Media development involves capacity building for institutions or individuals related to freedom of expression , pluralism and diversity of media, as well as transparency of media ownership . Media development plays a role in democracy and effective democratic discourse through supporting free and independent media .
119-616: International donors and other organizations often include support for media development as part of their overall support to international economic and democratic development. Typical efforts to develop independent media development include: journalist training and education; support for and advice on improving the legal and business environment for media; efforts to improve the sustainability of existing outlets; media literacy training; digital media training and integration; infrastructure development; and monitoring and evaluation efforts. UNESCO developed Media Development Indicators in 2008 as
238-422: A critical stance when decoding media messages, no matter their views regarding a position. Likewise, the use of mobile devices by children and adolescents is increasing significantly; therefore, it is relevant to investigate the level of advertising literacy of parents who interact as mediators between children and mobile advertising. Digitalisation and the expansion of information and communication technologies at
357-587: A distinction between local and international sources and only the Freedom of the Press Index differentiates between official and unofficial sources. The MSI has more than one question regarding this category because it specifies the viewpoints. Private and public news sources, niche reporting and programming, local, national and international information as well as social interests and minority languages should be reflected. This differentiation cannot be found in
476-415: A framework for international media development. Indicators are within five categories: The indicators were used for a pilot international survey in 2011 in which 28 countries participated, focused on regulation and supply. The International Research and Exchanges Board ’s (IREX) Media Sustainability Index (MSI) is another widely used tool to evaluate the global development of independent media. The MSI
595-563: A history of media oppression. Through low-cost capital (mainly loans), business training and other advice and support, it aims to help news outlets committed to responsible journalism become commercially sustainable, believing that only financially independent news media can stay editorially independent over the long term. In 1998 MDIF also founded CAMP (Centre for Advanced Media-Prague) which provided technology support to independent media in developing countries. In 2010, MDIF spun off CAMP as an independent organization, Sourcefabric , whose mission
714-513: A hundred countries have agreed to join forces and stand together for change. This pioneering initiative was launched during the Global Forum for Partnerships on Media and Information Literacy which took place from 26 to 28 June 2013, in Abuja, Nigeria, aiming at: Media Sustainability Index The International Research and Exchanges Board ’s (IREX) Media Sustainability Index (MSI)
833-544: A new curriculum designed to teach critical reading of propaganda and the evaluation of sources. Called "media literacy," the course provides training in journalism in the new information society. In India, the Cybermohalla program started in 2001 with the aim to bring access to technology to youths. In Vietnam, the Young Journalists Group (YOJO) was created in 1998 in collaboration with UNICEF and
952-406: A number of foundations and other organizations in the U.S. that are responsible for a significant amount of media assistance funding, yet without a program engaged in direct “media development.” These projects are often called “communications for development” and are a very common form of media development. The National Endowment for Democracy (NED) is a U.S. non-profit soft power organization that
1071-673: A study by the Center for International Media Assistance . USAID's Office of Democracy and Governance (DCHA/DG) manages roughly $ 500,000 annually for media-related work. The bureau has two full-time media experts on staff who are consulted on media projects around the world. USAID's Office of Transition Initiatives (OTI) , which was created in 1994 to provide a quick response mechanism in times of crisis, including post-war situations, spent $ 3 million on international media sector development in 2006. The Europe and Eurasia Bureau (E&E) currently manages $ 130,000 annually to support publication of
1190-402: A sustainable and independent media system. Under each of these objectives are seven to nine indicators defining how well a country achieves that objective. Each indicator is scored from 0 to 4. The scores for the indicators are then averaged to generate a single score for each objective. Next the five objectives’ scores are averaged to produce a final score for every country. In a following step
1309-427: A type of media literacy, suggesting that information seekers emphasize lateral reading, including starting some searches on Misplaced Pages. Instead of "vertical reading" of a single website, "lateral reading", is a fact-checking method to find and compare multiple sources of information on the same topic or event. The method they suggest is called 'SIFT.' 'S' is for stop and reflect, especially before sharing or acting on
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#17327975136021428-489: A type of protection to children and young people by helping them make good choices in their media consumption habits, and patterns of usage. This pedagogical project questions representations of class, gender, race, sexuality and other forms of identity and challenges media messages that reproduce oppression and discrimination. Proponents of media literacy education argue that the inclusion of media literacy into school curricula promotes civic engagement, increases awareness of
1547-649: Is a global network of women journalists that runs leadership and training seminars in 22 countries. There are a number of academic programs at universities around the country that do work on media development issues or engage in media development of their own. George Washington University ’s School of Media and Public Affairs (SMPA) Johns Hopkins University ’s School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) runs an International Reporting Project that works with U.S. journalists to encourage more international reporting Harvard University ’s Joan Shorenstein Center on
1666-528: Is a government corporation tasked with assisting some of the world's poorest countries. Dollar amounts are tied to countries’ progress on several key indicators, including improved press freedom. MCC has incorporated media development in at least five of the countries: Malawi, Moldova, Niger, Tanzania, and Ukraine. The Center for International Media Assistance (CIMA) is an initiative of the National Endowment for Democracy (NED). CIMA works to improve
