126-548: Mars Science Laboratory ( MSL ) is a robotic space probe mission to Mars launched by NASA on November 26, 2011, which successfully landed Curiosity , a Mars rover , in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012. The overall objectives include investigating Mars' habitability , studying its climate and geology , and collecting data for a human mission to Mars . The rover carries a variety of scientific instruments designed by an international team. MSL successfully carried out
252-468: A monopropellant engine with the ability to throttle from 15 to 100 percent thrust with a fixed propellant inlet pressure. By November 2008 most hardware and software development was complete, and testing continued. At this point, cost overruns were approximately $ 400 million. In the attempts to meet the launch date, several instruments and a cache for samples were removed and other instruments and cameras were simplified to simplify testing and integration of
378-505: A real-time operating system from Wind River Systems . During the trip to Mars, VxWorks ran applications dedicated to the navigation and guidance phase of the mission, and also had a pre-programmed software sequence for handling the complexity of the entry-descent-landing. Once landed, the applications were replaced with software for driving on the surface and performing scientific activities. The general analysis strategy begins with high resolution cameras to look for features of interest. If
504-493: A thinly sectioned sample to produce an observable image. Other major types of microscopes are the fluorescence microscope , electron microscope (both the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope ) and various types of scanning probe microscopes . Although objects resembling lenses date back 4,000 years and there are Greek accounts of the optical properties of water-filled spheres (5th century BC) followed by many centuries of writings on optics,
630-604: A 0.1 nm level of resolution, detailed views of viruses (20 – 300 nm) and a strand of DNA (2 nm in width) can be obtained. In contrast, the SEM has raster coils to scan the surface of bulk objects with a fine electron beam. Therefore, the specimen do not necessarily need to be sectioned, but coating with a nanometric metal or carbon layer may be needed for nonconductive samples. SEM allows fast surface imaging of samples, possibly in thin water vapor to prevent drying. The different types of scanning probe microscopes arise from
756-547: A 20 by 7 km (12.4 by 4.3 mi) landing ellipse, in contrast to the 150 by 20 km (93 by 12 mi) landing ellipse of the landing systems used by the Mars Exploration Rovers. The entry-descent-landing (EDL) system differs from those used for other missions in that it does not require an interactive, ground-generated mission plan. During the entire landing phase, the vehicle acts autonomously, based on pre-loaded software and parameters. The EDL system
882-639: A 563,270,400 km (350,000,000 mi) journey. In addition to streaming and traditional video viewing, JPL made Eyes on the Solar System , a three-dimensional real time simulation of entry, descent and landing based on real data. Curiosity 's touchdown time as represented in the software, based on JPL predictions, was less than 1 second different from reality. The EDL phase of the MSL spaceflight mission to Mars took only seven minutes and unfolded automatically, as programmed by JPL engineers in advance, in
1008-588: A 58-centimeter (23 in) sphere which weighed 83.6 kilograms (184 lb). Explorer 1 carried sensors which confirmed the existence of the Van Allen belts, a major scientific discovery at the time, while Sputnik 1 carried no scientific sensors. On 17 March 1958, the US orbited its second satellite, Vanguard 1 , which was about the size of a grapefruit, and which remains in a 670-by-3,850-kilometre (360 by 2,080 nmi) orbit as of 2016 . The first attempted lunar probe
1134-525: A branch of paleontology called taphonomy . The spacecraft flight system had a mass at launch of 3,893 kg (8,583 lb), consisting of an Earth-Mars fueled cruise stage (539 kg (1,188 lb)), the entry-descent-landing (EDL) system (2,401 kg (5,293 lb) including 390 kg (860 lb) of landing propellant ), and a 899 kg (1,982 lb) mobile rover with an integrated instrument package. The MSL spacecraft includes spaceflight-specific instruments, in addition to utilizing one of
1260-437: A compound light microscope depends on the quality and correct use of the condensor lens system to focus light on the specimen and the objective lens to capture the light from the specimen and form an image. Early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed from the late 19th to very early 20th century, and until electric lamps were available as light sources. In 1893 August Köhler developed
1386-535: A considerable amount of time, is to follow a trajectory on the Interplanetary Transport Network . A space telescope or space observatory is a telescope in outer space used to observe astronomical objects. Space telescopes avoid the filtering and distortion of electromagnetic radiation which they observe, and avoid light pollution which ground-based observatories encounter. They are divided into two types: satellites which map
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#17327979252421512-549: A descent through that atmosphere towards an intended/targeted region of scientific value, and a safe landing that guarantees the integrity of the instrumentation on the craft is preserved. While the robotic spacecraft is going through those parts, it must also be capable of estimating its position compared to the surface in order to ensure reliable control of itself and its ability to maneuver well. The robotic spacecraft must also efficiently perform hazard assessment and trajectory adjustments in real time to avoid hazards. To achieve this,
1638-420: A fine probe, usually of silicon or silicon nitride, attached to a cantilever; the probe is scanned over the surface of the sample, and the forces that cause an interaction between the probe and the surface of the sample are measured and mapped. A near-field scanning optical microscope is similar to an AFM but its probe consists of a light source in an optical fiber covered with a tip that has usually an aperture for
1764-584: A key principle of sample illumination, Köhler illumination , which is central to achieving the theoretical limits of resolution for the light microscope. This method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. Further developments in sample illumination came from the discovery of phase contrast by Frits Zernike in 1953, and differential interference contrast illumination by Georges Nomarski in 1955; both of which allow imaging of unstained, transparent samples. In
1890-487: A molecular level in both live and fixed samples. The rise of fluorescence microscopy drove the development of a major modern microscope design, the confocal microscope . The principle was patented in 1957 by Marvin Minsky , although laser technology limited practical application of the technique. It was not until 1978 when Thomas and Christoph Cremer developed the first practical confocal laser scanning microscope and
