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56-398: The Mental Measurements Yearbook ( MMY ) is a reference book series containing information and critical appraisals of English-language educational and psychological tests . The book's purpose is to provide a forum for the review of new tests and to allow consumers to identify the most appropriate test for their needs. The first edition, edited by Oscar Krisen Buros, was published in 1938 by

112-614: A psychiatric history is frequently lengthy and in depth, as many details about the patient's life are relevant to formulating a management plan for a psychiatric illness. The information obtained in this way, together with the physical examination, enables the physician and other health professionals to form a diagnosis and treatment plan. If a diagnosis cannot be made, a provisional diagnosis may be formulated, and other possibilities (the differential diagnoses ) may be added, listed in order of likelihood by convention. The treatment plan may then include further investigations to clarify

168-545: A "carefully chosen sample [emphasis authors] of an individual's behavior." A psychological test is often designed to measure unobserved constructs, also known as latent variables . Psychological tests can include a series of tasks, problems to solve, and characteristics (e.g., behaviors, symptoms) the presence of which the respondent affirms/denies to varying degrees. Psychological tests can include questionnaires and interviews . Questionnaire- and interview-based scales typically differ from psychoeducational tests, which ask for

224-641: A computer as opposed to a human. In a sexual history-taking setting in Australia using a computer-assisted self-interview, 51% of people were very comfortable with it, 35% were comfortable with it, and 14% were either uncomfortable or very uncomfortable with it. The evidence for or against computer-assisted history taking systems is sparse. As of 2011, there were no randomized control trials comparing computer-assisted versus traditional oral-and-written family history taking to identifying patients with an elevated risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus . In 2021,

280-483: A description of the test, technical information, as well as information on the test's development and commentary on its strengths and weaknesses. An online database containing information and all reviews of the more than 14,000 tests covered since the first edition is offered via electronic subscription from EBSCO Information Services and Ovid Technologies . Psychological testing According to Anastasi and Urbina, psychological tests involve observations made on

336-569: A laboratory or at home. Sometimes the observation can involve children in a classroom or the schoolyard. The purpose may be clinical, such as to establish a pre-intervention baseline of a child's hyperactive or aggressive classroom behaviors or to observe the nature of parent-child interaction in order to understand a relational disorder. Time sampling methods are also part of direct observational research. The reliability of observers in direct observational research can be evaluated using Cohen's kappa . The Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II (PCIA)

392-630: A larger population. For example, for a test to be used in the United Kingdom, the test and its items should have approximately the same meaning for British males and females. That invariance does not necessarily apply to similar groups in another population, such as males and females in the United States or between populations, for example, the populations of the UK and the US. In test construction, it

448-564: A red card; how many players are left on the pitch?" This item requires knowledge of football (soccer) to be answered correctly, not just mathematical ability. Thus, group membership can influence the probability of correctly answering items, as encapsulated in the concept of differential item functioning . Often tests are constructed for a specific population and the nature of that population should be taken into account when administering tests outside that population. A test should be invariant between relevant subgroups (e.g., demographic groups) within

504-436: A reluctance of the patient to disclose intimate or uncomfortable information. Even if such an issue is on the patient's mind, they often do not start talking about such an issue without the physician initiating the subject by a specific question about sexual or reproductive health . Some familiarity with the doctor generally makes it easier for patients to talk about intimate issues such as sexual subjects, but for some patients,

560-436: A respondent's maximum performance. Questionnaire- and interview-based scales, by contrast, ask for the respondent's typical behavior. Symptom and attitude tests are more often called scales. A useful psychological test/scale must be both valid , i.e., show evidence that the test or scale measures what it is purported to measure, ) and reliable , i.e., show evidence of consistency across items and raters and over time, etc. It

616-427: A sample of words in their vocabulary. The samples of behavior must be reasonably representative of the behavior in question. The samples of behavior that make up a paper-and-pencil test, the most common type of psychological test, are written into the test items. Total performance on the items produces a test score. A score on a well-constructed test is believed to reflect a psychological construct such as achievement in

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672-476: A school subject like vocabulary or mathematics knowledge, cognitive ability , dimensions of personality such as introversion/extraversion, etc. Differences in test scores are thought to reflect individual differences in the construct the test is purported to measure. There are several broad categories of psychological tests: Achievement tests assess an individual's knowledge in a subject domain. Some academic achievement tests are designed to be administered by

728-421: A trained evaluator. By contrast, group achievement tests are often administered by a teacher. A score on an achievement test is believed to reflect the individual's knowledge of a subject area. There are generally two types of achievement tests, norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. Most achievement tests are norm-referenced . The individual's responses are scored according to standardized protocols and