1785-627: Is a robust research community who have examined the needs of educators and obstacles to future development. Although progress around the world was uneven, all respondents realized the importance of media education, as well as the need for formal recognition from their government and policymakers. In recent years, a wide variety of media literacy education initiatives have increased collaboration in Europe and North America, Many cultural, social, and political factors shape how media literacy education initiatives are believed to be significant. Mind Over Media
1904-629: Is a tool to evaluate the global development of independent media. The MSI is one of the most important indices "to assess how media systems change over time and across borders", in addition to the Freedom of the Press Index compiled by Freedom House and the Press Freedom Index compiled by Reporters Without Borders . In 2018, IREX launched a dynamic data platform, the Media Sustainability Explorer , that enables users to analyze and examine data from all years of
2023-529: Is an expanded conceptualization of literacy that includes the ability to access and analyze media messages, as well as create, reflect and take action—using the power of information and communication—to make a difference in the world. Media literacy applies to different types of media, and is seen as an important skill for work, life, and citizenship. Examples of media literacy include reflecting on one's media choices, identifying sponsored content, recognizing stereotypes, analyzing propaganda and discussing
2142-520: Is an international media development organization whose mission is to empower local media worldwide to give people the news and information they need, the ability to connect, and the means to make their voices heard. Internews has worked in over 70 countries and trained over 80,000 people in media skills. Together with local partners, Internews activities include establishing and supporting media outlets, journalist associations, and broadcast networks. Internews also has special programs to improve reporting on
2261-431: Is an international nonprofit organization providing leadership and innovative programs to improve the quality of education, strengthen independent media, and foster pluralistic civil society development. IREX designs education programs and provides consulting that support lifelong learning. Programs focus on primary and secondary levels, through higher education, and continuing into professional training. IREX also publishes
2380-596: Is carried out by social science researchers generally falls into three major categories, focusing on (a) health outcomes; (b) curriculum and instruction; and (c) political attitudes, media use and behavior. Meta-analysis of a large number of these studies has found that the average effect size was strong and positive for outcomes including media knowledge, criticism, perceived realism, influence, attitudes, self-efficacy , and behavior. In two recent nationally-representative surveys of U.S. residents, media literacy competencies were associated with health-related decision making in
2499-414: Is compared to each other and assigned to new categories in table 2. Questions concerning the same subject but of two different indices are opposed to each other in two columns. If only one index measures a certain issue or category, the corresponding place in the second column remains empty, meaning this issue is not covered by the other index. As some questions contain different aspects, sometimes only one of
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#17327975136022618-506: Is considered as an umbrella term that "includes information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, media education, digital content creation (including programming), security (including digital wellbeing and cybersecurity skills), digital citizenship issues, privacy, intellectual property, problem solving, and computational and critical thinking". Media literacy education is not yet as widespread or as advanced in Asia, comparative to
2737-523: Is effective in a wide variety of contexts and learning environments. Media literacy competencies are frequently measured using self-report measures, where people rate or agree with various statements. These measures are easy to administer to a large group of people. Some researchers use performance- or competency-based measures to examine people's actual ability to critically analyze news, advertising, or entertainment. Media literacy programs that focus on political attitudes and behavior are thought to provide
2856-592: Is in the second stage (2017–2020) of development and standardization. Main centres of media education include the Ivan Franko University of Lviv (led by Borys Potyatynyk), Institute of Higher Education of the National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine (Hanna Onkovych), Institute of Social and Political Psychology of the National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine (Lyubov Naidyonova). In Spanish legislation, digital competence
2975-477: Is one example of an international collaboration in media literacy education: it is a digital learning platform that relies on crowdsourced examples of contemporary propaganda shared by educators and learners from around the world. For educators who are developing media literacy programs, the study of propaganda has become increasingly important, especially with the rise of fake news and disinformation. One ranking of media literacy efforts had Finland #1, Canada #7 and
3094-638: Is one of the essential indexes of press freedom worldwide. Unlike the MSI, it covers every country in the world, but does not do so in depth (though still provides a brief analysis of each country). The U.S. Institute of Peace is funded by the government much like NED is. However, its board is appointed by Congress, so they lack the independence that NED has. USIP's media programming is part of its larger goal to promote peace worldwide. Search for Common Ground does some journalism training as well as producing material for radio and TV stations in various locations around
3213-442: Is one of the most important indices "to assess how media systems change over time and across borders." The MSI uses five fundamental objectives to assess to what extent a media system is independent, sustainable and successful. The five objectives are: Some development organizations and experts make a distinction between media development and media for development. Support for "Media development" refers to efforts to directly improve
3332-733: Is one of the oldest approaches to media literacy education and was pioneered by educators and artists in Rochester, New York who developed visual literacy in education . The scholarly knowledge community publishes research in the Journal of Media Literacy Education and other journals, and a robust global community of media literacy scholars has emerged since the European Commission set an ambitious objective for Europe to advance its knowledge economy while being more culturally inclusive. Empirical research on media literacy education
3451-568: Is responsible for all U.S. government-sponsored, nonmilitary broadcasting for international audiences. This includes the Voice of America , Alhurra , Radio Sawa , Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Radio Free Asia , and Radio and TV Martí . BBG's total budget for fiscal year 2006 was $ 645 million, of which $ 1.5 million went to the training of international journalists, according to the CIMA survey. The Millennium Challenge Corporation , founded in 2004,
