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122-709: The Marieval Indian Residential School was part of the Canadian Indian residential school system . Located on the Cowessess 73 reserve in Marieval, Saskatchewan , it operated from 1898 to 1997. It was located in Qu'Appelle Valley , east of Crooked Lake and 24 km (15 mi) north of Broadview . In June 2021, 751 unmarked graves were found on the school grounds by the Cowessess First Nation ,

244-608: A mass grave ; rather, headstones had been removed by representatives of the Catholic Church in the 1960s. On October 8, 2021, Cowessess announced that they had identified 300 of the 751 likely gravesites after consulting the records of the RCMP, the Catholic Church, and Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, as well as community members' oral stories. Premier of Saskatchewan Scott Moe expressed his support for

366-466: A concept of land ownership based on the discovery doctrine . As explained in the executive summary of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 's (TRC) final report: "Underlying these arguments was the belief that the colonizers were bringing civilization to savage people who could never civilize themselves ... a belief of racial and cultural superiority." Assimilation efforts began as early as

488-536: A conflict" and the priest then used a bulldozer to knock over "huge numbers of tombstones." One person claiming relatives in the cemetery said he knew the workers who picked up the headstones. In 2019, the Archdiocese of Regina provided the Cowessess First Nation $ 70,000 to identify the unmarked graves and restore the cemetery. In May 2021, the Cowessess First Nation announced they would search

610-564: A day school on the reserve was the result of pressure from missionary representatives. Reliant on student enrolment quotas to secure funding, they were struggling to attract new students due to increasingly poor school conditions. The introduction of the Family Allowance Act in 1945 stipulated that school-aged children had to be enrolled in school for families to qualify for the " baby bonus ", further coercing Indigenous parents into having their children attend. Students in

732-580: A health crisis within the schools and a financial crisis within the missionary groups. In 1911, in an attempt to alleviate the health crisis, the federal government increased per capita grant funding. However, the funding did not adjust for inflation. In the 1930s, throughout the Great Depression and World War II , it was repeatedly reduced, and by 1937, the per capita grant averaged just $ 180 per student per year. For perspective, per-capita costs for comparable institutions included: Manitoba School for

854-676: A larger report entitled Statistics Respecting Indian Schools . The Gradual Civilization Act of 1857 and the Gradual Enfranchisement Act of 1869 formed the foundations for this system prior to Confederation. These acts assumed the inherent superiority of French and British ways, and the need for Indigenous peoples to become French or English speakers, Christians, and farmers. At the time, many Indigenous leaders argued to have these acts overturned. The Gradual Civilization Act awarded 50 acres (200,000 m ) of land to any Indigenous male deemed "sufficiently advanced in

976-512: A legal settlement. These gains were achieved through the persistent organizing and advocacy by Indigenous communities to draw attention to the residential school system's legacy of abuse, including their participation in hearings of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples . The Truth and Reconciliation Commission list three reasons behind the federal government's decision to establish residential schools. In addition to these three

1098-437: A life different from their parents and cause them to forget the customs, habits & language of their ancestors." In 1883 Parliament approved $ 43,000 for three industrial schools and the first, Battleford Industrial School , opened on December 1 of that year. By 1900, there were 61 schools in operation. The government began purchasing church-run boarding schools in the 1920s. During this period capital costs associated with

1220-690: A number of items, searchable in their library catalogue . Saskatchewan Indian Equity Foundation, established in 1986, is now the Saskatchewan Indian Equity Foundation, Inc. In 2002–03 it amalgamated with SIAP's Saskatchewan Indian Loan Company and the Inpro West Investment Corporation (INPRO). The Chiefs Assembly honoured Gwendolyn Lucy O'Soup Crane for her lifetime achievements and recognized her as Canada's first female, First Nations Chief (of The Key First Nation ), first elected under

1342-463: A passable standard of health" and "[a]ll but four were infected with tuberculosis". In one classroom, he found 16 ill children, many near death, who were being forced to sit through lessons. In 2011, reflecting on the TRC's research, Justice Sinclair told The Toronto Star : "Missing children – that is the big surprise for me ... That such large numbers of children died at the schools. That

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1464-613: A presentation to the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, outlining the successes of the program. Gerald Starr, a Tom Longboat Award Winner from 1952, manager of Star Blanket Farm, is recorded as chairman of the board in the 1980s. "Although small portions of present-day Saskatchewan include lands from Treaty 2 (1871) and Treaty 7 (1877), the five major historical or numbered treaties of this province are Treaty 4 (1874), Treaty 5 (1875–76), Treaty 6 (1876), Treaty 8 (1899–1900), and Treaty 10 (1906–07)." Over many years

1586-436: A role in the decision to halt the education programs. An increase in orphaned and foundling colonial children limited church resources, and colonists benefited from favourable relations with Indigenous peoples in both the fur trade and military pursuits. Educational programs were not widely attempted again by religious officials until the 1820s, prior to the introduction of state-sanctioned operations. Included among them

1708-783: A short time, efforts persisted. The Mohawk Institute Residential School , the oldest continuously operated residential school in Canada, opened in 1834 on Six Nations of the Grand River near Brantford , Ontario. Administered by the Anglican Church, the facility opened as the Mechanics' Institute, a day school for boys, in 1828 and became a boarding school four years later when it accepted its first boarders and began admitting female students. It remained in operation until June 30, 1970. The renewed interest in residential schools in