784-462: A very high degree of familiarity may make the patient reluctant to reveal such intimate issues. When visiting a health provider about sexual issues, having both partners of a couple present is often necessary, and is typically a good thing, but may also prevent the disclosure of certain subjects, and, according to one report, increases the stress level. Computer-assisted history taking or computerized history taking systems have been available since

840-506: Is a process that involves integrating information from multiple sources, such as personality inventories, ability tests, symptom scales, interest inventories, and attitude scales, as well as information from personal interviews. Collateral information can also be collected from occupational records or medical histories ; information can also be obtained from parents, spouses, teachers, friends, or past therapists or physicians. One or more psychological tests are sources of information used within

896-453: Is an example of a direct observation procedure that is used with school-age children and parents. The parents and children are video recorded playing at a make-believe zoo. The Parent-Child Early Relational Assessment is used to study parents and young children and involves a feeding and a puzzle task. The MacArthur Story Stem Battery (MSSB) is used to elicit narratives from children. The Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System-II tracks

952-416: Is compared to a criterion. Test-takers are not compared to each other. A passing score, i.e., the criterion performance, is established by the teacher or an educational institution. Criterion-referenced tests are part and parcel of mastery based education . Psychological assessment can involve the observation of people as they engage in activities. This type of assessment is usually conducted with families in

1008-399: Is important that people who are equal on the measured construct (e.g., mathematics ability, depression) have an approximately equal probability of answering a test item accurately or acknowledging the presence of a symptom. An example of an item on a mathematics test that might be used in the United Kingdom but not the United States could be the following: "In a football match two players get

1064-562: Is important to establish invariance at least for the subgroups of the population of interest. Psychological assessment is similar to psychological testing but usually involves a more comprehensive assessment of the individual. According to the American Psychological Association, psychological assessment involves the collection and integration of data for the purpose of evaluating an individual’s "behavior, abilities, and other characteristics." Each assessment

1120-442: Is initiated at the onset of the illness to record details of future progress and results after treatment or discharge. This is known as a catamnesis in medical terms. Whatever system a specific condition may seem restricted to, all the other systems are usually reviewed in a comprehensive history. The review of systems often includes all the main systems in the body that may provide an opportunity to mention symptoms or concerns that

1176-648: Is that if the individual's activities and interests are similar to the modal pattern of activities and interests of people who are successful in a given occupation, then the chances are high that the individual would find satisfaction in that occupation. A widely used instrument is the Strong Interest Inventory , which is used in career assessment, career counseling, and educational guidance. Neuropsychological tests are designed to assess behaviors that are linked to brain structure and function. An examiner, following strict pre-set procedures, administers

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1232-414: Is that they allow easy and high-fidelity portability to a patient's electronic medical record . Also an advantage is that it saves money and paper. One disadvantage of many computerized medical history systems is that they cannot detect non-verbal communication, which may be useful for elucidating anxieties and treatment plans. Another disadvantage is that people may feel less comfortable communicating with

1288-482: The Binet–Simon test . The test focused heavily on verbal ability. Binet and Simon intended that the test be used to aid in identifying schoolchildren who were intellectually challenged, which in turn would pave the way for providing the children with professional help. The Binet-Simon test became the foundation for the later-developed Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales . The origins of personality testing date back to

1344-624: The Brooklyn Public Library and the New York Public Library ). There are online archives available that contain tests on various topics. Many psychological and psychoeducational tests are not available to the public. Test publishers put restrictions on who has access to the test. Psychology licensing boards also restrict access to the tests used in licensing psychologists. Test publishers hold that both copyright and professional ethics require them to protect

1400-498: The MMY , it needs to be commercially available and to have been developed or substantially revised since the last edition was published. The publisher of the test also must provide adequate documentation describing the test's development and supporting the technical properties of the test. Each test published in the MMY is reviewed by at least one qualified doctoral-level professional. Most tests are reviewed by two reviewers. Reviews contain

1456-699: The NEO-PI , the 16PF Questionnaire , the Occupational Personality Questionnaires , and the Five-Factor Personality Inventory. The International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) scales assess the same traits that the NEO and other personality scales assess. All IPIP scales and items are in the public domain and, therefore, are available free of charge. Projective testing originated in the first half of

1512-513: The imperial examination system in China. The tests, an early form of psychological testing, assessed candidates based on their proficiency in topics such as civil law and fiscal policies. Early tests of intelligence were made for entertainment rather than analysis. Modern mental testing began in France in the 19th century. It contributed to identifying individuals with intellectual disabilities for

1568-509: The 18th and 19th centuries, when phrenology was the basis for assessing personality characteristics. Phrenology, a pseudoscience, involved assessing personality by way of skull measurement. Early pseudoscientific techniques eventually gave way to empirical methods. One of the earliest modern personality tests was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet , a self-report inventory developed during World War I to be used by