3570-1186: Is the process used to advance media literacy competencies, and it is intended to promote awareness of media influence and create an active stance towards both consuming and creating media. Media literacy education is taught and studied in many countries around the world. Finland has been cited as one of the leading countries that invests significantly in media literacy. Education for media literacy often encourages people to ask questions about what they watch, hear, and read. Some examples of media examined include, but are not limited to television, video games, photographs, and audio messages. Media literacy education provides tools to help people develop receptive media capability to critically analyze messages, offers opportunities for learners to broaden their experience of media, and helps them develop generative media capability to increase creative skills in making their own media messages. Critical analyses can include identifying author, purpose and point of view, examining construction techniques and genres, examining patterns of media representation, and detecting propaganda , censorship , and bias in news and public affairs programming (and
3689-447: Is the worst score. Freedom House uses scores from 0 to 100, in which 0 is the best score. In advance Freedom House attaches different importance to the questions by giving some questions higher scores than others. So the panelists score the questions of the Freedom of the Press Index with a different number of points. The scoring system of the MSI is constantly the same. The surveyed persons score each indicator from 0 to 4. For this reason
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3808-558: Is to provide independent media outlets with the open source software, tools and support they need to produce the news. In 2013 Media Development Loan Fund changed its name to Media Development Investment Fund. The U.S. government provides about half of American funding of media development abroad. The U.S. Agency for International Development is the largest single U.S. funder, public or private, of independent media abroad. It spent $ 52.7 million in 2006 on international media sector development—about 37 percent of American funding, according to
3927-551: The Journal of Communication , media literacy interventions were found to have positive effects on knowledge, criticism, perceived realism, influence, behavioral beliefs, attitudes, self-efficacy , and behavior. Media literacy also encourages critical thinking and self-expression, enabling citizens to decisively exercise their democratic rights . Media literacy enables the populace to understand and contribute to public discourse , and, eventually, make sound decisions when electing their leaders. People who are media literate can adopt
4046-622: The Knight International Journalism Fellowships program , which sends media professionals from around the world to developing nations to improve the media there. ICFJ also operates the International Journalists’ Network (IJNet), which serves as an online resource for journalists around the world to communicate with one another and improve their own journalism standards and practices. International Research & Exchanges Board (IREX)
4165-575: The Media Sustainability Index (MSI), which provides in-depth analyses of the conditions for independent media in 76 countries across Africa, Europe, Eurasia, and the Middle East. Media Development Investment Fund (MDIF), formerly Media Development Loan Fund, is a New York-registered 501(c)(3) nonprofit corporation and mission-driven investment fund that provides low-cost financing to independent news outlets in countries with
4284-508: The News Literacy Project initially offered curricular materials and other resources for educators who taught U.S. students in grades 6–12 (middle school and high school), focusing primarily on helping students learn to sort fact from fiction in the digital age. (In 2020 NLP expanded its work to include audiences of all ages and made all of its resources free of charge.) Similar programs for students and adults are also offered by
4403-752: The Poynter Institute (MediaWise) and the Stanford History Education Group at Stanford University (Civic Online Reasoning). Assessments of students who have taken such programs and those who have not have shown that the students with media literacy training can more easily recognize false or misleading content and determine whether a source of information is credible. 18 states have enacted media literacy standards in K-12 education as of 2023, including Texas, New Jersey, Delaware, Florida and California. In 2021, Illinois became
4522-631: The 1970s and 1980s, attitudes about mass media and mass culture began to shift around the English-speaking world. Educators began to realize the need to "guard against our prejudice of thinking of print as the only real medium that the English teacher has a stake in." A whole generation of educators began to not only acknowledge film and television as new, legitimate forms of expression and communication, but also explored practical ways to promote serious inquiry and analysis—- in higher education, in
4641-638: The 2002 registration of a new ‘Media Education’ (No. 03.13.30) specialization for the pedagogical universities, and the 2005 launch of the Media Education academic journal, partly sponsored by the ICOS UNESCO ‘Information for All’. Montenegro became one of the few countries in the world that have introduced media education into their curriculums, when in 2009 “media literacy” was introduced as an optional subject for 16 and 17-year-old students of Gymnasium high schools. In Ukraine, media education
4760-580: The AACRA model (access, analyze, create, reflect and act) and identifies three frames for introducing media literacy to learners: authors and audiences (AA), messages and meanings (MM), and representation and reality (RR), synthesizing the scholarly literature from media literacy, information literacy , visual literacy and new literacies. Some theoretical frames make reference to the key elements of human communication. David Buckingham proposed: Production, Language, Representation, and Audience. Elaborating on
4879-458: The American government or from agencies like USAID or NED , which are subsidized on their part by the government. Furthermore, both indices measures are designed to evaluate characteristics of media systems from the point of view of elite evaluators. Means the survey in a certain country is conducted by experts of the media environment of the country concerned. But the two indices do not assess
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4998-528: The Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights says. With the aid of the MSI an international comparison of the independence and/or sustainability of media systems is possible. An international comparison allows policymakers to parse media systems and examine the areas in which media development assistance can advance citizens’ access to news and information. Moreover, the results of
5117-600: The DARE centre (Digital Arts Research Education), a collaboration between University College London and the British Film Institute . The ‘promotion' of media literacy also became a UK Government policy under New Labour, and was enshrined in the Communications Act 2003 as a responsibility of the new media regulator, Ofcom . After an initial burst of activity, however, Ofcom's work in this regard
