Meoto Iwa ( 夫婦岩 ) , or Married Couple Rocks , are a kind of rock formation seen as religiously significant in Shinto . They are a subtype of Iwakura rock .
130-479: According to Shinto , the rocks represent the union of the creator kami , Izanagi and Izanami . The rocks, therefore, celebrate the union in marriage of man and woman. The most famous pair is the pair at Futami Okitama Shrine in Futami-ura , two rocky stacks off the coast from Ise, Mie , Japan . They are joined by a shimenawa (a heavy rope of rice straw) and are considered sacred by worshippers of
260-481: A shaku . This regalia is generally more ornate than the sombre garments worn by Japanese Buddhist monks. The chief priest at a shrine is the gūji . Larger shrines may also have an assistant head priest, the gon-gūji . As with teachers, instructors, and Buddhist clergy, Shinto priests are often referred to as sensei by lay practitioners. Historically, there were female priests although they were largely pushed out of their positions in 1868. During
390-410: A temizuya . Another form of purification at the start of a Shinto rite entails waving a white paper streamer or wand known as the haraigushi . When not in use, the haraigushi is usually kept in a stand. The priest waves the haraigushi horizontally over a person or object being purified in a movement known as sa-yu-sa ("left-right-left"). Sometimes, instead of a haraigushi ,
520-399: A kami can be enshrined. In some periods, fees were charged for the right to enshrine a particular kami in a new place. Shrines are not necessarily always designed as permanent structures. Many kami have messengers, known as kami no tsukai or tsuka washime , that generally take animal forms. Inari's messenger, for example, is a fox ( kitsune ), while Hachiman's is
650-412: A kami who already has one is called bunrei ("dividing the spirit"). As part of this, the kami is invited to enter a new place, with the instalment ceremony known as a kanjo . The new, subsidiary shrine is known as a bunsha . Individual kami are not believed to have their power diminished by their residence in multiple locations, and there is no limit on the number of places
780-490: A sacred or ritually pure space, such as that of a Shinto shrine . Shimenawa are believed to act as a ward against evil spirits, and are often set up at a ground-breaking ceremony before construction begins on a new building. They are often found at Shinto shrines, torii gates, and sacred landmarks. Shimenawa are also placed on yorishiro , objects considered to attract spirits or be inhabited by them. These notably include being placed on certain trees,
910-517: A world religion , while the historian H. Byron Earhart called it a "major religion". Shinto is also often described as an indigenous religion , although this generates debates over the different definitions of "indigenous" in the Japanese context. The notion of Shinto as Japan's "indigenous religion" stemmed from the growth of modern nationalism between the Edo and Meiji periods; this view promoted
1040-452: A U.S. Navy vessel docked at the port city to their festival celebrations given the sensitivities surrounding the 1945 U.S. use of the atomic bomb on the city . In other cases, priests have opposed construction projects on shrine-owned land; at Kaminoseki in the early 2000s, a priest was pressured to resign after opposing the sale of shrine lands to build a nuclear power plant . In the 21st century, Shinto has increasingly been portrayed as
1170-403: A bolt of lightning appears on the planted rice field out of gratitude to Raijin. A shinboku is a sacred tree located in a Shinto shrine sometimes indicated by shimenawa . It also be seen as a god's shintai . These trees surrounding the shrine are seen as part of the shrine itself. Torii are an archway composed of two round posts and two upper cross-beams. The ends of
1300-433: A boulder. Izanagi bathed in the sea to rid himself from the pollution brought about by witnessing Izanami's putrefaction. Through this act, further kami emerged from his body: Amaterasu (the sun kami ) was born from his left eye, Tsukuyomi (the moon kami ) from his right eye, and Susanoo (the storm kami ) from his nose. Susanoo behaved in a destructive manner, to escape him Amaterasu hid herself within
1430-586: A brother and sister, Izanagi and Izanami . The kami instructed Izanagi and Izanami to create land on earth. To this end, the siblings stirred the briny sea with a jewelled spear, from which Onogoro Island was formed. Izanagi and Izanami then descended to Earth, where the latter gave birth to further kami . One of these was a fire kami , whose birth killed Izanami. Izanagi descended to yomi to retrieve his sister, but there he saw her body putrefying. Embarrassed to be seen in this state, she chased him out of yomi , and he closed its entrance with
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#17327981332671560-482: A cave, plunging the earth into darkness. The other kami eventually succeeded in coaxing her out. Susanoo was then banished to earth, where he married and had children. According to the Kojiki , Amaterasu then sent her grandson, Ninigi , to rule Japan, giving him curved beads, a mirror, and a sword: the symbols of Japanese imperial authority. Amaterasu remains probably Japan's most venerated kami . In Shinto,