1830-620: A show of support for Indigenous communities. In the days following the discovery, the St. Paul Co-Cathedral in Saskatoon was covered in graffiti, consisting of the words "we were children" surrounded by red handprints and fake blood smears. Further, as of June 27, four Catholic churches (St Ann's Church, Chopaka Church, the Sacred Heart Church and St. Gregory's Church) on First Nations land in western Canada were destroyed by fire within

1952-494: A stronger record of publishing, with roughly 168 works in more languages (4), from 1982–1983 to 2015–2016. There have not been a significant number of publications held at libraries, published by the Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations. There have been publications from committees and task forces, plus the colleges and University, not included under the names listed above. The Saskatchewan Indigenous Cultural Centre holds

2074-499: A trade or being otherwise educated. Such employment he can get at home." Both academic research and the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Committee relay evidence that students were included in several scientific research experiments without their knowledge, their consent or the consent of their parents. These experiments include nutrition experiments which involved intentional malnourishment of children, vaccine trials for

2196-470: Is 7–36% of what other Canadian child-welfare institutions were paying ($ 3,300 and $ 9,855) and 5–25% of what U.S. residential care was paying ($ 4,500 and $ 14,059.) Government officials believed that since many staff members belonged to religious orders with vows of poverty or missionary organizations, pay was relatively unimportant. Thus, almost all staff were poorly paid, and schools had trouble recruiting and retaining staff. In 1948, C.H. Birdsall, chair of

2318-702: Is a special place of learning where we recognize the spiritual power of knowledge and where knowledge is respected and promoted,” and a new building by Indigenous architect Douglas Cardinal . Founded as the Saskatchewan Indian Community College in 1976, apparently as an off-shoot of the Federated College with a focus on adult education programs, and awarding certificates and diplomas in various technological and vocational fields, SICC's name changed to Saskatchewan Indian Institute of Technologies (SIIT) in 1985. In 2000,

2440-633: Is formed and quickly grows to become one of the largest bodies representing First Nations in the province. Then "the Premier of Saskatchewan, T.C. Douglas became involved. Premier Douglas was concerned about the plight of First Nations people in Saskatchewan. He was interested in helping to unite the three major First Nations organizations in the province." Chiefs and leaders gathered in Fort Qu'Appelle in 1946, amalgamating provincial groups to become

2562-733: The Indian Act by what was then the federal Department of the Interior . Adopted in 1876 as An Act to amend and consolidate the laws respecting Indians , it consolidated all previous laws placing Indigenous communities, land and finances under federal control. As explained by the TRC, the act "made Indians wards of the state, unable to vote in provincial or federal elections or enter the professions if they did not surrender their status, and severely limited their freedom to participate in spiritual and cultural practices." The report commissioned by Governor General Charles Bagot , titled Report on

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2684-652: The Assembly of First Nations , wrote in a tweet that the discovery was "absolutely tragic, but not surprising". In Saskatoon , the city's flags are planned to be lowered to half-mast on June 24, 2021. Bobby Cameron, chief of the Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations , said, “This was a crime against humanity ... The only crime we committed as children was being born Indigenous ... We had concentration camps here. We had them here in Saskatchewan. They were called Indian residential schools.” Donald Bolen , archbishop of

2806-577: The BCG vaccine , as well as studies on extrasensory perception, vitamin D diet supplements, amebicides , isoniazid , hemoglobin , bedwetting, and dermatoglyphics . Residential school deaths were common and have been linked to poorly constructed and maintained facilities. The actual number of deaths remains unknown due to inconsistent reporting by school officials and the destruction of medical and administrative records in compliance with retention and disposition policies for government records. Research by

2928-592: The Congregation of Our Lady of the Missions and subsequently by the Sisters of Saint Joseph of Saint-Hyacinthe from 1901 to 1979. In its first year of operation, the school had an enrollment of 14 students, with the capacity to accommodate 45 students. The government of Canada took over running the school in 1969, having funded it since 1901. The Cowessess First Nation ran the school starting in 1987. The school

3050-509: The Indian Act made attendance at a day school, if there was a day school on the reserve on which the child resided, compulsory for status Indian children between 7 and 16 years of age. The changes included a series of exemptions regarding school location, the health of the children and their prior completion of school examinations. It was changed to children between 6 and 15 years of age in 1908. The introduction of mandatory attendance at

3172-742: The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Regina , apologized for the church's actions and said they would help provide information. Prime Minister of Canada Justin Trudeau responded that the findings were "Canada's responsibility to bear" then offered his sympathy. In response, Marion Buller , chief commissioner for the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls , dismissed Trudeau's words as " thoughts and prayers " and asked for "concrete action" instead. New Democratic Party leader Jagmeet Singh asked

3294-491: The United Church of Canada , and 2 were operated by Presbyterians . The approach of using established school facilities set up by missionaries was employed by the federal government for economic expedience: the government provided facilities and maintenance, while the churches provided teachers and their own lesson-planning. As a result, the number of schools per denomination was less a reflection of their presence in

3416-511: The vocational training and social skills required to obtain employment and integrate into Canadian society after graduation. In actuality, these goals were poorly and inconsistently achieved. Many graduates were unable to land a job due to poor educational training. Returning home was equally challenging due to an unfamiliarity with their culture and, in some cases, an inability to communicate with family members using their traditional language. Instead of intellectual achievement and advancement, it