5236-945: The Europe and Eurasia MSI and to compare data trends across time, MSI objectives, regions and individual countries. The Media Sustainability Index (MSI) was elaborated by the International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX) in collaboration with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in 2001. Since then annual reports about “the development of media systems over time and across countries” have been published. The reports rate independent media sustainability in today 80 countries across Africa , Asia , Europe & Eurasia and Middle East & North Africa . The reports not only contain ratings, but also “an extensive Executive Summary of regional findings as well as individual country reports”. However, not all regions have been evaluated from
5355-433: The Europe and Eurasia Media Sustainability Index, but its influence extends well beyond that amount. E&E's media advisor works with mission offices in the region, where most funding decisions are made, on how best to allocate resources for media work. The State Department ’s largest single funder of independent media sector development is its Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (DRL), which spent $ 11.8 million on
5474-479: The Freedom of the Press Index compiled by Freedom House . Table 1 compares the basic characteristics of the two indices, whereas table 2 is a more detailed analysis of the questionnaires . First of all you can see in table 1 that there are some similarities between the indices. Both IREX and Freedom House have their headquarters in America, both are nonprofit organizations , which receive financial support from
5593-432: The Freedom of the Press Index's main concern and underlying concept - that is the freedom of the press. This concept of the freedom of the press must be seen together with "the legal environment for the media, political pressures that influence reporting, and economic factors that affect access to information". So the Freedom of the Press Index also includes for example questions about independent judiciary , censorship and
5712-493: The Freedom of the Press Index. So Freedom House includes the access to plurality viewpoints, which is no subject within the MSI. Here the MSI differentiates between access to information for media, journalists and citizens, whereas the Index of Freedom House focuses more on existing laws protecting the access to information for journalists. MSI compares the entry to the media market to entries to other industries. The Freedom of
5831-849: The Journal of Democracy, the World Movement for Democracy, the International Forum for Democratic Studies, the Reagan–Fascell Fellowship Program, the Network of Democracy Research Institutes, and the Center for International Media Assistance. Freedom House does two major surveys every year – Freedom in the World, and Freedom of the Press. Along with IREX's MSI and Reporters Without Borders’ Press Freedom Index, this
5950-412: The MSI provide essential information for the media, their representatives and outlets and inform them as well as the civil society and the governments of the strengths and weaknesses of each country. The MSI uses five fundamental objectives to assess to what extent a media system is independent, sustainable and successful. The five objectives are: These five objectives are the most central aspects of
6069-414: The MSI question contains the aspect of the civil law against libeling. Both indices ask if everyone has the freedom to become a professional journalist. But MSI also raises the question if there are restrictions against or special laws in favour of freedom. The Freedom of the Press Index instead contains the question if professional groups have the freedom to support journalists. This is just one example for
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#17327975136026188-686: The MSI questionnaire seems to be clearer and more transparent and the questions can be better compared to each other. USAID U.S. state department UNESCO Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) U.S. National Endowment for Democracy (NED) U.S. government European Commission 0-4, 0 = worst; 4 = best 0-100, 0 = best; 100 = worst At first glance the questionnaires appear to differ because of their different content and categories, their different structure and different number of questions, which you can see in table 1. But recent literature shows that there are similarities. For example, Becker and Vlad found out that although
6307-455: The Middle East through media literacy education, in part to be better able to challenge representation. The UNESCO Media and Information Literacy Alliance, formerly known as Global Alliance for Partnerships on Media and Information Literacy (GAPMIL), is a groundbreaking effort to promote international cooperation to ensure that all citizens have access to media and information literacy competencies. Yet, organizations and individuals from over
6426-567: The North American educational movement for media literacy in the 1950s and 1960s. Two of Canada's leaders in Media Literacy and Media Education are Barry Duncan and John Pungente. Duncan died on June 6, 2012. Even after he retired from classroom teaching, Barry had still been active in media education. Pungente is a Jesuit priest who has promoted media literacy since the early 1960s. Media literacy education has been an interest in
6545-549: The Open Society Institute, OSI) is a network of foundations founded by billionaire George Soros. While it once operated primarily in Eastern Europe, it now has programs worldwide. Though OSF is the largest private funder of media development, media is only a part of OSF's activities, particularly in the following programs: Information Program, Media Program, and Open Society Justice Initiative. There are
6664-461: The Press Index contains in addition or penalties of journalists and also the distinction between freedom of expression and freedom of the press. However, they both measure protection of free speech. In this category the questions are all about free access to media and its protection. Here the MSI specifies the protection against economic threats and law restrictions. Whereas the Freedom of the Press Index just asks about it in general. The MSI also makes
6783-550: The Press Index operates in this category on a more specific and operational level. It includes both individuals and business entities, which can establish and operate media. And it also deals with the legal regulations for establishing media. The Freedom of the Press Index distinguishes between crimes committed by the state, authorities and other actors and the type of crimes such as legal intimidation, physical violence. It examines if local and foreign journalists can work freely without harassments. The MSI deals with legal prosecution of
6902-464: The Press, Politics and Public Policy often publishes reports on relevant topics in media assistance The Nieman Foundation (also at Harvard) runs a fellowship program for journalists (both U.S. and international) to come learn at Harvard Stanford University runs a similar fellowship program called the John S. Knight Fellowships for Professional Journalists Media literacy Media literacy