1690-475: A deity resided there (kanzumaru). It is also an embodiment of the concept of the two sides of the same coin that pervades ancient Shinto and current shintos , such as the idea that this world consists of Utsushi-yo and Tokoyo, and the Seven Lucky Gods of Ebisu and Daikoku, two of the Seven Lucky Gods , are believed to be one, and the counting of chopsticks and footwear as one set or one pair
1820-511: A distinct religious tradition nor to anything uniquely Japanese; the 11th century Konjaku monogatarishui for instance refers to a woman in China practicing Shinto , and also to people in India worshipping kami , indicating these terms were being used to describe religions outside Japan itself. In medieval Japan, kami -worship was generally seen as being part of Japanese Buddhism , with
1950-424: A dove. Shinto cosmology also includes spirits who cause malevolent acts, bakemono , a category including oni , tengu , kappa , mononoke , and yamanba . Japanese folklore also incorporates belief in the goryō or onryō , unquiet or vengeful spirits, particularly of those who died violently and without appropriate funerary rites. These are believed to inflict suffering on
2080-462: A festival or ritual. Various words, termed imi-kotoba , are also regarded as taboo, and people avoid speaking them when at a shrine; these include shi (death), byō (illness), and shishi (meat). A purification ceremony known as misogi involves the use of fresh water, salt water, or salt to remove kegare . Full immersion in the sea is often regarded as the most ancient and efficacious form of purification. This act links with
2210-414: A few minutes. Usually, a worshipper will approach the honden, placing a monetary offering in a box and then ringing a bell to call the kami 's attention. Then, they bow, clap, and stand while silently offering a prayer. The clapping is known as kashiwade or hakushu ; the prayers or supplications as kigan . This individual worship is known as hairei . More broadly, ritual prayers to
2340-438: A human spirit or soul, the mitama or tamashii , which contains four aspects. While indigenous ideas about an afterlife were probably well-developed prior to Buddhism's arrival, contemporary Japanese people often adopt Buddhist afterlife beliefs. Mythological stories like the Kojiki describe yomi or yomi-no-kuni as a realm of the dead, although this plays no role in modern Shinto. Modern Shinto ideas about
2470-603: A magical rope that drew a line of demarcation between her and the cave, to avoid her returning to the cave. The rope became known as a shimenawa . Because of the shimenawa , the universe returned to its previous state. Shimenawa and nature have been a hallmark of Shinto shrines since in early times. The shrine in Shinto is a place for kami . Local people held rituals in shrines. Early shrines were not composed of classical buildings, with rocks, plants and shimenawa instead marking their boundaries, as part of
2600-454: A marriage partner. They generally do not live at the shrines. Sometimes they fill other roles, such as being secretaries in the shrine offices or clerks at the information desks, or as waitresses at the naorai feasts. They also assist kannushi in ceremonial rites. Visits to the shrine are termed sankei , or jinja mairi . Some individuals visit the shrines daily, often on their morning route to work; they typically take only
2730-650: A nature-centred spirituality with environmentalist credentials; several shrines have collaborated with local environmentalist campaigns, while an international interfaith conference on environmental sustainability was held at the Ise shrine in 2014. Critical commentators have characterised the presentation of Shinto as an environmentalist movement as a rhetorical ploy rather than a concerted effort by Shinto institutions to become environmentally sustainable. Shinto focuses on ritual behavior rather than doctrine . The philosophers James W. Boyd and Ron G. Williams stated that Shinto
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#17327981332672860-529: A pair, one with its mouth open, the other with its mouth closed. Shrines are often set within gardens or wooded groves called chinju no mori ("forest of the tutelary" kami ), which vary in size from just a few trees to sizeable areas of woodland. Large lanterns, known as tōrō , are often found within these precincts. Shrines often have an office, known as a shamusho , a saikan where priests undergo forms of abstinence and purification prior to conducting rituals, and other buildings such as
2990-487: A particular community is referred to it as their ujigami , while that of a particular house is the yashikigami . Kami are not deemed metaphysically different from humanity, with it being possible for humans to become kami . Dead humans are sometimes venerated as kami , being regarded as protector or ancestral figures. One of the most prominent examples is that of the Emperor Ōjin , who on his death
3120-461: A period of abstinence from sexual relations. Some of those involved in festivals also abstain from a range of other things, such as consuming tea, coffee, or alcohol, immediately prior to the events. The priests are assisted by jinja miko , sometimes referred to as "shrine-maidens" in English. These miko are typically unmarried, although not necessarily virgins. In many cases they are