3538-515: The 17th century with the arrival of French missionaries in New France . They were resisted by Indigenous communities who were unwilling to leave their children for extended periods. The establishment of day and boarding schools by groups including the Recollets , Jesuits and Ursulines was largely abandoned by the 1690s. The political instability and realities of colonial life also played

3660-462: The 751 "recorded hits" possibly indicating more than one body. However, because this site is also known to contain the remains of band members and people from outside the community, the proportion of the 751 recorded hits that could relate to the residential school is unknown at this time. It was claimed that at least 600 of the detections likely correspond to actual graves, since the radar technology had an error rate of 10–15%. The bodies were not part of

3782-630: The Commission stated a national security element and quoted Andsell Macrae, a commissioner with Indian Affairs: "it is unlikely that any Tribe or Tribes would give trouble of a serious nature to the Government whose members had children completely under Government control." The federal government sought to cut costs by adopting the residential industrial school system of the United States. Indian Commissioner Edgar Dewdney aspired to have

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3904-499: The Deaf: $ 642, Manitoba School for Boys: $ 550, U.S. Chilocco Indian Agricultural School : $ 350. The Child Welfare League of America stated per capita costs for "well-run institutions" ranged between $ 313 and $ 541; Canada was paying 57.5% of the minimum figure. Changes in per capita costs did not occur until the 1950s and were seen as insignificant. In 1966, Saskatchewan residential schools per capita costs ranged from $ 694 and $ 1,193, which

4026-833: The FSI attempted to be recognized and participate in discussions and decisions around the "repatriation" of the Constitution of Canada . These efforts are reported in the Saskatchewan Indian (see Publications below). In April 1982 (the same month the Constitution was signed) the First Nations signed the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations Convention, and agreed to unite in a common front to protect and preserve First Nations' Treaty rights and their political, economic, social and cultural characteristics. In 1989

4148-686: The FSIN and the Government of Canada agreed to "create an independent and impartial office which, at that time, would serve to research and provide recommendations on the issues of treaty land entitlement and education for First Nations in Saskatchewan," called the Office of the Treaty Commissioner (1991?-1996). This office's mandate was expanded and the term extended for another five years (1997–2002) which then stretched to ten years. This Office remains in existence today. SIAP offered courses in

4270-544: The FSIN," established SIAP in 1974. A third source states "SIAP was created under the guidance of Alex Kennedy, a First Nations farmer born in Little Pine First Nation, the first chairman of SIAP – and the second chairman of the former FSIN." Regardless, SIAP was funded in 1975, incorporated in 1978 (with a new logo designed by indigenous artist Gerald McMaster ), and ended in 1995, though another source states 2002. SIAP aimed to 'promote interest in

4392-558: The TRC concluded with the establishment of the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation and released a report that concluded that the school system amounted to cultural genocide . Ongoing efforts since 2021 have identified thousands of possible unmarked graves on the grounds of former residential schools, though no human remains have been exhumed. During a penitential pilgrimage to Canada in July 2022, Pope Francis reiterated

4514-501: The TRC revealed that at least 3,201 students had died, mostly from disease. TRC chair Justice Murray Sinclair has suggested that the number of deaths may exceed 6,000. The vast majority of deaths occurred before the 1950s. The 1906 Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, submitted by chief medical officer Peter Bryce , highlighted that the "Indian population of Canada has a mortality rate of more than double that of

4636-424: The TRC's final report, dedicated to missing children and unmarked burials, was developed after the original TRC members realized, in 2007, that the issue required its own working group. In 2009, the TRC requested $ 1.5   million in extra funding from the federal government to complete this work, but was denied. The researchers concluded, after searching land near schools using satellite imagery and maps, that, "for

4758-698: The Union of Saskatchewan Indians with John Tootoosis as president. The union was created with the merger of at least two other groups, the Protective Association for the Indians and their Treaties, and the Association of Saskatchewan Indians, (officially incorporated in 1945 with Joe Dreaver as president). In 1958, the First Nations leaders gathered in Fort Qu'Appelle once again, and reviewed

4880-552: The United Church committee responsible for the Edmonton school, in regard to the lack of funding for salaries, accommodations, and equipment, stated that it was "doubtful the present work with Indian Children could properly be called education." In 1948, Sechelt school staff were paying full-time staff a salary of $ 1800. In the 1960s, Christie school staff were paid $ 50 a month. The per capita grant system severely decreased

5002-621: The United States. While the Indian and Northern Affairs estimates that 11,132 children were adopted between 1960 and 1990, the actual number may be as high as 20,000. In 1969, after years of sharing power with churches, the DIA took sole control of the residential school system. The last federally-funded residential school, Kivalliq Hall in Rankin Inlet , closed in 1997. Residential schools operated in every Canadian province and territory with

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5124-662: The University of Regina in May of that same year. "Initially, it offered a Bachelor of Arts Program in Indian Studies within the Faculty of Arts. Other accredited programs were subsequently developed and implemented: Indian Art, Indian Education, Indian Management and Administration, and Indian Social Work Education. All these programs are academically integrated with their respective University of Regina facilities. Ida Wasacase

5246-678: The affairs of the Indians in Canada and referred to as the Bagot Report, is seen as the foundational document for the federal residential school system. It was supported by James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin , who had been impressed by industrial schools in the West Indies , and Egerton Ryerson , who was then the Chief Superintendent of Education in Upper Canada . This letter was published in 1898 as an appendix to