7021-597: The U.S. or Western countries. Beginning in the 1990s, there has been a shift towards media literacy in East Asia. In recent years, media literacy education is growing in Asia, with several programs in place across countries throughout the Asian Pacific region. Studies have been done to test levels of media literacy among Chinese-speaking students in Taiwan. Beginning in the 2017 school year, children in Taiwan study
7140-626: The United States #18. In North America, the beginnings of a formalized approach to media literacy as a topic of education is often attributed to the 1978 formation of the Ontario-based Association for Media Literacy (AML). Before that time, instruction in media education was usually the purview of individual teachers and practitioners. Canada was the first country in North America to require media literacy in
7259-407: The United States since the early 20th century, when high school English teachers first started using film to develop students' critical thinking and communication skills. However, media literacy education is distinct from simply using media and technology in the classroom, a distinction that is exemplified by the difference between "teaching with media" and "teaching about media." In the 1950s and 60s,
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#17327975136027378-510: The University of Washington, Dart does workshops on journalist safety. The Poynter Institute —Poynter trains journalists online and on site at its St. Petersburg, Florida campus. Investigative Reporters and Editors —IRE, based at the University of Missouri, is the world's oldest and largest association of investigative journalists and it trains several thousand journalists each year. The International Women's Media Foundation —IWMF
7497-656: The Vietnamese National Radio to combat false accounts by the media. In Singapore, the Media Development Authority (MDA) defines media literacy and recognizes it as an important tool for the 21st century, but only from the reading aspect of the term. According to the government-owned The Jordan Times , Jordan , has been moving forward in fostering media and information literacy, which is crucial to fighting extremism and hate speech, Jordan Media Institute has worked on spreading
7616-413: The accuracy of political content, even when it aligned with their existing political beliefs. Study shows that MLA training does impact public when it comes to figuring out fake news or any sort of disinformation or misinformation. Participants who were given MLA training, 73.3 percent were able to identify information which was fake. Nearly 70% agreed upon not sharing any inaccurate information online which
7735-458: The aspects fits to the associated question. To make this clear the non-fitting aspect is written in italics in table 2. The MSI as well as the Freedom of the Press Index contain questions concerning the following categories: The questions are about legal protection for free speech. But there are slight differences between the questions. For example, the MSI includes social protection and a distinction between state and public media. The Freedom of
7854-506: The beginning of the 21st century have substantially modified the media and their relationship with users, which logically modifies the basic principles of media education. It is no longer so much a question of educating critical receivers as of training citizens as responsible prosumers in virtual and hybrid environments. Media education currently incorporates phenomena such as social networks, virtual communities, big data , artificial intelligence, cyber-surveillance , etc., as well as training
7973-692: The beginning. Middle East & North Africa were added first in 2005 and the Africa MSI was launched in 2007. The MSI does not gauge Western Europe or the United States . The surveys are funded by USAID , the US state department , UNESCO , Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the People Technology Foundation. "Sustainability" within this concept "refers to the ability of media to play its vital role as
8092-491: The belief that independent, vigorous media are crucial in improving the human condition. Since 1984, the International Center for Journalists has worked directly with more than 55,000 journalists from 176 countries. Aiming to raise the standards of journalism, ICFJ offers hands-on training, workshops, seminars, fellowships and international exchanges to reporters and media managers around the globe. ICFJ operates
8211-555: The benefits, risks, and harming of media use. Critical analysis skills can be developed through practices like constructivist media decoding and lateral reading, which entails looking at multiple perspectives in assessing the quality of a particular piece of media. Media literacy also includes the ability to create and share messages as a socially responsible communicator, and the practices of safety and civility, information access, and civic voice and engagement are sometimes referred to as digital citizenship . Media literacy education
8330-404: The cognitive and social scaffolding needed for civic engagement. Research on high school students has shown that participation in a media literacy program was positively associated with information-seeking motives, media knowledge, and news analysis skills. Experimental research has shown that young people ages 15 – 27 who had received media literacy education in schools were better able to evaluate
8449-575: The concepts and skills of positive interaction with the media and tools of communication technology and digital media, and to reduce their disadvantages. An academy in Beirut, Lebanon opened in 2013, called the Media and Digital Literacy Academy of Beirut (MDLAB) with the goal for students to be critical media consumers. Third and Fourth graders in Kuwait are learning to address visual stereotypes surrounding
8568-468: The concepts presented by David Buckingham, Henry Jenkins discusses the emergence of a participatory culture and stresses the significance of "new media literacies"—a set of cultural competencies and social skills that young people need in the new media landscape. Other theoretical approaches, like critical media literacy, emphasize the power relationships that are inherent in media systems in society. Critical media literacy aims to analyze and understand
8687-409: The content and have access to different points of view. In the Freedom of the Press Index the question to what extent the government controls the media and what impact control has on the diversity of views is put in a way that public broadcasting is subliminally criticized. IREX, however, words the question in a more positive way. The way of putting a question, the choice of words may have an influence on
8806-451: The context of COVID-19, and the study found that media literacy skills promote the adoption of recommended health behaviors. Health interventions have also explored issues such as media violence, stereotypes in the representation of gender and race, materialism and consumer culture, and the glamorization of unhealthy behavior, including smoking. Research shows that media literacy is associated with increased resilience in children and youth that