2016-404: A particular surface is of interest, Curiosity can vaporize a small portion of it with an infrared laser and examine the resulting spectra signature to query the rock's elemental composition. If that signature intrigues, the rover will use its long arm to swing over a microscope and an X-ray spectrometer to take a closer look. If the specimen warrants further analysis, Curiosity can drill into
2142-433: A positively charged atom. The positively charged ions are guided to pass through positively charged grids that contains thousands of precise aligned holes are running at high voltages. Then, the aligned positively charged ions accelerates through a negative charged accelerator grid that further increases the speed of the ions up to 40 kilometres per second (90,000 mph). The momentum of these positively charged ions provides
2268-611: A pre-programmed list of operations that will be executed unless otherwise instructed. A robotic spacecraft for scientific measurements is often called a space probe or space observatory . Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed operation, due to lower cost and risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations such as Venus or the vicinity of Jupiter are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are
2394-452: A precise order, with the entry, descent and landing sequence occurring in four distinct event phases: Precision guided entry made use of onboard computing ability to steer itself toward the pre-determined landing site, improving landing accuracy from a range of hundreds of kilometers to 20 kilometers (12 mi). This capability helped remove some of the uncertainties of landing hazards that might be present in larger landing ellipses. Steering
2520-409: A sample and produce images, either by sending a beam of light or electrons through a sample in its optical path , by detecting photon emissions from a sample, or by scanning across and a short distance from the surface of a sample using a probe. The most common microscope (and the first to be invented) is the optical microscope , which uses lenses to refract visible light that passed through
2646-436: A sample. In a TEM the electrons pass through the sample, analogous to basic optical microscopy . This requires careful sample preparation, since electrons are scattered strongly by most materials. The samples must also be very thin (below 100 nm) in order for the electrons to pass through it. Cross-sections of cells stained with osmium and heavy metals reveal clear organelle membranes and proteins such as ribosomes. With
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#17327979252422772-497: A stable attitude. Along the way, the cruise stage performed four trajectory correction maneuvers to adjust the spacecraft's path toward its landing site. Information was sent to mission controllers via two X-band antennas . A key task of the cruise stage was to control the temperature of all spacecraft systems and dissipate the heat generated by power sources, such as solar cells and motors, into space. In some systems, insulating blankets kept sensitive science instruments warmer than
2898-525: A third workshop reduced the list to these four landing sites: A fourth landing site workshop was held in late September 2010, and the fifth and final workshop May 16–18, 2011. On July 22, 2011, it was announced that Gale Crater had been selected as the landing site of the Mars Science Laboratory mission. The Atlas V launch vehicle is capable of launching up to 8,290 kg (18,280 lb) to geostationary transfer orbit . The Atlas V
3024-437: A very small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with an adjustable-by-screws needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van Leeuwenhoek re-discovered red blood cells (after Jan Swammerdam ) and spermatozoa , and helped popularise the use of microscopes to view biological ultrastructure. On 9 October 1676, van Leeuwenhoek reported the discovery of micro-organisms. The performance of
3150-427: Is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye . Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic means being invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways. One way is to describe the method an instrument uses to interact with
3276-450: Is a smooth region in "Yellowknife" Quad 51 of Aeolis Palus inside the crater in front of the mountain. The target landing site location was an elliptical area 20 by 7 km (12.4 by 4.3 mi). Gale Crater's diameter is 154 km (96 mi). The landing location for the rover was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the planned landing ellipse, after a 563,000,000 km (350,000,000 mi) journey. NASA named
3402-456: Is based on the use of non-reflecting substrates for cross-polarized reflected light microscopy. Ultraviolet light enables the resolution of microscopic features as well as the imaging of samples that are transparent to the eye. Near infrared light can be used to visualize circuitry embedded in bonded silicon devices, since silicon is transparent in this region of wavelengths. In fluorescence microscopy many wavelengths of light ranging from
3528-402: Is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons (optical microscopes), electrons (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classified based on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze
3654-422: Is illuminated with infrared photons, each of which is spatially correlated with an entangled partner in the visible band for efficient imaging by a photon-counting camera. The two major types of electron microscopes are transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) and scanning electron microscopes (SEMs). They both have series of electromagnetic and electrostatic lenses to focus a high energy beam of electrons on
3780-441: Is increased fuel consumption or it is a physical hazard such as a poor landing spot in a crater or cliff side that would make landing very not ideal (hazard assessment). In planetary exploration missions involving robotic spacecraft, there are three key parts in the processes of landing on the surface of the planet to ensure a safe and successful landing. This process includes an entry into the planetary gravity field and atmosphere,
3906-411: Is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution. Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then analyze the signals generated by the beam interacting with the sample. The point is then scanned over
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4032-457: Is not one universally used propulsion system: monopropellant, bipropellant, ion propulsion, etc. Each propulsion system generates thrust in slightly different ways with each system having its own advantages and disadvantages. But, most spacecraft propulsion today is based on rocket engines. The general idea behind rocket engines is that when an oxidizer meets the fuel source, there is explosive release of energy and heat at high speeds, which propels