5368-823: The agricultural sector" "In the 1970s [the 60's according to the SIAP history in Appendix 5 of the Williams report ], the groundwork was laid by the Federation of Saskatchewan Indians, the Saskatchewan Department of Agriculture, the University of Saskatchewan and the Department of Indian and Northern Development " for SIAP. Another source reports Harold Greyeyes and the "Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Administration (ARDA), in co-operation with

5490-701: The agricultural sector, sometimes through or at the premises of the Saskatchewan Indian Cultural College and/or the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College and/or at the Saskatchewan Indian Community College. The Saskatchewan Indian Cultural College was established in 1972. Its name changed to Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre and eventually, the Saskatchewan Indigenous Cultural Centre (SICC) in 2016. It

5612-518: The agriculture industry, develop economically viable farm units and to improve the productive capacity of Indian reserve lands.' Alex Kennedy "envisioned farming and agriculture as ideal initiatives to regain lands leased out to non-Indigenous farmers and carve out an agricultural economy for Indigenous communities. A significant component of the SIAP strategy was education and training courses to integrate both farming techniques and farm business literacy to prospective First Nations farmers." In 1977, SIAP

5734-462: The apologies of the Catholic Church for its role, also acknowledging the system as genocide. In October 2022, the House of Commons unanimously passed a motion calling on the federal Canadian government to recognize the residential school system as genocide. Attempts to assimilate Indigenous peoples were rooted in imperial colonialism centred around European worldviews and cultural practices, and

5856-518: The approvals required to undertake expensive renovations and repairs. By the 1930s, government officials recognized that the residential school system was financially unsustainable and failing to meet the intended goal of training and assimilating Indigenous children into European-Canadian society. Robert Hoey , Superintendent of Welfare and Training in the Indian Affairs Branch of the federal Department of Mines and Resources, opposed

5978-745: The assimilation pursued by President of the United States Ulysses S. Grant . Davin's report relied heavily on findings he acquired through consultations with government officials and representatives of the Five Civilized Tribes in Washington, DC , and church officials in Winnipeg , Manitoba. He visited only one industrial day school, in Minnesota , before submitting his findings. In his report Davin concluded that

6100-500: The best way to assimilate Indigenous peoples was to start with children in a residential setting, away from their families. Davin's findings were supported by Vital-Justin Grandin , who felt that while the likelihood of civilizing adults was low, there was hope when it came to Indigenous children. He explained in a letter to Public Works Minister Hector-Louis Langevin that the best course of action would be to make children "lead

6222-486: The constitution of the union, replacing it with a new organization that more fairly represented the First Nations reality, the Federation of Saskatchewan Indians, and organized as a non-profit. It was decided that the organization be looked upon as a federation of bands and that the power reside in the hands of the Chiefs. The union dropped its non-profit status and evolved into the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations at

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6344-412: The control sample. Details of the mistreatment of students were published numerous times throughout the 20th century by government officials reporting on school conditions, and in the proceedings of civil cases brought forward by survivors seeking compensation for the abuse they endured. The conditions and impact of residential schools were also brought to light in popular culture as early as 1967, with

6466-409: The convention of 69 Saskatchewan Indian Chiefs in April 1982 (held the same time as the Canadian Constitution was signed, see Treaties section below). The political convention outlined a governing structure that consisted of the Chiefs-in-Assembly, a Senate, an Elders' Council, an executive council and an Indian Government Commission for the FSIN. In May 2016 the FSIN Chiefs-in-Assembly voted to change

6588-582: The early 1800s can be linked to the decline in military hostility faced by the settlers, particularly after the War of 1812 . With the threat of invasion by American forces minimized, Indigenous communities were no longer viewed as allies but as barriers to permanent settlement. This change was also associated with the transfer of responsibility for interactions with Indigenous communities from military officials, familiar with and sympathetic to their customs and way of life, to civilian representatives concerned only with permanent colonial settlement. Beginning in

6710-400: The education quality. British Columbia Indian Superintendent Arthur Wellesley Vowell in response to one of his agents recommending they only approve qualified teaching staff stated that that would require more funding and that Indian Affairs did not "entertain requests for increased grants to Indian boarding and industrial schools." The pay was so low relative to provincial schools that many of

6832-522: The elementary branches of education" and would automatically enfranchise him, removing any tribal affiliation or treaty rights. With this legislation, and through the creation of residential schools, the government believed Indigenous peoples could eventually become assimilated into the general population. Individual allotments of farmland would require changes in the communal reserve system, something fiercely opposed by First Nations governments. In January 1879, John A. Macdonald , Prime Minister of what

6954-442: The establishment of the residential school. On June 24, 2021, Chief Cadmus Delorme of Cowessess First Nation held a virtual press conference. From June 2 to 23 they found an estimated 751 unmarked graves. Delorme went on to state: Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations Precursors to the FSIN include, in 1919, the establishment of the Indian League of Canada or League of Indians of Canada, based in Ontario, that led to

7076-649: The exception of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island . It is estimated that the number of residential schools reached its peak in the early 1930s with 80 schools and more than 17,000 enrolled students. About 150,000 children are believed to have attended a residential school over the course of the system's existence. Some parents and families of Indigenous children resisted the residential school system throughout its existence. Children were kept from schools and, in some cases, hidden from government officials tasked with rounding up children on reserves. Parents regularly advocated for increased funding for schools, including