8925-482: The country's media or an NGO . Then it is revised by IREX editorial staff. Panelists are allowed to change their scores during the discussion, but it is not promoted by IREX . In a third step the "IREX editorial staff review the panelists’ scores, and then score the country independently of the MSI panel" . The following two tables show a synopsis of the Media Sustainability Index (MSI) and
9044-460: The crime but does not specify the type of crime nor who commits the crime. Both indices, however, differentiate against whom crimes are committed. The question about libeling asked by the Freedom of the Press Index concerns existing penalties for libeling officials or the state. The MSI relates more to the person who is defamed and what they can do to prevent libeling (e.g. public officials are held to higher standards, must prove falsity). Furthermore,
9163-436: The development of independent media worldwide while working to strengthen the support for such development. The center works to improve the effectiveness of existing media development efforts by conducting research and bringing together a broad range of experts to share their experiences. CIMA's mission is based on the conviction that free and independent media play an indispensable role in developing sustainable democracies around
9282-530: The educational system in the 80s and 90s. In the Netherlands media literacy was placed in the agenda by the Dutch government in 2006 as an important subject for the Dutch society. In April, 2008, an official center has been created (mediawijsheid expertisecentrum = medialiteracy expertisecenter) by the Dutch government. This center is a network organization consisting of different stakeholders with expertise on
9401-590: The environment, humanitarian crises, public health and women's issues. Formed in 1982, Internews Network is a 501(c)(3) organization headquartered in California. The organization currently works in Africa, Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and North America. The International Center for Journalists is a non-profit, professional organization located in Washington, D.C., that promotes quality journalism worldwide in
9520-464: The fact that the MSI as well as the Freedom of the Press Index sometimes ask two questions in one, which makes it difficult for the panelists to score. In this category the questions are relatively similar except that the MSI also queries the self-censorship of the editors. Another little difference is the fact that the MSI indicator is formulated negatively. Only the Freedom of the Press Index differentiates between private and public payments. Overall
9639-808: The family, in schools and in society. In 1976, Project Censored began using a service learning model to cultivate media literacy skills among students and faculty in higher education. Media literacy education began to appear in state English education curriculum frameworks by the early 1990s, as a result of increased awareness in the central role of media in the context of contemporary culture. Nearly all 50 states have language that supports media literacy in state curriculum frameworks. Additionally, an increasing number of school districts have begun to develop school-wide programs, elective courses, and other after-school opportunities for media analysis and production. Media education for teachers, as of 2015, represented 2% of all study programs in teacher training. Founded in 2008,
9758-448: The final score is interpreted as shown below: In each country IREX compiles a panel of local experts who undertake the scoring. The recruited experts represent a broad range of local media workers (editors, reports, owners, managers, media development workers) of urban and rural populations, of the main local ethnic groups in addition to representatives from different geographic regions as well as representatives from academia, NGO ’s and
9877-642: The first state to require high school students to take a news literacy class. The UK is widely regarded as a leader in the development of media literacy education. Key agencies that have been involved in this development include the British Film Institute, the English and Media Centre Film Education the Centre for the Study of Children, Youth and Media at the Institute of Education, London, and
9996-577: The government. Here all questions are put positively. But they contain different external media bodies. Whereas the MSI indicators include independent broadcasting ratings and market researches and its duties, the question of the Freedom of the Press Index includes independent media regulatory bodies like the communications council. The MSI questions in this category are more detailed. They divide production and distribution in their different branches like media equipment, newsprint, and printing facilities, kiosks, transmitters, cable, Internet, mobile. And again
10115-720: The habits and skills to access, analyze, evaluate, create, and act using all forms of communication. Education about media literacy can begin in early childhood by developing a pedagogy around more critical thinking and deeper analysis and questioning of concepts and texts. As students age and enter adulthood, the use of learning media literacy will be impactful in identifying ethical and technical standards in media as well as understanding how media ties to their cognitive, social, and emotional needs. In North America and Europe, media literacy includes both empowerment and protectionist perspectives. Media literate people can skillfully create and produce media messages, both to show understanding of
10234-522: The impact of the overall economic stability on the media, subjects that are not covered by the MSI. The MSI, however, operates on a wider field. That means it also focuses on professional standards, quality journalism, trainees for journalists, modern technical facilities for distributing and infrastructure, NGOs supporting free media, and the existence of private media as one can see in table 2. But one should keep in mind that both indices have an American bias underlying their measures and concepts. Therefore,
10353-401: The indices examine much the same phenomenon. It also explains why only about one-third of the questions could not be assigned in table 2 or why about two thirds of the questionnaires could be assigned. To find out what questions of the two indices really match and measure the same issues, the questionnaires need to be regarded in more detail. For that reason each single question of the two indices
10472-461: The indices pretend to measure different concepts (sustainable media vs. press freedom) they have a high average correlation ( *Pearson r .87 ) across the years 2001 to 2007. This is so because press freedom is clearly a part of what the MSI assesses, because a media system cannot be sustainable without having a high level of press freedom. So press freedom is definitely one condition for a sustainable media system and therefore it becomes evident that
10591-461: The individual in the critical use of mobile devices of all kinds. Educators have identified some important components that should be present in "quality" media literacy education programs. These include: (1) attention to teaching methods; (2) the training and preparation of educators; (3) the scope, structure, and coherence of the activities of instructional practice; (4) the presence and appropriateness of underlying theories of media literacy; and (5)