3250-407: A priest, usually colored black, red, or light blue, is the hō , or the ikan . A white silk version of the ikan , used for formal occasions, is known as the saifuku . Another priestly robe is the kariginu , which is modelled on Heian-style hunting garments. Also part of standard priestly attire is a hiōgi fan, while during rituals, priests carry a flat piece of wood known as
3380-455: A priests' quarters and a storehouse. Various kiosks often sell amulets to visitors. Since the late 1940s, shrines have had to be financially self-sufficient, relying on the donations of worshippers and visitors. These funds are used to pay the wages of the priests, to finance the upkeep of the buildings, to cover the shrine's membership fees of various regional and national Shinto groups, and to contribute to disaster relief funds. In Shinto, it
3510-532: A process known as jinja gappei , while the act of transferring the kami from one building to another is called sengu . Shrines may have legends about their foundation, which are known as en-gi . These sometimes also record miracles associated with the shrine. From the Heian period on, the en-gi were often retold on picture scrolls known as emakimono . Shrines may be cared for by priests, by local communities, or by families on whose property
3640-445: A sacrifice for the gods or a symbol of the existence of the gods. In ancient times, people offered cloth to the Shinto shrines, similarly to today's processions. Heihaku are also sometimes used in the way shide are. The stripes can also hang on the shimenawa . Himorogi are the sacred spaces delimited by shimenawa , which sometimes feature a cherry blossom tree surrounded by green plants appears, symbolising
3770-800: A series of shrines and other sacred sites that are part of an established circuit, is known as a junpai . An individual leading these pilgrims, is sometimes termed a sendatsu . For many centuries, people have also visited the shrines for primarily cultural and recreational reasons, as opposed to spiritual ones. Many of the shrines are recognised as sites of historical importance and some are classified as UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Shrines such as Shimogamo Jinja and Fushimi Inari Taisha in Kyoto, Meiji Jingū in Tokyo, and Atsuta Jingū in Nagoya are among Japan's most popular tourist sites. Many shrines have
3900-500: A shape similar to a twisted narrow rope with various decorations on it. Zig-zag paper and colorful streamers called shide commonly decorate shimenawa . The size of shimenawa differs from simple to complicated. In shrines, they are usually tapered and thick with a diameter of 6 ft (1.8 m). Shimenawa are decorated differently depending on the intended blessing and meaning. The biggest shimenawa in Japan
4030-484: A single entity. This approach can be helpful but begs the question of what is meant by 'Shintō' in each case, particularly since each category incorporates or has incorporated Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist, folk religious and other elements. — Scholar of religion Brian Bocking Scholars of religion have debated how to classify Shinto. Inoue considered it part of "the family of East-Asian religions". The philosopher Stuart D. B. Picken suggested that Shinto be classed as
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4160-493: A small pile of salt outside before business commences each day. Fire, also, is perceived as a source of purification. The yaku-barai is a form of harae designed to prevent misfortune, while the oharae , or "ceremony of great purification", is often used for end-of-year purification rites, and is conducted twice a year at many shrines. Before the Meiji period, rites of purification were generally performed by onmyōji ,
4290-424: A source of frequent criticism, especially from those arguing that the religion can readily become a pawn for those wishing to use it to legitimise their authority and power. In Shinto, kannagara ("way of the kami ") is the law of the natural order , with wa ("benign harmony") being inherent in all things. Disrupting wa is deemed bad, contributing to it is thought good; as such, subordination of
4420-462: A specific building. Jinja is usually translated as "shrine" in English, although in earlier literature was sometimes translated as "temple", a term now more commonly reserved for Japan's Buddhist structures. There are around 100,000 public shrines in Japan; about 80,000 are affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines, with another 20,000 being unaffiliated. They are found all over
4550-470: A specific place, often a prominent landscape feature such as a waterfall, mountain, large rock, or distinctive tree. Physical objects or places in which the kami are believed to have a presence are termed shintai ; objects inhabited by the kami that are placed in the shrine are known as go-shintai . Objects commonly chosen for this purpose include mirrors, swords, stones, beads, and inscribed tablets. These go-shintai are concealed from