4158-553: Is set to explore for at least 687 Earth days (1 Martian year) over a range of 5 by 20 km (3.1 by 12.4 mi). The Mars Science Laboratory mission is part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program , a long-term effort for the robotic exploration of Mars that is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory of California Institute of Technology . The total cost of the MSL project is about US$ 2.5 billion. Previous successful U.S. Mars rovers include Sojourner from
4284-419: Is the same as that of monopropellant propulsion system: very dangerous to manufacture, store, and transport. An ion propulsion system is a type of engine that generates thrust by the means of electron bombardment or the acceleration of ions. By shooting high-energy electrons to a propellant atom (neutrally charge), it removes electrons from the propellant atom and this results in the propellant atom becoming
4410-426: Is unique because it requires no ignition system, the two liquids would spontaneously combust as soon as they come into contact with each other and produces the propulsion to push the spacecraft forward. The main benefit for having this technology is because that these kinds of liquids have relatively high density, which allows the volume of the propellent tank to be small, therefore increasing space efficacy. The downside
4536-491: The Accademia dei Lincei in 1625 (Galileo had called it the occhiolino 'little eye'). René Descartes ( Dioptrique , 1637) describes microscopes wherein a concave mirror, with its concavity towards the object, is used, in conjunction with a lens, for illuminating the object, which is mounted on a point fixing it at the focus of the mirror. The first detailed account of the microscopic anatomy of organic tissue based on
4662-607: The Sun similar to the Earth's orbit. To reach another planet, the simplest practical method is a Hohmann transfer orbit . More complex techniques, such as gravitational slingshots , can be more fuel-efficient, though they may require the probe to spend more time in transit. Some high Delta-V missions (such as those with high inclination changes ) can only be performed, within the limits of modern propulsion, using gravitational slingshots. A technique using very little propulsion, but requiring
4788-555: The Atlas V 541 provided by United Launch Alliance . This two stage rocket includes a 3.8 m (12 ft) Common Core Booster (CCB) powered by one RD-180 engine, four solid rocket boosters (SRB), and one Centaur second stage with a 5 m (16 ft) diameter payload fairing . The NASA Launch Services Program coordinated the launch via the NASA Launch Services (NLS) I Contract. The cruise stage carried
4914-818: The International Space Station (ISS), and the Tiangong space station . Currently, the ISS relies on three types of cargo spacecraft: the Russian Progress , along with the American Cargo Dragon 2 , and Cygnus . China's Tiangong space station is solely supplied by the Tianzhou . The American Dream Chaser and Japanese HTV-X are under development for future use with the ISS. The European Automated Transfer Vehicle
5040-547: The Mars Pathfinder mission and the Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity . Curiosity is about twice as long and five times as heavy as Spirit and Opportunity , and carries over ten times the mass of scientific instruments. The MSL mission has four scientific goals: Determine the landing site's habitability including the role of water , the study of the climate and
5166-565: The Second World War . Ernst Ruska, working at Siemens , developed the first commercial transmission electron microscope and, in the 1950s, major scientific conferences on electron microscopy started being held. In 1965, the first commercial scanning electron microscope was developed by Professor Sir Charles Oatley and his postgraduate student Gary Stewart, and marketed by the Cambridge Instrument Company as
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5292-480: The United States Air Force considers a vehicle to consist of the mission payload and the bus (or platform). The bus provides physical structure, thermal control, electrical power, attitude control and telemetry, tracking and commanding. JPL divides the "flight system" of a spacecraft into subsystems. These include: The physical backbone structure, which This is sometimes referred to as
5418-520: The atomic force microscope , then Binnig's and Rohrer's Nobel Prize in Physics for the SPM. New types of scanning probe microscope have continued to be developed as the ability to machine ultra-fine probes and tips has advanced. The most recent developments in light microscope largely centre on the rise of fluorescence microscopy in biology . During the last decades of the 20th century, particularly in
5544-430: The geology of Mars . It is also useful preparation for a future human mission to Mars . To contribute to these goals, MSL has eight main scientific objectives: About one year into the surface mission, and having assessed that ancient Mars could have been hospitable to microbial life, the MSL mission objectives evolved to developing predictive models for the preservation process of organic compounds and biomolecules ;
5670-419: The quantum tunnelling phenomenon. They created a practical instrument, a scanning probe microscope from quantum tunnelling theory, that read very small forces exchanged between a probe and the surface of a sample. The probe approaches the surface so closely that electrons can flow continuously between probe and sample, making a current from surface to probe. The microscope was not initially well received due to
5796-447: The telecommunications subsystem include radio antennas, transmitters and receivers. These may be used to communicate with ground stations on Earth, or with other spacecraft. The supply of electric power on spacecraft generally come from photovoltaic (solar) cells or from a radioisotope thermoelectric generator . Other components of the subsystem include batteries for storing power and distribution circuitry that connects components to
5922-505: The "Stereoscan". One of the latest discoveries made about using an electron microscope is the ability to identify a virus. Since this microscope produces a visible, clear image of small organelles, in an electron microscope there is no need for reagents to see the virus or harmful cells, resulting in a more efficient way to detect pathogens. From 1981 to 1983 Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer worked at IBM in Zürich , Switzerland to study
6048-426: The MSL spacecraft through the void of space and delivered it to Mars. The interplanetary trip covered the distance of 352 million miles in 253 days. The cruise stage has its own miniature propulsion system, consisting of eight thrusters using hydrazine fuel in two titanium tanks. It also has its own electric power system , consisting of a solar array and battery for providing continuous power. Upon reaching Mars,