10710-530: The information. 'I' is for investigate the source. Looking at the source's Misplaced Pages page, for example, can sometimes a give a sense of their reliability. 'F' is for find better coverage, such as a reputable fact-checking website . 'T' is for trace the claim to its original context, whether an image or a quote to help make sure it was not taken out of context or comes from a reliable source. Other approaches focus on positioning media literacy in relation to "reading," "writing," and "relevance." Renee Hobbs developed
10829-436: The intersection of communication and media studies, education, and the humanities. Key concepts and core principles have been synthesized from the work of 20th century thinkers and scholars who have been called grandparents of media literacy , such as Paolo Freire, Marshall McLuhan, Stuart Hall, and others. With the growing problem of so-called "fake news," Mike Caulfield and Sam Wineburg adapt an approach to fact checking as
10948-486: The last report of Middle East & North Africa one can download is from 2009. This means it is not possible to compare the development of the media environment in the surveyed countries at the same time within one year. Another point is that Freedom House has measured Freedom of the Press since 1980, more than twenty years longer than IREX measures Media Sustainability. So it becomes evident that Freedom House has more experience in conducting these studies. Furthermore,
11067-407: The legal field. All panelists receive the objectives, the indicators with descriptions and an explanation of how the scoring is done correctly. First each panel member individually completes the questionnaire and scores the indicators. In a second step the panelists get together to talk about the objectives and indicators. This discussion is written up by a panel moderator, mostly a representative of
11186-509: The media content and diversity. Again the MSI question is put in a more positive way due to the use of positive adjectives, whereas the Freedom of the Press Index uses negatively connoted verbs like determine . Generally speaking, the Freedom of the Press Index operates with more direct questions and on a more restrictive level. The questions mostly refer to possible media restrictions, influences or control by someone or something. As already indicated by its name, this way of asking questions shows
11305-446: The media in a society (through the means mentioned above). "Media for development" refers to using existing media to convey messages about specific development issues. Such efforts include many ICT for Development (ICT4D) projects. Media for Development has been applied to education, healthcare, business, disaster relief, corruption, minority empowerment, and local community engagement, among other development goals. While development of
11424-535: The media sector is a common activity of many development organizations, there are a small number that engage in direct media development as their primary purpose. In the U.S., the three main media development implementers are Internews, the International Center for Journalists, and IREX. The Institute for War and Peace Reporting is an international media development charity, established in 1991. IWPR supports local reporters, citizen journalists and civil society activists in countries in conflict, crisis and transition around
11543-640: The originality of the programs in relation to available resources and community needs. In the United States, education policy is decentralized, and reference to media literacy is growing, with 22 passed bills in 14 states since 2012. Most state policies do not allocate financial resources to promote media literacy education, with only a few providing staff positions or coaching. While most policies make reference to resources for media literacy education, these generally refer to lists of curriculum materials or sample instructional material. Theoretical frameworks for media literacy are rooted in interdisciplinary work at
11662-580: The potential for misrepresentation and manipulation, and understand the role of mass media and participatory media in constructing views of reality. Media literacy education is sometimes conceptualized as a way to address the negative dimensions of media, including media manipulation , misinformation , gender and racial stereotypes and violence, the sexualization of children, and concerns about loss of privacy , cyberbullying and Internet predators . By building knowledge and competencies in using media and technology, media literacy education may provide
11781-455: The power structures inherent in popular media and aids students in gaining necessary critical and inquiry skills. Media can have a positive or negative impact on society, but media literacy education enables the students to discern inescapable risks of manipulation , propaganda and media bias. A growing body of research has begun focusing on the impact of media literacy on youth. In an important meta-analysis of more than 50 studies, published in
11900-711: The power structures that shape media representations and the ways in which audiences work to make meaning through dominant, oppositional and negotiated readings of media. There is also an approach to media literacy that is rooted in media psychology and media effects. This is sometimes called a protectionist approach to media literacy because it aims to educate students about potential risks and harms of media use. This approach views children and young people as particularly vulnerable to cultural, ideological or moral influences, and needing protection by means of education. The media arts education tradition focuses on creative production of different media forms by learners. This approach
12019-473: The question about corruption is put more directly in the Freedom of the Press Index than in the MSI. The MSI asks in one question if the payment of journalists is high enough and if the quality standard of the journalists is good enough to prevent corruption. Put that way, the question concerning corruption seems less direct and aggressive in the MSI index. Both indices ask if media ownership and concentration allows transparency so that consumers are able to judge
12138-417: The questions are devised positively with words like apolitical or not restricted. In contrast the Freedom of the Press Index does not divide production and distribution in different branches and here again the question is asked in a direct way in order to get an exact answer to what it wants to measure: the restrictions. These questions examine to what extent the state, politicians or others affect or influence
12257-424: The reasons for these). Media literacy education may explore how structural features—such as media ownership , or its funding model —affect the information presented. Media Literacy is interdisciplinary by nature. Media literacy represents a necessary, inevitable, and realistic response to the complex, ever-changing electronic environment and communication cornucopia surrounding us. Goals might include developing
12376-523: The same number of countries. The MSI rates 80 countries, whereas the Freedom of the Press Index rates more than twice as much countries. Another difference is that Freedom House captures all 196 countries in one annual report, which allows a comparison of all 196 countries at the same time, whereas IREX assesses the 80 countries in five studies ( Africa , Asia , Europe & Eurasia and Middle East & North Africa ), that are not published simultaneously and some of them not even annually. For example,