4680-413: A spirit, known as shintai when inhabited by a spirit), and are therefore visually distinguished as "sacred". Shimenawa originate in Shinto mythology as a hallowed sacrifice related to the Japanese god called kami , and are used in various Shinto ceremonies. Aboriginal people in Japan have respected and revered shimenawa since ancient times. The prototype of shimenawa in Shinto
4810-490: A type of diviner whose practices derived from the Chinese yin and yang philosophy. Shinto incorporates morality tales and myths but no codified ethical doctrine, and thus no "unified, systematized code of behaviour". An ethical system nevertheless arises from its practice, with emphasis placed on sincerity ( makoto ), honesty ( tadashii ), hard work ( tsui-shin ), and thanksgiving ( kansha ) directed towards
4940-400: A unique rubber-stamp seal which visitors can get printed into their stamp book, demonstrating the different shrines they have visited. Shinto rituals begin with a process of purification, or harae . Using fresh water or salt water, this is known as misogi . At shrines, this entails sprinkling this water onto the face and hands, a procedure known as temizu , using a font known as
5070-668: A year in December (before the New Year), May, and September. During the shimenawa-renawa-renawa-renawa-renawa-renawa-renawa-renawa ceremony, a woodcarving song is sung, and some people take pieces of the old rope home as a good-luck charm for marital bliss. American composer Roger Reynolds took reference to the form of Meoto Iwa in Futami, where he visited in 1966, while composing the first movement " Futami ga Ura " of his second symphony, " Symphony [Myths] " (1990). Divided into 3 sections,
5200-490: Is "first and foremost a ritual tradition", while Picken observed that "Shinto is interested not in credenda but in agenda , not in things that should be believed but in things that should be done." The scholar of religion Clark B. Offner stated that Shinto's focus was on "maintaining communal, ceremonial traditions for the purpose of human (communal) well-being". It is often difficult to distinguish Shinto practices from Japanese customs more broadly, with Picken observing that
5330-580: Is a religion originating in Japan . Classified as an East Asian religion by scholars of religion , its practitioners often regard it as Japan's indigenous religion and as a nature religion . Scholars sometimes call its practitioners Shintoists , although adherents rarely use that term themselves. There is no central authority in control of Shinto, with much diversity of belief and practice evident among practitioners. A polytheistic and animistic religion, Shinto revolves around supernatural entities called
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5460-660: Is a 2-hour journey that they climb from Akakura Mountain Shrine to Fudō Waterfall. The overall purpose is to carry the shimenawa and fix it between two towering trees. When the ceremony is finished, people get together and celebrate. In Japan's New Year celebration, ornaments such as shimenawa decorate every household. During this time period, local residents usually hang it on the door in order to drive away evils. Shimenawa are used in Hadaka Matsuri , Japan's Naked Festival. This festival has been held during
5590-409: Is a rope of Amaterasu , Japan's "Heaven-shining great kami ". According to "A popular dictionary of Shinto", Amaterasu hid in a cave called Amano-Iwato after an argument with her brother Susanoo . Therefore, the entire universe lost its luster. Other deities tried numerous ways to attract Amaterasu out of the cave. At the moment that Amaterasu left the cave, the kami Futo-tama used
5720-520: Is also said to be unique to Japan. In the Kojiki , there are many Myths about married couples, from Izanami and Izanagi to Sarutahiko Ōkami and Ame-no-Uzume . It is thought that these became Sai no Kami and Dosojin , and were connected with the belief in a rock formation. This is why Jizos and Dōsojin are often depicted as a couple or as a pair of large and small rocks or stone statues. This kind of belief in married couples has spread throughout
5850-423: Is called a hongū . In some shrines, there is a separate building in which to conduct additional ceremonies, such as weddings, known as a gishikiden , or a specific building in which the kagura dance is performed, known as the kagura-den . Collectively, the central buildings of a shrine are known as the shaden , while its precincts are known as the keidaichi or shin'en . This precinct
5980-554: Is dedicated to Sarutahiko Ōkami and imperial food goddess Ukanomitama . There are numerous statues of frogs around the shrine. The shrine and the two rocks are near the Grand Shrine of Ise , the most important location of purification in Shinto. The couple rocks at Futami Okitama Shrine in Mie Prefecture Ise City have been known for a long time, as depicted by Ukiyo-e artist [ ja ] in
6110-474: Is defined as referring to " kami or matters pertaining to kami ." The term Shinto became common in the 15th century. During the late Edo period, the kokugaku scholars began using the term Shinto to describe what they believed was an ancient, enduring and indigenous Japanese tradition that predated Buddhism; they argued that Shinto should be used to distinguish kami worship from traditions like Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. This use of