1624-496: The 1900s. The idea animating projective tests is that the examinee is thought to project hidden aspects of his or her personality, including unconscious content, onto the ambiguous stimuli presented in the test. Examples of projective tests include Rorschach test , Thematic apperception test , and the Draw-A-Person test . Available evidence, however, suggests that projective tests have limited validity. Vocations within

1680-433: The 1960s. However, their use remains variable across healthcare delivery systems. One advantage of using computerized systems as an auxiliary or even primary source of medically related information is that patients may be less susceptible to social desirability bias . For example, patients may be more likely to report that they have engaged in unhealthy lifestyle behaviors. Another advantage of using computerized systems

1736-519: The MMPI are rescaled such that 50 is the middlemost score on the MMPI Depression scale and 60 is a score that places the individual one standard deviation above the mean for depressive symptoms; 40 represents a symptom level that is one standard deviation below the mean. A criterion-referenced test is an achievement test in a specific knowledge domain. An individual's performance on the test

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1792-661: The Rutgers University Press in New Brunswick, NJ, USA. Despite the book's title, and the original desire to publish it annually, new editions of the book are generally published every three years. In 2021, the 21st edition of the book was published by the Buros Center for Testing and is distributed by the University of Nebraska Press . In order for a test to be included in the latest edition of

1848-763: The Scholastic Aptitude Test, had its named changed because performance on the test is sensitive to training. An attitude scale assesses an individual's disposition regarding an event (e.g., a Supreme Court decision), person (e.g., a governor), concept (e.g., wearing face masks during a pandemic), organization (e.g., the Boy Scouts), or object (e.g., nuclear weapons) on a unidimensional favorable-unfavorable attitude continuum. Attitude scales are used in marketing to determine individuals' preferences for brands. Historically social psychologists have developed attitude scales to assess individuals' attitudes toward

1904-847: The Stanford-Binet or the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ). A widely used, but brief, aptitude test used in business is the Wonderlic Test . Aptitude tests have been used in assessing specific abilities or the general ability of potential new employees (the Wonderlic was once used by the NFL). Aptitude tests have also been used for career guidance. Evidence suggests that aptitude tests like IQ tests are sensitive to past learning and are not pure measures of untutored ability. The SAT, which used to be called

1960-645: The United Nations and race relations. Typically Likert scales are used in attitude research. Historically, the Thurstone scale was used prior to the development of the Likert scale. The Likert scale has largely supplanted the Thurstone scale. The Biographical Information Blanks or BIB is a paper-and-pencil form that includes items that ask about detailed personal and work history. It is used to aid in

2016-476: The United States Army for the purpose of screening potential soldiers for mental health problems and identifying victims of shell shock (the instrument was completed too late to be used for the purposes it was designed for). The Woodworth Inventory, however, became the forerunner of many later personality tests and scales. The development of a psychological test requires careful research. Some of

2072-477: The academic research literature. Tests to assess specific psychological constructs can be found by conducting a database search. Some databases are open access, for example, Google Scholar (although many tests found in the Google Scholar database are not free of charge). Other databases are proprietary, for example, PsycINFO , but are available through university libraries and many public libraries (e.g.,

2128-480: The diagnosis. The method by which doctors gather information about a patient's past and present medical condition in order to make informed clinical decisions is called the history and physical ( a.k.a. the H&;P). The history requires that a clinician be skilled in asking appropriate and relevant questions that can provide them with some insight as to what the patient may be experiencing. The standardized format for

2184-408: The elements of test development involve the following: The term sample of behavior refers to an individual's performance on tasks that have usually been prescribed beforehand. For example, a spelling test for middle school students cannot include all the words in the vocabularies of middle schoolers because there are thousands of words in their lexicon; a middle school spelling test must include only

2240-424: The extent to which children follow the commands of parents and vice versa and is well suited to the study of children with Oppositional Defiant Disorders and their parents. Psychological tests include interest inventories. These tests are used primarily for career counseling. Interest inventories include items that ask about the preferred activities and interests of people seeking career counseling. The rationale

2296-577: The following information about the patient: History-taking may be comprehensive history taking (a fixed and extensive set of questions are asked, as practiced only by health care students such as medical students, physician assistant students, or nurse practitioner students) or iterative hypothesis testing (questions are limited and adapted to rule in or out likely diagnoses based on information already obtained, as practiced by busy clinicians). Computerized history-taking could be an integral part of clinical decision support systems . A follow-up procedure

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2352-669: The hiring of employees by matching the backgrounds of individuals to requirements of the job. The purpose of clinical tests is to assess the presence of symptoms of psychopathology . Examples of clinical assessments include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-IV , Child Behavior Checklist , Symptom Checklist 90 and the Beck Depression Inventory . Many large-scale clinical tests are normed. For example, scores on