6174-788: The Mars surface and atmospheric properties. The MSL spacecraft departed Earth orbit and was inserted into a heliocentric Mars transfer orbit on November 26, 2011, shortly after launch, by the Centaur upper stage of the Atlas V launch vehicle. Prior to Centaur separation, the spacecraft was spin-stabilized at 2 rpm for attitude control during the 36,210 km/h (22,500 mph) cruise to Mars. During cruise, eight thrusters arranged in two clusters were used as actuators to control spin rate and perform axial or lateral trajectory correction maneuvers. By spinning about its central axis, it maintained
6300-841: The Mars-Earth distance at the time of landing and the limited speed of radio signals, the landing was not registered on Earth for another 14 minutes. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter sent a photograph of Curiosity descending under its parachute, taken by its HiRISE camera, during the landing procedure. Six senior members of the Curiosity team presented a news conference a few hours after landing, they were: John Grunsfeld , NASA associate administrator; Charles Elachi , director, JPL; Peter Theisinger , MSL project manager; Richard Cook, MSL deputy project manager; Adam Steltzner , MSL entry, descent and landing (EDL) lead; and John Grotzinger , MSL project scientist. Between March 23 and 29, 2009,
6426-656: The Moon two years later. The first interstellar probe was Voyager 1 , launched 5 September 1977. It entered interstellar space on 25 August 2012, followed by its twin Voyager 2 on 5 November 2018. Nine other countries have successfully launched satellites using their own launch vehicles: France (1965), Japan and China (1970), the United Kingdom (1971), India (1980), Israel (1988), Iran (2009), North Korea (2012), and South Korea (2022). In spacecraft design,
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#17327979252426552-406: The Moon; travel through interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land on other planetary bodies; or enter interstellar space. Space probes send collected data to Earth. Space probes can be orbiters, landers, and rovers. Space probes can also gather materials from its target and return it to Earth. Once a probe has left the vicinity of Earth, its trajectory will likely take it along an orbit around
6678-582: The Soviet Venera 4 was the first atmospheric probe to study Venus. Mariner 4 's 1965 Mars flyby snapped the first images of its cratered surface, which the Soviets responded to a few months later with images from on its surface from Luna 9 . In 1967, America's Surveyor 3 gathered information about the Moon's surface that would prove crucial to the Apollo 11 mission that landed humans on
6804-502: The algorithm used for guidance of the Apollo Command Modules returning to Earth in the Apollo program . This guidance uses the lifting force experienced by the aeroshell to "fly out" any detected error in range and thereby arrive at the targeted landing site. In order for the aeroshell to have lift, its center of mass is offset from the axial centerline that results in an off-center trim angle in atmospheric flight. This
6930-429: The ambient environment, and steer toward the landing zone. Prior to parachute deployment the entry vehicle ejected more ballast mass consisting of six 25 kg (55 lb) tungsten weights such that the center of gravity offset was removed. When the entry phase was complete and the capsule slowed to about 470 m/s (1,500 ft/s) at about 10 km (6.2 mi) altitude, the supersonic parachute deployed, as
7056-409: The application. Digital microscopy with very low light levels to avoid damage to vulnerable biological samples is available using sensitive photon-counting digital cameras. It has been demonstrated that a light source providing pairs of entangled photons may minimize the risk of damage to the most light-sensitive samples. In this application of ghost imaging to photon-sparse microscopy, the sample
7182-676: The boulder and deliver a powdered sample to either the SAM or the CheMin analytical laboratories inside the rover. The Mars Science Laboratory was recommended by United States National Research Council Decadal Survey committee as the top priority middle-class Mars mission in 2003. NASA called for proposals for the rover's scientific instruments in April 2004, and eight proposals were selected on December 14 of that year. Testing and design of components also began in late 2004, including Aerojet 's designing of
7308-525: The bridle and umbilical cords to free itself from the descent stage. The descent stage then flew away to a crash landing 650 m (2,100 ft) away. The sky crane concept had never been used in missions before. Gale Crater is the MSL landing site. Within Gale Crater is a mountain, named Aeolis Mons ("Mount Sharp"), of layered rocks, rising about 5.5 km (18,000 ft) above the crater floor, that Curiosity will investigate. The landing site
7434-450: The combustion of the fuel can only occur due to a presence of a catalyst . This is quite advantageous due to making the rocket engine lighter and cheaper, easy to control, and more reliable. But, the downfall is that the chemical is very dangerous to manufacture, store, and transport. A bipropellant propulsion system is a rocket engine that uses a liquid propellant. This means both the oxidizer and fuel line are in liquid states. This system
7560-453: The command and data subsystem. It is often responsible for: This system is mainly responsible for the correct spacecraft's orientation in space (attitude) despite external disturbance-gravity gradient effects, magnetic-field torques, solar radiation and aerodynamic drag; in addition it may be required to reposition movable parts, such as antennas and solar arrays. Integrated sensing incorporates an image transformation algorithm to interpret
7686-466: The complex nature of the underlying theoretical explanations. In 1984 Jerry Tersoff and D.R. Hamann, while at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey began publishing articles that tied theory to the experimental results obtained by the instrument. This was closely followed in 1985 with functioning commercial instruments, and in 1986 with Gerd Binnig, Quate, and Gerber's invention of
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#17327979252427812-425: The current is kept constant by computer movement of the tip and an image is formed by the recorded movements of the tip. Scanning acoustic microscopes use sound waves to measure variations in acoustic impedance. Similar to Sonar in principle, they are used for such jobs as detecting defects in the subsurfaces of materials including those found in integrated circuits. On February 4, 2013, Australian engineers built
7938-535: The diffraction limit is occurred from light or excitation, which makes the resolution must be doubled to become super saturated. Stefan Hell was awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of the STED technique, along with Eric Betzig and William Moerner who adapted fluorescence microscopy for single-molecule visualization. X-ray microscopes are instruments that use electromagnetic radiation usually in