6240-484: Is done to cultivate harmony between humans and kami and to solicit the latter's blessing. Other common rituals include the kagura dances, rites of passage , and kami festivals. Public shrines facilitate forms of divination and supply religious objects, such as amulets , to the religion's adherents. Shinto places a major conceptual focus on ensuring purity, largely by cleaning practices such as ritual washing and bathing, especially before worship. Little emphasis
6370-506: Is located at Izumo Taisha Grand Shrine , which occupies over 27,000 m (290,000 sq ft) of land in Japan. The shimenawa is 13.5 m (44 ft) in length and 8 m (26 ft) in width and was made by more than 800 indigenous people in Japan. Shimenawa are used in Japan's Mountain Opening Ceremony, which is held every May 1. There are over 100 Shinto believers who participate in this ceremony. It
6500-469: Is made here between singular and plural, and hence the term kami refers both to individual kami and the collective group of kami . Although lacking a direct English translation, the term kami has sometimes been rendered as "god" or "spirit". The historian of religion Joseph Kitagawa deemed these English translations "quite unsatisfactory and misleading", and various scholars urge against translating kami into English. In Japanese, it
6630-477: Is not strictly based on the style of shrine, and there could be more than one style of torii in one shrine. Similar to shimenawa , torii also have meaning in Shinto, representing a gate to the world, people, or any relationship. The purpose of torii and shimenawa is the same, in bringing lost people to the kami -filled world. During the 2017 Yokohama Triennale , Indonesian artist Joko Avianto's artwork, "The border between good and evil
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#17327981332676760-424: Is often said that there are eight million kami , a term which connotes an infinite number, and Shinto practitioners believe that they are present everywhere. They are not regarded as omnipotent , omniscient , or necessarily immortal . The term kami is "conceptually fluid", being "vague and imprecise". In Japanese it is often applied to the power of phenomena that inspire a sense of wonder and awe in
6890-509: Is often viewed as a form of purification. More broadly, torii are internationally recognised symbols of Japan. Their architectural form is distinctly Japanese, although the decision to paint most of them in vermillion reflects a Chinese influence dating from the Nara period . Also set at the entrances to many shrines are komainu , statues of lion or dog like animals perceived to scare off malevolent spirits; typically these will come as
7020-467: Is placed on specific moral codes or particular afterlife beliefs, although the dead are deemed capable of becoming kami . The religion has no single creator or specific doctrine, and instead exists in a diverse range of local and regional forms. Although historians debate at what point it is suitable to refer to Shinto as a distinct religion, kami veneration has been traced back to Japan's Yayoi period (300 BC to 300 AD). Buddhism entered Japan at
7150-624: Is present in many facets of Japanese culture, such as the focus it places on bathing. Purification is for instance regarded as important in preparation for the planting season, while performers of noh theatre undergo a purification rite before they carry out their performances. Among the things regarded as particular pollutants in Shinto are death, disease, witchcraft, the flaying alive of an animal, incest, bestiality, excrement, and blood associated with either menstruation or childbirth. To avoid kegare , priests and other practitioners may engage in abstinence and avoid various activities prior to
7280-565: Is seen as important that the places in which kami are venerated be kept clean and not neglected. Through to the Edo period, it was common for kami shrines to be demolished and rebuilt at a nearby location in order to remove any pollutants and ensure purity. This has continued into recent times at certain sites, such as the Ise Grand Shrine, which is moved to an adjacent site every two decades. Separate shrines can also be merged in
7410-414: Is surrounded by the tamagaki fence, with entry via a shinmon gate, which can be closed at night. Shrine entrances are marked by a two-post gateway with either one or two crossbeams atop it, known as torii . The exact details of these torii varies and there are at least twenty different styles. These are regarded as demarcating the area where the kami resides; passing under them
7540-480: Is terribly frizzy", was displayed in the center of the hall in the Yokohama Museum of Art . The name, taken from the quote "The border between good and evil is terribly fuzzy" by Czech novelist Milan Kundera , changed 'fuzzy' to 'frizzy' because of the twisted, shimenawa -inspired shape of his artwork. Avianto took the meaning of shimenawa to separate 'the sacred and the profane', or 'the ideal and
7670-428: Is the avoidance of kegare ("pollution" or "impurity"), while ensuring harae ("purity"). In Japanese thought, humans are seen as fundamentally pure. Kegare is therefore seen as being a temporary condition that can be corrected through achieving harae . Rites of purification are conducted so as to restore an individual to "spiritual" health and render them useful to society. This notion of purity