2408-412: The history starts with the chief concern (why is the patient in the clinic or hospital?) followed by the history of present illness (to characterize the nature of the symptom(s) or concern(s)), the past medical history, the past surgical history, the family history, the social history, their medications, their allergies, and a review of systems (where a comprehensive inquiry of symptoms potentially affecting

2464-428: The individual may have failed to mention in the history. Health care professionals may structure the review of systems as follows: Factors that inhibit taking a proper medical history include a physical inability of the patient to communicate with the physician, such as unconsciousness and communication disorders . In such cases, it may be necessary to record such information that may be gained from other people who know

2520-418: The integrity" of the tests by not publicly describing test techniques and by not "coaching individuals" so that they "might unfairly influence their test performance." Medical history The medical history , case history , or anamnesis (from Greek: ἀνά, aná , "open", and μνήσις, mnesis , "memory") of a patient is a set of information the physicians collect over medical interviews . It involves

2576-710: The patient, and eventually people close to them, so to collect reliable/objective information for managing the medical diagnosis and proposing efficient medical treatments . The medically relevant complaints reported by the patient or others familiar with the patient are referred to as symptoms , in contrast with clinical signs , which are ascertained by direct examination on the part of medical personnel. Most health encounters will result in some form of history being taken. Medical histories vary in their depth and focus. For example, an ambulance paramedic would typically limit their history to important details, such as name, history of presenting complaint, allergies, etc. In contrast,

2632-410: The patient. In medical terms, this is known as a heteroanamnesis, or collateral history, in contrast to a self-reporting anamnesis. Medical history taking may also be impaired by various factors impeding a proper doctor-patient relationship , such as transitions to physicians that are unfamiliar to the patient. History taking of issues related to sexual or reproductive medicine may be inhibited by

2688-408: The process of assessment . Many psychologists conduct assessments when providing services. Psychological assessment is a complex, detailed, in-depth process. Examples of assessments include providing a diagnosis, identifying a learning disability in schoolchildren, determining if a defendant is mentally competent , and selecting job applicants. The first large-scale tests may have been part of

2744-782: The public safety field (e.g., fire service, law enforcement, corrections, emergency medical services) are often required to take industrial or organizational psychological tests for initial employment and promotion. The National Firefighter Selection Inventory , the National Criminal Justice Officer Selection Inventory , and the Integrity Inventory are prominent examples of these tests. Thousands of psychological tests have been developed. Some were produced by commercial testing companies that charge for their use. Others have been developed by researchers, and can be found in

2800-552: The purpose of humanely providing them with an alternative form of education. Englishman Francis Galton coined the terms psychometrics and eugenics . He developed a method for measuring intelligence based on nonverbal sensory-motor tests. The test was initially popular but was abandoned. In 1905 French psychologists Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon published the Échelle métrique de l'Intelligence (Metric Scale of Intelligence), known in English-speaking countries as

2856-462: The rest of the body is briefly performed to ensure nothing serious has been missed). After all of the important history questions have been asked, a focused physical exam (meaning one that only involves what is relevant to the chief concern) is usually done. Based on the information obtained from the H&P, lab and imaging tests are ordered and medical or surgical treatment is administered as necessary. A practitioner typically asks questions to obtain

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2912-416: The results can be compared to the results of a norming group. Norm-referenced tests can be used to underline individual differences, that is to say, to compare each test-taker to every other test-taker. By contrast, the purpose of criterion referenced achievement tests is ascertain whether the test-taker mastered a predetermined body of knowledge rather than to compare the test-taker to everyone else who took

2968-547: The test to a single person in a quiet room largely free of distractions. An example of a widely-used neuropsychological test is the Stroop test . Items on norm-referenced tests have been tried out on a norming group and scores on the test can be classified as high, medium, or low and the gradations in between. These tests allow for the study of individual differences. Scores on norm-referenced achievement tests are associated with percentile ranks vis-á-vis other individuals who are

3024-548: The test-taker's age or grade. Personality tests assess constructs that are thought to be the constituents of personality. Examples of personality constructs include traits in the Big Five , such as introversion-extroversion and conscientiousness. Personality constructs are thought to be dimensional. Personality measures are used in research and in the selection of employees. They include self-report and observer-report scales. Examples of norm-referenced personality tests include

3080-476: The test. These types of tests are often a component of a mastery-based classroom . The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement is an example of an individually administered achievement test for students. Psychological tests have been designed to measure abilities, both specific (e.g., clerical skill like the Minnesota Clerical Test) and general abilities (e.g., traditional IQ tests such as

3136-561: The tests. Publishers sell tests only to people who have proved their educational and professional qualifications. Purchasers are legally bound not to give test answers or the tests themselves to members of the public unless permitted by the publisher. The International Test Commission (ITC), an international association of national psychological societies and test publishers, publishes the International Guidelines for Test Use , which prescribes measures to take to "protect

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