8064-453: The earliest known use of simple microscopes ( magnifying glasses ) dates back to the widespread use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century. The earliest known examples of compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens near the specimen with an eyepiece to view a real image , appeared in Europe around 1620. The inventor is unknown, even though many claims have been made over
8190-473: The early 20th century a significant alternative to the light microscope was developed, an instrument that uses a beam of electrons rather than light to generate an image. The German physicist, Ernst Ruska , working with electrical engineer Max Knoll , developed the first prototype electron microscope in 1931, a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The transmission electron microscope works on similar principles to an optical microscope but uses electrons in
8316-713: The entire sky ( astronomical survey ), and satellites which focus on selected astronomical objects or parts of the sky and beyond. Space telescopes are distinct from Earth imaging satellites , which point toward Earth for satellite imaging , applied for weather analysis , espionage , and other types of information gathering . Cargo or resupply spacecraft are robotic vehicles designed to transport supplies, such as food, propellant, and equipment, to space stations. This distinguishes them from space probes, which are primarily focused on scientific exploration. Automated cargo spacecraft have been servicing space stations since 1978, supporting missions like Salyut 6 , Salyut 7 , Mir ,
8442-451: The eye or on to another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1,250× with a theoretical resolution limit of around 0.250 micrometres or 250 nanometres . This limits practical magnification to ~1,500×. Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal microscopy , Vertico SMI ) may exceed this magnification but
8568-459: The fall of 1951. The first artificial satellite , Sputnik 1 , was put into a 215-by-939-kilometer (116 by 507 nmi) Earth orbit by the USSR on 4 October 1957. On 3 November 1957, the USSR orbited Sputnik 2 . Weighing 113 kilograms (249 lb), Sputnik 2 carried the first animal into orbit, the dog Laika . Since the satellite was not designed to detach from its launch vehicle 's upper stage,
8694-615: The general public ranked nine finalist rover names (Adventure, Amelia, Journey, Perception, Pursuit, Sunrise, Vision, Wonder, and Curiosity) through a public poll on the NASA website. On May 27, 2009, the winning name was announced to be Curiosity . The name had been submitted in an essay contest by Clara Ma, a sixth-grader from Kansas. Curiosity is the passion that drives us through our everyday lives. We have become explorers and scientists with our need to ask questions and to wonder. Over 60 landing sites were evaluated, and by July 2011 Gale crater
8820-439: The ground when landing not to form a dust cloud that could damage the rover's instruments. This would have required long landing legs that would need to have significant width to keep the center of gravity low. A legged lander would have also required ramps so the rover could drive down to the surface, which would have incurred extra risk to the mission on the chance rocks or tilt would prevent Curiosity from being able to drive off
8946-608: The ground. Increased autonomy is important for distant probes where the light travel time prevents rapid decision and control from Earth. Newer probes such as Cassini–Huygens and the Mars Exploration Rovers are highly autonomous and use on-board computers to operate independently for extended periods of time. A space probe is a robotic spacecraft that does not orbit Earth, but instead, explores further into outer space. Space probes have different sets of scientific instruments onboard. A space probe may approach
9072-552: The heat shield facing Mars in preparation for Atmospheric entry . The heat shield is made of phenolic impregnated carbon ablator (PICA). The 4.5 m (15 ft) diameter heat shield, which is the largest heat shield ever flown in space, reduced the velocity of the spacecraft by ablation against the Martian atmosphere , from the atmospheric interface velocity of approximately 5.8 km/s (3.6 mi/s) down to approximately 470 m/s (1,500 ft/s), where parachute deployment
9198-508: The heat shield separated and fell away. A camera beneath the rover acquired about 5 frames per second (with resolution of 1600×1200 pixels) below 3.7 km (2.3 mi) during a period of about 2 minutes until the rover sensors confirmed successful landing. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter team were able to acquire an image of the MSL descending under the parachute. Following the parachute braking, at about 1.8 km (1.1 mi) altitude, still travelling at about 100 m/s (220 mph),
9324-521: The immediate imagery land data, perform a real-time detection and avoidance of terrain hazards that may impede safe landing, and increase the accuracy of landing at a desired site of interest using landmark localization techniques. Integrated sensing completes these tasks by relying on pre-recorded information and cameras to understand its location and determine its position and whether it is correct or needs to make any corrections (localization). The cameras are also used to detect any possible hazards whether it
9450-430: The lander successfully. Faced with these challenges, the MSL engineers came up with a novel alternative solution: the sky crane. The sky crane system lowered the rover with a 7.6 m (25 ft) tether to a soft landing—wheels down—on the surface of Mars. This system consists of a bridle lowering the rover on three nylon tethers and an electrical cable carrying information and power between the descent stage and rover. As
9576-416: The light to pass through. The microscope can capture either transmitted or reflected light to measure very localized optical properties of the surface, commonly of a biological specimen. Scanning tunneling microscopes have a metal tip with a single apical atom; the tip is attached to a tube through which a current flows. The tip is scanned over the surface of a conductive sample until a tunneling current flows;
9702-399: The lungs. The publication in 1665 of Robert Hooke 's Micrographia had a huge impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. Hooke created tiny lenses of small glass globules made by fusing the ends of threads of spun glass. A significant contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a simple single lens microscope. He sandwiched
9828-512: The many different types of interactions that occur when a small probe is scanned over and interacts with a specimen. These interactions or modes can be recorded or mapped as function of location on the surface to form a characterization map. The three most common types of scanning probe microscopes are atomic force microscopes (AFM), near-field scanning optical microscopes (NSOM or SNOM, scanning near-field optical microscopy), and scanning tunneling microscopes (STM). An atomic force microscope has