7198-452: The expansion of new schools, noting in 1936 that "to build educational institutions, particularly residential schools, while the money at our disposal is insufficient to keep the schools already erected in a proper state of repair, is, to me, very unsound and a practice difficult to justify." He proposed the expansion of day schools, an approach to educating Indigenous children that he would continue to pursue after being promoted to director of

7320-457: The failure of others. SIAP and its efforts were also profiled in 1981. As of 1989, "SIAP has diversified its activities into a number of areas, including wild rice, alfalfa farming, ethanol production, game ranching (deer, buffalo, elf), and fish farming." "At its 'zenith … [SIAP] created 600 viable farm units, a marketing company, a loan company and a venture capital company' (Saskatchewan Agriculture Hall of Fame 2014)." In 1993, Ken Thomas made

7442-403: The families of the deceased in a written statement. Premier of Ontario Doug Ford tweeted "My heart aches for Indigenous communities with news of more unmarked grave sites and hundreds more children who never returned home. We must confront and learn from this horrific side of history, including here in Ontario, so families may find the closure they deserve." Perry Bellegarde , National Chief of

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7564-430: The federal government to implement all 94 recommendations of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada . In the wake of the Marieval and Kamloops discoveries, various communities in British Columbia , Ontario , New Brunswick , and Nunavut have decided to cancel Canada Day celebrations for 2021, opting instead for subdued events or time for reflection. The CN Tower in Toronto was lit orange on Canada Day in

7686-434: The general population, but rather their legacy of missionary work. Although the British North America Act , 1867 made education in Canada the jurisdiction of the provincial governments, the Indigenous peoples and their treaties fell under the jurisdiction of the federal government. As a condition of several treaties, the federal government agreed to provide for Indigenous education. Residential schools were funded under

7808-491: The impact of the illness. Streptomycin , the first effective treatment, was not introduced until 1943. In 1920 and 1922, Regina physician F.   A. Corbett was commissioned to visit the schools in the west of the country, and found similar results to those reported by Bryce. At the Ermineskin school in Hobbema , Alberta, he found that 50 percent of the children had tuberculosis. At Sarcee Boarding School near Calgary , he noted that all 33 students were "much below even

7930-436: The increase of centrally located day schools to improve access to their children, and made repeated requests for improvements to the quality of education, food, and clothing being provided at the schools. Demands for answers in regards to claims of abuse were often dismissed as a ploy by parents seeking to keep their children at home, with government and school officials positioned as those who knew best. In 1894, amendments to

8052-431: The information of their deaths was not communicated back to their families." The Truth and Reconciliation Commission wrote that the policy of Indian Affairs was to refuse to return the bodies of children home due to the associated expense, and to instead require the schools to bear the cost of burials. The TRC concluded that it may be impossible to ever identify the number of deaths or missing children, in part because of

8174-397: The last week, in blazes considered suspicious by local authorities. The Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate , the Catholic organization that operated this school, along with 48 others, announced shortly after the findings that they would disclose all historical documents in its possession. Canadian Indian residential school system The Canadian Indian residential school system

8296-446: The late 1800s, the Canadian government's Department of Indian Affairs (DIA) officially encouraged the growth of the residential school system as a valuable component in a wider policy of integrating Indigenous people into European Canadian society. The TRC found that the schools, and the removal of children from their families, amounted to cultural genocide , a conclusion that echoed the words of historian John S. Milloy, who argued that

8418-563: The league holding an annual congress in Saskatchewan, in 1921, at the Thunderchild First Nation . In 1929, The League of Indians of Western Canada is formed, with John Tootoosis of the Poundmaker First Nation the first president. In 1933, a group of Saskatchewan "Treaty #4 First Nations; Pasqua, Piapot, and Muscowpetung," known as the Allied Bands, reorganize to become the Saskatchewan Treaty Protection Association then later, Protective Association for Indians and their Treaties. In 1943, The Association of Saskatchewan Indians, led by Joe Dreaver,

8540-405: The legal responsibility of the school. Overcrowding, poor sanitation, inadequate heating, and a lack of medical care led to high rates of influenza and tuberculosis ; in one school, the death rate reached 69 percent. Federal policies that tied funding to enrollment numbers led to sick children being enrolled to boost numbers, thus introducing and spreading disease. The problem of unhealthy children

8662-402: The monitoring of child welfare . With no requirement for specialized training regarding the traditions or lifestyles of the communities they entered, provincial officials assessed the welfare of Indigenous children based on Euro-Canadian values that, for example, deemed traditional diets of game, fish and berries insufficient and grounds for taking children into custody. This period resulted in

8784-512: The most found in Canada to date according to the Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations (FSIN), which represents Saskatchewan's First Nations . This marks the third discovery of unmarked graves in Canada in 2021, following the discovery of 215 unmarked anomalies at the Kamloops Indian Residential School the previous month. The school opened on December 19, 1898. The school was first run by four sisters of

8906-654: The most part, the cemeteries that the Commission documented are abandoned, disused, and vulnerable to accidental disturbance". In May 2021, a possible burial site was found in the Kamloops Indian Residential School in Kamloops, British Columbia , on the lands of the Tkʼemlúps te Secwépemc First Nation . The site was located with the assistance of a ground-penetrating radar specialist and Tk’emlups te Secwepemc Chief Rosanne Casimir wrote that

9028-611: The name to the Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations, retaining the acronym FSIN. The intent of FSIN and its precursors, was the defense and protection treaty rights, land and resources, and came from the desire to "foster [the] economic, educational and social growth" of their people. Government policies ensured that First Nations farmers found it difficult to farm. With the advent of SIAP (Saskatchewan Indian Agriculture/al Program) governments were passing some control over to indigenous farmers and "...SIAP offered opportunities for Aboriginal peoples to learn about and gain skills in