7800-461: Is the basis of ancestral spirit belief ) are combined to form the object of enshrinement at the couple's rock. An example of an oshimenawa is Tateishi in Futami Town , Ise City, Mie Prefecture. The large shimenawa rope connecting Tateishi and Nejiriwa, known as "husband and wife rocks," is believed to be the torii (gateway) to the offshore Kohtama Shrine stone, and is reattached three times
7930-752: Is therefore highly pluralistic . Shinto is often cited alongside Buddhism as one of Japan's two main religions, and the two often differ in focus, with Buddhism emphasising the idea of the cessation of suffering, while Shinto focuses on adapting to life's pragmatic requirements. Shinto has integrated elements from religions imported from mainland Asia, such as Buddhism, Confucianism , Taoism , and Chinese divination practices, and shares features like its polytheism with other East Asian religions . Some scholars suggest we talk about types of Shintō such as popular Shintō, folk Shintō, domestic Shintō, sectarian Shintō, imperial house Shintō, shrine Shintō, state Shintō, new Shintō religions, etc. rather than regard Shintō as
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#17327981332678060-405: The kami (神). The kami are believed to inhabit all things, including forces of nature and prominent landscape locations. The kami are worshipped at kamidana household shrines, family shrines, and jinja public shrines . The latter are staffed by priests, known as kannushi , who oversee offerings of food and drink to the specific kami enshrined at that location. This
8190-731: The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki portray multiple realms in Shinto cosmology. These present a universe divided into three parts: the Plane of High Heaven ( Takama-no-hara ), where the kami live; the Phenomenal or Manifested World ( Utsushi-yo ), where humans dwell; and the Nether World ( Yomotsu-kuni ), where unclean spirits reside. The mythological texts nevertheless do not draw firm demarcations between these realms. Modern Shinto places greater emphasis on this life than on any afterlife, although it does espouse belief in
8320-440: The honden can sometimes be found a subsidiary shrine, the bekkū , to another kami ; the kami inhabiting this shrine is not necessarily perceived as being inferior to that in the honden . At some places, halls of worship have been erected, termed haiden . On a lower level can be found the hall of offerings, known as a heiden . Together, the building housing the honden , haiden , and heiden
8450-486: The kami are called norito , while the coins offered are saisen . At the shrine, individuals offering prayers are not necessarily praying to a specific kami . A worshipper may not know the name of a kami residing at the shrine nor how many kami are believed to dwell there. Unlike in certain other religions, Shinto shrines do not have weekly services that practitioners are expected to attend. Some Shinto practitioners do not offer their prayers to
8580-417: The kami directly, but rather request that a priest offer them on their behalf; these prayers are known as kitō . Many individuals approach the kami asking for pragmatic requests. Requests for rain, known as amagoi ("rain-soliciting") have been found across Japan, with Inari a popular choice for such requests. Other prayers reflect more contemporary concerns. For instance, people may ask that
8710-477: The kami religion of Japan, which lived symbiotically with organized Buddhism, and only later was institutionalized as Shinto." While several institutions and practices now associated with Shinto existed in Japan by the 8th century, various scholars have argued that Shinto as a distinct religion was essentially "invented" during the 19th century, in Japan's Meiji era . The scholar of religion Brian Bocking stressed that, especially when dealing with periods before
8840-481: The kami themselves often interpreted as Buddhas . At this point, the term Shinto increasingly referred to "the authority, power, or activity of a kami , being a kami , or, in short, the state or attributes of a kami ." It appears in this form in texts such as Nakatomi no harai kunge and Shintōshū tales. In the Japanese Portuguese Dictionary of 1603, Shinto
8970-421: The kami to gain their blessings and to dissuade them from destructive actions. Shinto seeks to cultivate and ensure a harmonious relationship between humans and the kami and thus with the natural world. More localised kami may be subject to feelings of intimacy and familiarity from members of the local community that are not directed towards more widespread kami like Amaterasu. The kami of
9100-474: The kami to offset any ill-fortune associated with being this age. Certain directions can also be seen as being inauspicious for certain people at certain times and thus people can approach the kami asking them to offset this problem if they have to travel in one of these unlucky directions. Pilgrimage has long been important in Japanese religion, with pilgrimages to Shinto shrines called junrei . A round of pilgrimages, whereby individuals visit