9954-545: The most accurate Martian landing of any known spacecraft at the time, hitting a small target landing ellipse of only 7 by 20 km (4.3 by 12.4 mi), in the Aeolis Palus region of Gale Crater. In the event, MSL achieved a landing 2.4 km (1.5 mi) east and 400 m (1,300 ft) north of the center of the target. This location is near the mountain Aeolis Mons (a.k.a. "Mount Sharp"). The rover mission
10080-427: The most powerful form of propulsion there is. For a propulsion system to work, there is usually an oxidizer line and a fuel line. This way, the spacecraft propulsion is controlled. But in a monopropellant propulsion, there is no need for an oxidizer line and only requires the fuel line. This works due to the oxidizer being chemically bonded into the fuel molecule itself. But for the propulsion system to be controlled,
10206-468: The near- absolute zero temperature of space. Thermostats monitored temperatures and switched heating and cooling systems on or off as needed. Landing a large mass on Mars is particularly challenging as the atmosphere is too thin for parachutes and aerobraking alone to be effective, while remaining thick enough to create stability and impingement problems when decelerating with retrorockets . Although some previous missions have used airbags to cushion
10332-402: The only way to explore them. Telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by Earth micro-organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized. Humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship, as they coexist with numerous micro-organisms, and these micro-organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit. The first uncrewed space mission
10458-494: The place of light and electromagnets in the place of glass lenses. Use of electrons, instead of light, allows for much higher resolution. Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the scanning electron microscope by Max Knoll . Although TEMs were being used for research before WWII, and became popular afterwards, the SEM was not commercially available until 1965. Transmission electron microscopes became popular following
10584-491: The post- genomic era, many techniques for fluorescent staining of cellular structures were developed. The main groups of techniques involve targeted chemical staining of particular cell structures, for example, the chemical compound DAPI to label DNA , use of antibodies conjugated to fluorescent reporters, see immunofluorescence , and fluorescent proteins, such as green fluorescent protein . These techniques use these different fluorophores for analysis of cell structure at
10710-408: The power sources. Spacecraft are often protected from temperature fluctuations with insulation. Some spacecraft use mirrors and sunshades for additional protection from solar heating. They also often need shielding from micrometeoroids and orbital debris. Spacecraft propulsion is a method that allows a spacecraft to travel through space by generating thrust to push it forward. However, there
10836-518: The resolution is diffraction limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the near-field scanning optical microscope . Sarfus is a recent optical technique that increases the sensitivity of a standard optical microscope to a point where it is possible to directly visualize nanometric films (down to 0.3 nanometre) and isolated nano-objects (down to 2 nm-diameter). The technique
10962-536: The robotic spacecraft requires accurate knowledge of where the spacecraft is located relative to the surface (localization), what may pose as hazards from the terrain (hazard assessment), and where the spacecraft should presently be headed (hazard avoidance). Without the capability for operations for localization, hazard assessment, and avoidance, the robotic spacecraft becomes unsafe and can easily enter dangerous situations such as surface collisions, undesirable fuel consumption levels, and/or unsafe maneuvers. Components in
11088-530: The rover and descent stage dropped out of the aeroshell. The descent stage is a platform above the rover with eight variable thrust monopropellant hydrazine rocket thrusters on arms extending around this platform to slow the descent. Each rocket thruster, called a Mars Lander Engine (MLE), produces 400 to 3,100 N (90 to 697 lbf) of thrust and were derived from those used on the Viking landers. A radar altimeter measured altitude and velocity, feeding data to
11214-421: The rover instruments — Radiation assessment detector (RAD) — during the spaceflight transit to Mars. Curiosity rover has a mass of 899 kg (1,982 lb), can travel up to 90 m (300 ft) per hour on its six-wheeled rocker-bogie system, is powered by a multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG), and communicates in both X band and UHF bands. The rover's computers run VxWorks ,
11340-540: The rover landing site Bradbury Landing on sol 16, August 22, 2012. According to NASA, an estimated 20,000 to 40,000 heat-resistant bacterial spores were on Curiosity at launch, and as much as 1,000 times that number may not have been counted. Robotic spacecraft Uncrewed spacecraft or robotic spacecraft are spacecraft without people on board. Uncrewed spacecraft may have varying levels of autonomy from human input, such as remote control , or remote guidance. They may also be autonomous , in which they have
11466-468: The rover must be able to safely reach the site and drive within it. Engineering constraints called for a landing site less than 45° from the Martian equator, and less than 1 km above the reference datum . At the first MSL Landing Site workshop, 33 potential landing sites were identified. By the end of the second workshop in late 2007, the list was reduced to six; in November 2008, project leaders at
11592-570: The rover's flight computer. Meanwhile, the rover transformed from its stowed flight configuration to a landing configuration while being lowered beneath the descent stage by the "sky crane" system. For several reasons, a different landing system was chosen for MSL compared to previous Mars landers and rovers. Curiosity was considered too heavy to use the airbag landing system as used on the Mars Pathfinder and Mars Exploration Rovers . A legged lander approach would have caused several design problems. It would have needed to have engines high enough above
11718-536: The rover. The next month, NASA delayed the launch to late 2011 because of inadequate testing time. Eventually the costs for developing the rover reached $ 2.47 billion, that for a rover that initially had been classified as a medium-cost mission with a maximum budget of $ 650 million, yet NASA still had to ask for an additional $ 82 million to meet the planned November launch. As of 2012, the project suffered an 84 percent overrun. MSL launched on an Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral on November 26, 2011. On January 11, 2012,
11844-404: The same resolution limit as the optical and electron microscopes described above. The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the optical microscope . This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have refractive glass (occasionally plastic or quartz ), to focus light on