9150-667: The pass system restricted and closely monitored the movement of Indigenous peoples off reserves. Launched in 1885 as a response to the North-West Rebellion , and later replaced by permits, the system was designed to prevent Indigenous people from leaving reserves without a pass issued by a local Indian agent. Instruction provided to students was rooted in an institutional and European approach to education. It differed dramatically from child rearing in traditional knowledge systems based on 'look, listen, and learn' models. Corporal punishment and loss of privileges characterized

9272-503: The practice of burying students in unmarked graves. The work is further complicated by a pattern of poor record keeping by school and government officials, who neglected to keep reliable numbers about the number of children who died or where they were buried. While most schools had cemeteries on site, their location and extent remain difficult to determine as cemeteries that were originally marked were found to have been later razed, intentionally hidden or built over. The fourth volume of

9394-518: The procedures enforced in the prison system. In some cases schools denied parents access to their children altogether. Others required families to meet with them in the presence of school officials and speak only in English; parents who could not speak in English were unable to talk to their children. The obstacles families faced to visit their children were further exacerbated by the pass system . Introduced by Reed, without legislative authority to do so,

9516-559: The province enacted the Saskatchewan Indian Institute of Technologies Act that acknowledged the school as a full, post-secondary institution. The Worldcat Identities database record for the Federation of Saskatchewan Indians clearly shows a time frame for their publications, based on items held at various libraries. Roughly 84 works from 1970 to 1985 are recorded, published in one language. The Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations Identity record clearly shows

9638-518: The publication of "The Lonely Death of Chanie Wenjack " by Ian Adams in Maclean's and the Indians of Canada Pavilion at Expo 67 . In the 1990s, investigations and memoirs by former students revealed that many students at residential schools were subjected to severe physical, psychological , and sexual abuse by school staff members and by older students. Among the former students to come forward

9760-437: The rampant disrepair present in the buildings resulted in their having no economic value. Schools continued to be maintained by churches in instances where they failed to reach an agreement with government officials with the understanding that the government would provide support for capital costs. The understanding ultimately proved complicated due to the lack of written agreements outlining the extent and nature of that support or

9882-498: The remote nature of many communities, school locations meant that for some families, residential schools were the only way to comply. The schools were intentionally located at substantial distances from Indigenous communities to minimize contact between families and their children. Indian Commissioner Hayter Reed argued for schools at greater distances to reduce family visits, which he thought counteracted efforts to assimilate Indigenous children. Parental visits were further restricted by

10004-477: The residential school system were faced with a multitude of abuses by teachers and administrators, including sexual and physical assault. They suffered from malnourishment and harsh discipline that would not have been tolerated in any other Canadian school system. Corporal punishment was often justified by a belief that it was the only way to save souls or punish and deter runaways – whose injuries or death sustained in their efforts to return home would become

10126-400: The residential school system, while traditional Indigenous approaches to education favour positive guidance toward desired behaviour through game-based play, story-telling, and formal ritualized ceremonies. While at school, many children had no contact with their families for up to 10 months at a time, and in some cases had no contact for years. The impact of the disconnect from their families

10248-454: The residential school system. Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered a public apology on his behalf and that of the other federal political party leaders. On June 1, 2008, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) was established to uncover the truth about the schools. The commission gathered about 7,000 statements from residential school survivors through various local, regional and national events across Canada. In 2015,

10370-417: The residential schools, through forced labour , be financially independent a few years after opening. The government believed through the industrial system and cheap labour costs of missionary staff it could "operate a residential school system on a nearly cost-free basis." Students "were expected to raise or grow and prepare most of the food they ate, to make and repair much of their clothing, and to maintain

10492-417: The school, and each student was assigned a number, which was used when staff members became upset. There was an expectation of staff to "physically dominate their students". The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada had reported in 2015: "Throughout the history of Canada’s residential school system, there was no effort to record across the entire system the number of students who died while attending

10614-421: The school, having been first used in 1885, though the school was built adjacent to the cemetery. It contains the remains of both children and adult Catholic parishioners. However by 2021, only an estimated third of the graves had remained marked. The archbishop of Regina Don Bolen said that the loss of headstones occurred at least partly in the 1960s when an Oblate priest and a local First Nations chief "entered into

10736-405: The school, the most found in Canada to date according to the Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations (FSIN), which represents Saskatchewan's First Nations. The total number of graves was announced as 751 in a press conference the next day, over three times higher than the 215 discovered in Kamloops the previous month. A total of 44,000 m (470,000 sq ft) was searched, with each of

10858-696: The schools each year. The National Residential School Student Death Register, established by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, represents the first national effort to record the names of the students who died at school. The register is far from complete . . . " The federal budget assigned in 2019 $ 33.8 million over 3 years to develop and maintain the National Residential School Student Death Register, formally opened in September 2020 with an initial list of 2,800 names. The community cemetery predates

10980-476: The schools led to student malnutrition, starvation, and disease. Students were also subjected to forced enfranchisement as "assimilated" citizens that removed their legal identity as Indians. Disconnected from their families and culture and forced to speak English or French, students often graduated being unable to fit into their communities but remaining subject to racist attitudes in mainstream Canadian society. The system ultimately proved successful in disrupting