12495-576: The school curriculum. Every province has mandated media education in its curriculum. For example, the new curriculum of Quebec mandates media literacy from Grade 1 until final year of secondary school (Secondary V). The launching of media education in Canada came about for two reasons. One reason was the concern about the pervasiveness of American popular culture and the other was the education system-driven necessity of contexts for new educational paradigms. Canadian communication scholar Marshall McLuhan ignited
12614-555: The sector in 2006. U.S. embassies, through ambassadors’ funds and other sources, also provide considerable funding of local media projects. Other State Department bureaus, such as the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, also support international media work. The Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI) , which was created in 2002 to promote democracy in the Middle East, included approximately $ 3 million to support independent media in 2006. The Broadcasting Board of Governors
12733-428: The specific qualities of each medium, as well as to create media and participate as active citizens. Media literacy can be seen as contributing to an expanded conceptualization of literacy, treating mass media, popular culture and digital media as new types of 'texts' that require analysis and evaluation. By transforming the process of media consumption into an active and critical process, people gain greater awareness of
12852-437: The standard nation-wide in 2016. Finland also offers education for older adults as well. France has taught film from the inception of the medium, but it has only been recently that conferences and media courses for teachers have been organized with the inclusion of media production. Germany saw theoretical publications on media literacy in the 1970s and 1980s, with a growing interest for media education inside and outside
12971-508: The subject. In Russia, the 1970s-1990s brought about the first official programs of film and media education, increasing interest in doctoral studies focused on media education, as well as theoretical and empirical work on media education by O.Baranov (Tver), S.Penzin (Voronezh), G.Polichko, U.Rabinovich (Kurgan), Y.Usov (Moscow), Alexander Fedorov (Taganrog), A.Sharikov (Moscow) and others. Recent developments in media education in Russia are
13090-568: The two indices have different underlying concepts. The underlying concept of the Freedom of the Press Index is to evaluate the status of press freedom in an individual country. IREX ’s concept however is to assess how successful, independent, sustainable a media system is in an individual country and “how media systems change over time and across borders”. To evaluate their respective target they use different questionnaires and scoring systems. The scoring systems as one can see in table 1 do not have much in common. IREX uses scores from 0 to 4, in which 0
13209-454: The valuation. Again the question of the Freedom of the Press Index is asked more directly than the MSI one. It focuses on the control-aspect someone (state or other actors) can have through subsidies or advertising. By contrast the MSI indicator deals more with a fair and law-based distribution of subsidies and advertising that promotes editorial independence. But the MSI question does not refer to subsidies and advertising from other actors than
13328-644: The world. The John S. and James L. Knight Foundation is one of the largest funders of direct media assistance in the U.S. It is also responsible for helping fund and launch some programs in media development, including the Knight News Challenge. Knight also funds the Knight International Journalism Fellowships (along with the Gates Foundation). Open Society Foundations (formerly known as
13447-572: The world. It trains, mentors and provides platforms for professional and citizen reporters; builds up the institutional capacity of media and civic groups; and works with partners to remove barriers to free expression, robust public debate and citizen engagement. IWPR operates major programmes in Afghanistan, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Iraq, the Balkans, Congo DRC, Tunisia and Uganda. Internews
13566-550: The world. Their media arm is called Common Ground Productions. Reporters Without Borders —RSF monitors press freedom violations and releases an annual Press Freedom Index that ranks countries based on their score, with a higher number indicating more press freedom violations. Committee to Protect Journalists —CPJ is a nonprofit that “defends the rights of journalists to report the news without fear of reprisal.” It also keeps track of journalists injured or killed worldwide. The Dart Center for Journalists & Trauma —based at
13685-427: The ‘film grammar’ approach to media literacy education developed in the United States. Where educators began to show commercial films to children, having them learn a new terminology consisting of words such as: fade, dissolve, truck, pan, zoom, and cut. Films were connected to literature and history. To understand the constructed nature of film, students explored plot development, character, mood and tone. Then, during
13804-449: The ‘fourth estate’". In other words, it relates to a media system that provides citizens with "useful, timely and objective information" and as well to a media system that can operate free and independent without political, legal, social or economic restrictions. Furthermore, it refers to a media system in which Journalists have professional standards. And to a system where everybody has the right of free speech and access to information as
13923-508: Was founded in 1983 to promote democracy. It is funded primarily through an annual allocation from the U.S. Congress, within the budget of USAID, the U.S. agency for development assistance, which is part of the U.S. State Department. Although administered as a private organization, its funding mostly comes from a governmental appropriation by Congress but was created by The Democracy Program as a bipartisan, private, non-profit corporation. In addition to its grants program, NED also supports and houses
14042-465: Was not accurate. UNESCO has investigated which countries were incorporating media studies into different schools' curricula as a means to develop new initiatives in the field of media education. Relying on 72 experts on media education in 52 countries around the world, the study identified that (1) media literacy occurs inside the context of formal education; (2) it generally relies of partnerships with media industries and media regulators; and (3) there
14161-641: Was progressively reduced in scope, and from the Coalition government onwards, the promotion of media literacy was reduced to a matter of market research – what Wallis & Buckingham have described as an ‘undead' policy. In the Nordics, media education was introduced into the Finnish elementary curriculum in 1970 and into high schools in 1977. The concepts devised at the Lycée franco-finlandais d'Helsinki became
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