11970-554: The sample all at once (wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes). Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses ( optics for light microscopes and electromagnet lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a wave transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are electromagnetic (in optical microscopes ) or electron beams (in electron microscopes ). Resolution in these microscopes
12096-541: The sample to analyze a rectangular region. Magnification of the image is achieved by displaying the data from scanning a physically small sample area on a relatively large screen. These microscopes have the same resolution limit as wide field optical, probe, and electron microscopes. Scanning probe microscopes also analyze a single point in the sample and then scan the probe over a rectangular sample region to build up an image. As these microscopes do not use electromagnetic or electron radiation for imaging they are not subject to
12222-421: The shock of landing, the Curiosity rover is too heavy for this to be an option. Instead, Curiosity was set down on the Martian surface using a new high-accuracy entry, descent, and landing (EDL) system that was part of the MSL spacecraft descent stage. The mass of this EDL system, including parachute, sky crane, fuel and aeroshell , is 2,401 kg (5,293 lb). The novel EDL system placed Curiosity within
12348-495: The slide. This microscope technique made it possible to study the cell cycle in live cells. The traditional optical microscope has more recently evolved into the digital microscope . In addition to, or instead of, directly viewing the object through the eyepieces , a type of sensor similar to those used in a digital camera is used to obtain an image, which is then displayed on a computer monitor. These sensors may use CMOS or charge-coupled device (CCD) technology, depending on
12474-564: The soft X-ray band to image objects. Technological advances in X-ray lens optics in the early 1970s made the instrument a viable imaging choice. They are often used in tomography (see micro-computed tomography ) to produce three dimensional images of objects, including biological materials that have not been chemically fixed. Currently research is being done to improve optics for hard X-rays which have greater penetrating power. Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping
12600-539: The space stations Salyut 7 and Mir , and the International Space Station module Zarya , were capable of remote guided station-keeping and docking maneuvers with both resupply craft and new modules. Uncrewed resupply spacecraft are increasingly used for crewed space stations . The first robotic spacecraft was launched by the Soviet Union (USSR) on 22 July 1951, a suborbital flight carrying two dogs Dezik and Tsygan. Four other such flights were made through
12726-408: The spacecraft forward. This happens due to one basic principle known as Newton's Third Law . According to Newton, "to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction." As the energy and heat is being released from the back of the spacecraft, gas particles are being pushed around to allow the spacecraft to propel forward. The main reason behind the usage of rocket engine today is because rockets are
12852-414: The spacecraft is robotic. Robotic spacecraft use telemetry to radio back to Earth acquired data and vehicle status information. Although generally referred to as "remotely controlled" or "telerobotic", the earliest orbital spacecraft – such as Sputnik 1 and Explorer 1 – did not receive control signals from Earth. Soon after these first spacecraft, command systems were developed to allow remote control from
12978-504: The spacecraft stopped spinning and a cable cutter separated the cruise stage from the aeroshell. Then the cruise stage was diverted into a separate trajectory into the atmosphere. In December 2012, the debris field from the cruise stage was located by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . Since the initial size, velocity, density and impact angle of the hardware are known, it will provide information on impact processes on
13104-420: The spacecraft successfully refined its trajectory with a three-hour series of thruster-engine firings, advancing the rover's landing time by about 14 hours. When MSL was launched, the program's director was Doug McCuistion of NASA's Planetary Science Division . Curiosity successfully landed in the Gale Crater at 05:17:57.3 UTC on August 6, 2012, and transmitted Hazcam images confirming orientation. Due to
13230-521: The spaceflight events unfolded on August 6, 2012. Despite its late hour, particularly on the east coast of the United States where it was 1:31 a.m., the landing generated significant public interest. 3.2 million watched the landing live with most watching online instead of on television via NASA TV or cable news networks covering the event live. The final landing place for the rover was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from its target after
13356-427: The support and data cables unreeled, the rover's six motorized wheels snapped into position. At roughly 7.5 m (25 ft) below the descent stage the sky crane system slowed to a halt and the rover touched down. After the rover touched down, it waited two seconds to confirm that it was on solid ground by detecting the weight on the wheels and fired several pyros (small explosive devices) activating cable cutters on
13482-458: The technique rapidly gained popularity through the 1980s. Much current research (in the early 21st century) on optical microscope techniques is focused on development of superresolution analysis of fluorescently labelled samples. Structured illumination can improve resolution by around two to four times and techniques like stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy are approaching the resolution of electron microscopes. This occurs because
13608-423: The thrust to propel the spacecraft forward. The advantage of having this kind of propulsion is that it is incredibly efficient in maintaining constant velocity, which is needed for deep-space travel. However, the amount of thrust produced is extremely low and that it needs a lot of electrical power to operate. Mechanical components often need to be moved for deployment after launch or prior to landing. In addition to
13734-421: The total mass in orbit was 508.3 kilograms (1,121 lb). In a close race with the Soviets , the United States launched its first artificial satellite, Explorer 1 , into a 357-by-2,543-kilometre (193 by 1,373 nmi) orbit on 31 January 1958. Explorer I was an 205-centimetre (80.75 in) long by 15.2-centimetre (6.00 in) diameter cylinder weighing 14.0 kilograms (30.8 lb), compared to Sputnik 1,
13860-435: The ultraviolet to the visible can be used to cause samples to fluoresce , which allows viewing by eye or with specifically sensitive cameras. Phase-contrast microscopy is an optical microscopic illumination technique in which small phase shifts in the light passing through a transparent specimen are converted into amplitude or contrast changes in the image. The use of phase contrast does not require staining to view