11102-402: The schools were assumed by the government, leaving administrative and instructional duties to church officials. The hope was that minimizing facility expenditures would allow church administrators to provide higher quality instruction and support to the students in their care. Although the government was willing to, and did, purchase schools from the churches, many were acquired for free given that

11224-500: The schools." Most schools did this through a system where students studied for half the day and did "vocational training" for the other half. This system failed and the schools never became self-supporting. By 1891, the government cut already low salaries, stopped covering operating costs, and implemented a fixed amount of funding per student. This policy drove competition and encouraged the admission of students that were deemed "too young or too sick." The chronic underfunding developed

11346-438: The shift in policy from educational assimilation to integration, the removal of Indigenous children from their families by state officials continued through much of the 1960s and 70s. The removals were the result of the 1951 addition of section 88 of the Indian Act , which allowed for the application of provincial laws to Indigenous peoples living on reserves in instances where federal laws were not in place. The change included

11468-481: The site using ground-penetrating radar in collaboration with a group from Saskatchewan Polytechnic . The search was planned two years earlier, but was delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic ; it eventually started on May 31, 2021 and was expanded four times after anecdotes from elders that bodies had been buried past the school grounds. On June 23, 2021, hundreds of unmarked graves were announced to have been located at

11590-529: The site was undocumented and that work was underway to determine if related records were held at the Royal British Columbia Museum . As of May 2024, no remains have been excavated. On June 23, 2021, ground-penetrating radar suggested the presence of an estimated 751 unmarked graves on the site of Marieval Indian Residential School in Marieval, Saskatchewan , on the lands of Cowessess First Nation . Some of these graves predated

11712-416: The system's aim was to "kill the Indian in the child." Over the course of the system's more than hundred-year existence, around 150,000 children were placed in residential schools nationally. As the system was designed as an immersion program, Indigenous children were in many schools prohibited from, and sometimes punished for, speaking their own languages or practising their own faiths. The primary goal

11834-433: The system's more than hundred-year existence, around 150,000 children were placed in residential schools nationally. By the 1930s, about 30 percent of Indigenous children were attending residential schools. The number of school-related deaths remains unknown due to incomplete records. Estimates range from 3,200 to over 30,000, mostly from disease. The system had its origins in laws enacted before Confederation , but it

11956-509: The teachers lacked any teaching qualifications. Federal cuts to funding during the Great Depression resulted in students paying the price. By 1937, at the Kamloops Indian Residential School , milk production among the schools dairy herds was reduced by 50%. The federal government refused to fund construction for an additional barn to increase milk production and isolate the sick animals. Even among other schools dairy herds, funding

12078-505: The transmission of Indigenous practices and beliefs across generations. The legacy of the system has been linked to an increased prevalence of post-traumatic stress , alcoholism , substance abuse , suicide , and intergenerational trauma which persist within Indigenous communities today. Starting in the late 2000s, Canadian politicians and religious communities have begun to recognize, and issue apologies for, their respective roles in

12200-417: The trip that Indian Commissioner Hayter Reed argued that the schools should be moved farther from the reserves to make visiting more difficult. He also objected to allowing children to return home during school breaks and holidays because he believed the trips interrupted their assimilation. Visitation, for those who could make the journey, was strictly controlled by school officials in a manner similar to

12322-524: The use of a pass system designed to confine Indigenous peoples to reserves . The last federally-funded residential school, Kivalliq Hall in Rankin Inlet , closed in 1997. Schools operated in every province and territory with the exception of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island . The residential school system harmed Indigenous children significantly by removing them from their families , depriving them of their ancestral languages , and exposing many of them to physical and sexual abuse . Conditions in

12444-490: The welfare and training branch in 1945. The proposal was resisted by the United Church, the Anglican Church, and the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate , who believed that the solution to the system's failure was not restructuring but intensification. Between 1945 and 1955, the number of First Nations students in day schools run by Indian Affairs expanded from 9,532 to 17,947. This growth in student population

12566-414: The whole population, and in some provinces more than three times". Among the list of causes he noted the infectious disease of tuberculosis and the role residential schools played in spreading the disease by way of poor ventilation and medical screening. In 1907, Bryce reported on the conditions of Manitoba and North-West residential schools: "we have created a situation so dangerous to health that I

12688-651: The widespread removal of Indigenous children from their traditional communities, first termed the Sixties Scoop by Patrick Johnston, the author of the 1983 report Native Children and the Child Welfare System . Often taken without the consent of their parents or community elders, some children were placed in state-run child welfare facilities, increasingly operated in former residential schools, while others were fostered or placed up for adoption by predominantly non-Indigenous families throughout Canada and

12810-511: Was Phil Fontaine , then Grand Chief of the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs , who in October 1990 publicly discussed the abuse he and others suffered while attending Fort Alexander Indian Residential School. After the government closed most of the schools in the 1960s, the work of Indigenous activists and historians led to greater awareness by the public of the damage the schools had caused, as well as to official government and church apologies, and

12932-465: Was a network of boarding schools for Indigenous peoples . The network was funded by the Canadian government 's Department of Indian Affairs and administered by various Christian churches . The school system was created to isolate Indigenous children from the influence of their own culture and religion in order to assimilate them into the dominant Euro-Canadian culture. Over the course of