9230-529: The kami while priests generally offer them food, drink, and sprigs of the sacred sakaki tree. Animal sacrifices are not considered appropriate offerings, as the shedding of blood is seen as a polluting act that necessitates purification. The offerings presented are sometimes simple and sometimes more elaborate; at the Grand Shrine of Ise, for instance, 100 styles of food are laid out as offerings. The choice of offerings will often be tailored to
9360-524: The kami "), kannagara no michi ( 神ながらの道 , also written 随神の道 or 惟神の道 , "the way of the kami from time immemorial"), Kodō ( 古道 , "the ancient way"), Daidō ( 大道 , "the great way"), and Teidō ( 帝道 , "the imperial way"). The term Shinto derives from the combination of two Chinese characters: shin ( 神 ), which means "spirit" or "god", and tō ( 道 ), which means "way", "road" or "path". "Shintō" ( 神道 , "the Way of
9490-441: The kami . Shojiki is regarded as a virtue, encompassing honesty, uprightness, veracity, and frankness. Shinto sometimes includes reference to four virtues known as the akaki kiyoki kokoro or sei-mei-shin , meaning "purity and cheerfulness of heart", which are linked to the state of harae . Attitudes to sex and fertility tend to be forthright in Shinto. Shinto's flexibility regarding morality and ethics has been
9620-469: The kami . This is followed by an appearance by the miko , who commence in a slow circular motion before the main altar. Offerings are then presented to the kami by being placed on a table. This act is known as hōbei ; the offerings themselves as saimotsu or sonae-mono . Historically, the offerings given the kami included food, cloth, swords, and horses. In the contemporary period, lay worshippers usually give gifts of money to
9750-477: The shimenawa ) wears shimenawa around his waist when making his entrance to the ring in a ceremony called dohyo-iri . Hemp fiber is the basic material used in the production of shimenawa , and has been used since ancient times. In Shinto, hemp is regarded as a sacred food with a meaning of purity and fertility. After the Cannabis Control Act of 1948, when the growing of hemp
9880-552: The Edo period , and are generally used as a symbol and prayer for marital bliss and domestic safety, maritime security and great catch, and is said to be a symbol of Iwakura Shinko in Kojindo , which means a symbolic place or object in Nature , especially megaliths, rocks , and mountains , were considered Shintais and believed to be places where Kamis resided. For this reason, shimenawas and toriis were decorated as proof that
10010-524: The Japanese Empire in the early 20th century, Shinto was exported to other areas of East Asia. Following Japan's defeat in World War II , Shinto was formally separated from the state . Shinto is primarily found in Japan, where there are around 100,000 public shrines, although practitioners are also found abroad. Numerically, it is Japan's largest religion, the second being Buddhism. Most of
10140-585: The Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo, devoted to Japan's war dead. In 1979 it enshrined 14 men who had been declared Class-A defendants at the 1946 Tokyo War Crimes Trials , generating domestic and international condemnation, particularly from China and Korea. Shinto priests face ethical conundrums. In the 1980s, for instance, priests at the Suwa Shrine in Nagasaki debated whether to invite the crew of
10270-421: The "worldview of Shinto" provided the "principal source of self-understanding within the Japanese way of life". Nelson stated that "Shinto-based orientations and values [...] lie at the core of Japanese culture, society, and character". Public spaces in which the kami are worshipped are often known under the generic term jinja (" kami -place"); this term applies to the location rather than to
10400-589: The Gods") was a term already used in the Book of Changes referring to the divine order of nature. Around the time of the spread of Buddhism in the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), it was used to distinguish indigenous Chinese religions from the imported religion. Ge Hong used it in his Baopuzi as a synonym for Taoism . The Chinese term 神道 ( MC zyin daw ) was originally adopted into Japanese as Jindō ; this
10530-492: The Japanese started to provide free classes for them to study the skills for producing shimenawa . The shimenawa industry in Taiwan developed rapidly, with many large shimenawa factories appeared in Taiwan in the late 1990s. However, due to industrial disruption, most factories were forced to shut down a few years later, and only one factory was left to continue production. Other remaining factories chose to hand over
10660-435: The Meiji era, the term Shinto should "be approached with caution". Inoue Nobutaka stated that "Shinto cannot be considered as a single religious system that existed from the ancient to the modern period", while the historian Kuroda Toshio noted that "before modern times Shinto did not exist as an independent religion". Many scholars describe Shinto as a religion , a term first translated into Japanese as shūkyō around
10790-472: The New Year period for more than 500 years. The festival's participants, who are all young men, wear nothing but a fundoshi in cold weather in order to show their strength and manliness. It also includes various activities such as 'jostling, climbing fighting with a wooden ball' as well as being sprayed with water. Sometimes these festivals are held in Shinto shrines. The participants put shimenawa on