13986-618: The use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in Giambattista Odierna's L'occhio della mosca , or The Fly's Eye . The microscope was still largely a novelty until the 1660s and 1670s when naturalists in Italy, the Netherlands and England began using them to study biology. Italian scientist Marcello Malpighi , called the father of histology by some historians of biology, began his analysis of biological structures with
14112-531: The use of motors, many one-time movements are controlled by pyrotechnic devices. Robotic spacecraft are specifically designed system for a specific hostile environment. Due to their specification for a particular environment, it varies greatly in complexity and capabilities. While an uncrewed spacecraft is a spacecraft without personnel or crew and is operated by automatic (proceeds with an action without human intervention) or remote control (with human intervention). The term 'uncrewed spacecraft' does not imply that
14238-488: The years. Several revolve around the spectacle-making centers in the Netherlands , including claims it was invented in 1590 by Zacharias Janssen (claim made by his son) or Zacharias' father, Hans Martens, or both, claims it was invented by their neighbor and rival spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey (who applied for the first telescope patent in 1608), and claims it was invented by expatriate Cornelis Drebbel , who
14364-437: Was Sputnik , launched October 4, 1957 to orbit the Earth. Nearly all satellites , landers and rovers are robotic spacecraft. Not every uncrewed spacecraft is a robotic spacecraft; for example, a reflector ball is a non-robotic uncrewed spacecraft. Space missions where other animals but no humans are on-board are called uncrewed missions. Many habitable spacecraft also have varying levels of robotic features. For example,
14490-402: Was accomplished by ejecting ballast masses consisting of two 75 kg (165 lb) tungsten weights minutes before atmospheric entry. The lift vector was controlled by four sets of two reaction control system (RCS) thrusters that produced approximately 500 N (110 lbf) of thrust per pair. This ability to change the pointing of the direction of lift allowed the spacecraft to react to
14616-439: Was achieved by the combined use of thrusters and ejectable balance masses. The ejectable balance masses shift the capsule center of mass enabling generation of a lift vector during the atmospheric phase. A navigation computer integrated the measurements to estimate the position and attitude of the capsule that generated automated torque commands. This was the first planetary mission to use precision landing techniques. The rover
14742-559: Was also used to launch the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the New Horizons probe. The first and second stages, along with the solid rocket motors, were stacked on October 9, 2011, near the launch pad. The fairing containing MSL was transported to the launch pad on November 3, 2011. MSL was launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 41 on November 26, 2011, at 15:02 UTC via
14868-406: Was based on a Viking-derived aeroshell structure and propulsion system for a precision guided entry and soft landing, in contrasts with the airbag landings that were used in the mid-1990s by the Mars Pathfinder and Mars Exploration Rover missions. The spacecraft employed several systems in a precise order, with the entry, descent and landing sequence broken down into four parts—described below as
14994-434: Was chosen. A primary goal when selecting the landing site was to identify a particular geologic environment, or set of environments, that would support microbial life. Planners looked for a site that could contribute to a wide variety of possible science objectives. They preferred a landing site with both morphologic and mineralogical evidence for past water. Furthermore, a site with spectra indicating multiple hydrated minerals
15120-400: Was done by previous landers such as Viking , Mars Pathfinder and the Mars Exploration Rovers. The parachute has 80 suspension lines, is over 50 m (160 ft) long, and is about 16 m (52 ft) in diameter. Capable of being deployed at Mach 2.2, the parachute can generate up to 289 kN (65,000 lbf) of drag force in the Martian atmosphere. After the parachute was deployed,
15246-457: Was folded up within an aeroshell that protected it during the travel through space and during the atmospheric entry at Mars. Ten minutes before atmospheric entry the aeroshell separated from the cruise stage that provided power, communications and propulsion during the long flight to Mars. One minute after separation from the cruise stage thrusters on the aeroshell fired to cancel out the spacecraft's 2-rpm rotation and achieved an orientation with
15372-532: Was noted to have a version in London in 1619. Galileo Galilei (also sometimes cited as compound microscope inventor) seems to have found after 1610 that he could close focus his telescope to view small objects and, after seeing a compound microscope built by Drebbel exhibited in Rome in 1624, built his own improved version. Giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to
15498-410: Was possible about four minutes later. One minute and 15 seconds after entry the heat shield experienced peak temperatures of up to 2,090 °C (3,790 °F) as atmospheric pressure converted kinetic energy into heat. Ten seconds after peak heating, that deceleration peaked out at 15 g . Much of the reduction of the landing precision error was accomplished by an entry guidance algorithm, derived from
15624-438: Was preferred; clay minerals and sulfate salts would constitute a rich site. Hematite , other iron oxides , sulfate minerals, silicate minerals , silica , and possibly chloride minerals were suggested as possible substrates for fossil preservation . Indeed, all are known to facilitate the preservation of fossil morphologies and molecules on Earth. Difficult terrain was favored for finding evidence of livable conditions, but
15750-641: Was previously used between 2008 and 2015. Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Local Sheet → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Local Hole → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow ( → ) may be read as "within" or "part of". Microscope A microscope (from Ancient Greek μικρός ( mikrós ) 'small' and σκοπέω ( skopéō ) 'to look (at); examine, inspect')
15876-550: Was the Luna E-1 No.1 , launched on 23 September 1958. The goal of a lunar probe repeatedly failed until 4 January 1959 when Luna 1 orbited around the Moon and then the Sun. The success of these early missions began a race between the US and the USSR to outdo each other with increasingly ambitious probes. Mariner 2 was the first probe to study another planet, revealing Venus' extremely hot temperature to scientists in 1962, while
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