13054-544: Was a school established by John West , an Anglican missionary, at the Red River Colony in what is today Manitoba . Protestant missionaries also opened residential schools in what is now the province of Ontario , spreading Christianity and working to encourage Indigenous peoples to adopt subsistence agriculture as a way to ensure they would not return to their original, nomadic ways of life upon graduation. Although many of these early schools were open for only

13176-440: Was accompanied by an amendment to the Indian Act in 1951 that allowed federal officials to establish agreements with provincial and territorial governments and school boards regarding the education of Indigenous students in the public school system. These changes marked the government's shift in policy from assimilation-driven education at residential schools to the integration of Indigenous students into public schools. Despite

13298-437: Was arduous, and severely compromised the academic and social development of the students. School books and textbooks were drawn mainly from the curricula of the provincially funded public schools for non-Indigenous students, and teachers at the residential schools were often poorly trained or prepared. During this period, Canadian government scientists performed nutritional tests on students and kept some students undernourished as

13420-480: Was closed on June 30, 1997, and subsequently demolished in 1999 and replaced with a day school . Enrollment at the school peaked during the 1962–1963 academic year, with 148 residents and 89 day students. At the school, students were only allowed to visit their parents on Sundays—a practice that ended with a new principal in 1933. Since then, children were permitted to visit their parents only under special circumstances. Students had their hair cut when they arrived at

13542-521: Was described as "originally intended to establish 350 individual farm units over the initial 5 year period. However, the thrust of the program is being modified with major emphasis now on the development of large (5-10,000 acre) band owned farms." An article published by the Ag. Rep. in the February 1979 Saskatchewan Indian profiles only four successful band farms, including Star Blanket , and notes reasons for

13664-439: Was established as a teaching institution to strengthen and support the overall First Nations education and cultural awareness of First Nations People. It was the first First Nations controlled educational institution serving at the provincial level. The Saskatchewan Indian Federated College, proposed in 1971 and an eventual spin-off of the Saskatchewan Indian Cultural College, was established in 1976 and immediately federated with

13786-440: Was further exacerbated by the conditions of the schools themselves – overcrowding and poor ventilation, water quality and sewage systems. Until the late 1950s, when the federal government shifted to a day school integration model, residential schools were severely underfunded and often relied on the forced labour of their students to maintain their facilities, although it was presented as training for artisanal skills. The work

13908-425: Was furthered by students being discouraged or prohibited from speaking Indigenous languages , even among themselves and outside the classroom, so that English or French would be learned and their own languages forgotten. In some schools, they were subject to physical violence for speaking their own languages or for practicing non-Christian faiths. Most schools operated with the stated goal of providing students with

14030-481: Was no longer working for the government, published The Story of a National Crime: Being a Record of the Health Conditions of the Indians of Canada from 1904 to 1921. In particular, he alleged that the high mortality rates could have been avoided if healthy children had not been exposed to children with tuberculosis. At the time, no antibiotic had been identified to treat the disease, and this exacerbated

14152-540: Was often physical appearance and dress, like that of middle class , urban teenagers, or the promotion of a Christian ethic, that was used as a sign of successful assimilation. There was no indication that school attendees achieved greater financial success than those who did not go to school. As the father of a pupil who attended Battleford Industrial School, in Saskatchewan, for five years explained: "he cannot read, speak or write English, nearly all his time having been devoted to herding and caring for cattle instead of learning

14274-441: Was often surprised that the results were not even worse than they have been shown statistically to be." In 1909, Bryce reported that, between 1894 and 1908, mortality rates at some residential schools in western Canada ranged from 30 to 60 per cent over five years (that is, five years after entry, 30 to 60 per cent of students had died, or 6 to 12 per cent per annum). These statistics did not become public until 1922, when Bryce, who

14396-519: Was primarily active from the passage of the Indian Act in 1876, under Prime Minister Alexander MacKenzie . Under Prime Minister John A. Macdonald , the government adopted the residential industrial school system of the United States, a partnership between the government and various church organizations. An amendment to the Indian Act in 1894, under Prime Minister Mackenzie Bowell , made attendance at day schools , industrial schools , or residential schools compulsory for First Nations children. Due to

14518-533: Was so low that milk was separated with "skimmed milk served to the children" and the fat turned to dairy products sold to fund the schools. In 1939, the Presbyterian school in Kenora began charging students 10 cents a loaf until their Indian agent ordered the school to stop. Parents and family members regularly travelled to the schools, often camping outside to be closer to their children. So many parents made

14640-617: Was the first director of the SIFC." Blair Stonechild (Muscowpetung) was the first lecturer. In 1996, 30 years after inception, it remained "the only Indian-controlled, university-level college in the country." In 2003, its name changed to the First Nations University of Canada and gained a new vision statement “The First Nations University of Canada provides an opportunity for students of all nations to learn in an environment of First Nations cultures and values. The university

14762-586: Was then post-Confederation Canada , commissioned politician Nicholas Flood Davin to write a report regarding the industrial boarding-school system in the United States. Now known as the Davin Report, the Report on Industrial Schools for Indians and Half-Breeds was submitted to Ottawa on March 14, 1879, and made the case for a cooperative approach between the Canadian government and the church to implement

14884-513: Was to convert Indigenous children to Christianity and acculturate them. Many of the government-funded residential schools were run by churches of various denominations. Between 1867 and 1939, the number of schools operating at one time peaked at 80 in 1931. Of those schools, 44 were operated by 16 Catholic dioceses and about three dozen Catholic communities; 21 were operated by the Church of England / Anglican Church of Canada ; 13 were operated by

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