao tree, native of the Amazon rainforest, was first domesticated at least 5,300 years ago, in equatorial South America from

2040-436: The natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges produced more fruit than using artificial pollinators. The fruit , called a cacao pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm (6–12 in) long and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighs about 500 g (1 lb) when ripe. The pod contains 20 to 60 seeds , usually called "beans", embedded in a white pulp. The seeds are the main ingredient of chocolate , while

2091-423: The nutrients are less available to plants. In taiga or boreal forests , it is too cold for the organic matter in the soil to decay rapidly, so the nutrients in the soil are less easily available to plants, thus favoring evergreens. In temperate climates, evergreens can reinforce their own survival; evergreen leaf and needle litter has a higher carbon-nitrogen ratio than deciduous leaf litter , contributing to

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2142-448: The plant. The exact temperature which evergreen roots can handle depends on the species, for example, Picea Glauca (White Spruce) roots are killed at −10 °F (−23 °C). In areas where there is a reason for being deciduous, e.g. a cold season or dry season, evergreen plants are usually an adaptation of low nutrient levels. Additionally, they usually have hard leaves and have an excellent water economy due to scarce resources in

2193-439: The prerogatives of the Mantuanos were: pews assigned to them in the churches, to be carried in gestatorial chairs , use of the title of Don or Doña , to have their escutcheon placed in the front of their houses, use of canes, cloaks, chains, hats and sunshades. Despite their economic power, the Mantuanos could only aspire to positions in the colonial cabildo , while other political positions were forbidden to them. Within

2244-434: The pulp is used in some countries to prepare refreshing juice , smoothies , jelly , and cream . Usually discarded until practices changed in the 21st century, the fermented pulp may be distilled into an alcoholic beverage. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40–50%) as cocoa butter . The fruit's active constituent is the stimulant theobromine , a compound similar to caffeine . The generic name Theobroma

2295-562: The recovery of whole cacao beans at Uaxactun , Guatemala and from the preservation of wood fragments of the cacao tree at Belize sites including Cuello and Pulltrouser Swamp . In addition, analysis of residues from ceramic vessels has found traces of theobromine and caffeine in early formative vessels from Puerto Escondido, Honduras (1100–900 BC) and in middle formative vessels from Colha, Belize (600–400 BC) using similar techniques to those used to extract chocolate residues from four classic period (around 400 AD) vessels from

2346-467: The variety, Nacional cocoa bean . This result suggests that this is where T. cacao was originally domesticated, probably for the pulp that surrounds the beans, which is eaten as a snack and fermented into a mildly alcoholic beverage. Using the DNA sequences and comparing them with data derived from climate models and the known conditions suitable for cacao, one study refined the view of domestication, linking

2397-636: The whites of the shore and the pardos felt antipathy towards the Mantuanos . In Maracaibo , according to the author Kurt Nagel von Jess (in his works Algunas Familias Maracaiberas , 1969, and La Familia Lossada de Maracaibo , 2007) there were famous manor houses of Mantuano families such as the Lossada and Antúnez, located exactly behind the Cathedral and the Troconis, diagonal to it; all of them with their coats of arms carved in stone. There were also

2448-442: The year. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which lose their foliage completely during the winter or dry season. Consisting of many different species, the unique feature of evergreen plants lends itself to various environments and purposes. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, including trees , shrubs , and vines. Evergreens include: The Latin binomial term sempervirens , meaning "always green", refers to

2499-673: Was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC. The Maya believed the kakaw (cacao) was discovered by the gods in a mountain that also contained other delectable foods to be used by them. According to Maya mythology , the Plumed Serpent gave cacao to the Maya after humans were created from maize by divine grandmother goddess Xmucane . The Maya celebrated an annual festival in April to honor their cacao god, Ek Chuah , an event that included

2550-473: Was found to be better than conventional oven-roasting because it resulted in the same quality of cocoa beans in a shorter time. In 2022, world production of cocoa beans was 5.9 million tonnes , led by Ivory Coast with 38% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (19%) and Indonesia (11%). The pests and diseases to which cacao is subject, along with climate change, mean that new varieties will be needed to respond to these challenges. Breeders rely on

2601-481: Was such that 80–100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire. The first European knowledge about chocolate came in the form of a beverage which was first introduced to the Spanish at their meeting with Moctezuma in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1519. Cortés and others noted the vast quantities of this beverage

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