10920-559: The Second World War, women were again allowed to become priests to fill the void caused by large numbers of men being enlisted in the military. By the late 1990s, around 90% of priests were male, 10% female, contributing to accusations that Shinto discriminates against women. Priests are free to marry and have children. At smaller shrines, priests often have other full-time jobs, and serve only as priests during special occasions. Before certain major festivals, priests may undergo
11050-623: The Shinto respect for nature. In Shinto , all the sacred objects and nature were personified. Even a sword from a deceased Japanese warrior could be seen as the god because of its internal spirit and sense of awe. In modern-day society, there are still some sites that use shimenawa to demarcate boundaries, such as the Nachi Falls in Kumano . A rock in Ise Bay is still connected by shimenawa as well. Shimenawa usually appear in
11180-475: The State Shinto system of the Meiji era, the emperor of Japan was declared to be a kami , while several Shinto sects have also viewed their leaders as living kami . Although some kami are venerated only in a single location, others have shrines across many areas. Hachiman for instance has around 25,000 shrines dedicated to him, while Inari has 40,000. The act of establishing a new shrine to
11310-471: The afterlife largely revolve around the idea that the spirit survives bodily death and continues to assist the living. After 33 years, it then becomes part of the family kami . These ancestral spirits are sometimes thought to reside in the mountains, from where they descend to take part in agricultural events. Shinto's afterlife beliefs also include the obake , restless spirits who died in bad circumstances and often seek revenge. A key theme in Shinto
11440-469: The architectural styles of shrines having largely developed by the Heian period . The inner sanctuary in which the kami lives is the honden . Inside the honden may be stored material belonging to the kami ; known as shinpo , this can include artworks, clothing, weapons, musical instruments, bells, and mirrors. Typically, worshippers carry out their acts outside of the honden . Near
11570-545: The beholder. Kitagawa referred to this as "the kami nature", stating that he thought it "somewhat analogous" to the Western ideas of the numinous and the sacred . Kami are seen to inhabit both the living and the dead, organic and inorganic matter, and natural disasters like earthquakes, droughts, and plagues; their presence is seen in natural forces such as the wind, rain, fire, and sunshine. Accordingly, Nelson commented that Shinto regards "the actual phenomena of
11700-437: The business area such as restaurants as well as conventional industries. Places like the police stations and board ships will also feature kamidana . Raijin is the kami of thunder who also has power over drought. According to "A popular dictionary of Shinto", there is a custom in Japan which talks about shimenawa and Raijin. Local residents in Japan's Kantō area put a shimenawa between green bamboo after
11830-429: The construction company to employ a Shinto priest to come to the land being developed and perform the jichinsai , or earth sanctification ritual. This purifies the site and asks the kami to bless it. People often ask the kami to help offset inauspicious events that may affect them. For instance, in Japanese culture, the age 33 is seen as being unlucky for women and the age 42 for men, and thus people can ask
11960-474: The country's population takes part in both Shinto and Buddhist activities, especially festivals, reflecting a common view in Japanese culture that the beliefs and practices of different religions need not be exclusive. Aspects of Shinto have been incorporated into various Japanese new religious movements . There is no universally agreed definition of Shinto. According to Joseph Cali and John Dougill, if there
12090-445: The country, from isolated rural areas to dense metropolitan ones. More specific terms are sometimes used for certain shrines depending on their function; some of the grand shrines with imperial associations are termed jingū , those devoted to the war dead are termed shokonsha , and those linked to mountains deemed to be inhabited by kami are yama-miya . Jinja typically consist of complexes of multiple buildings, with
12220-421: The creative principle permeating all life is known as musubi , and is associated with its own kami . Within traditional Japanese thought, there is no concept of an overarching duality between good and evil. The concept of aki encompasses misfortune, unhappiness, and disaster, although it does not correspond precisely with the Western concept of evil. There is no eschatology in Shinto. Texts such as
12350-430: The cross-beams are typically curved, which is a symbol of a style called myōjin . There is an under-cross-beam just below the top individually. Torii first appeared in Japan at the time Chinese culture and Buddhism were introduced, though their exact origin, including the origin of their shape and name, is unknown; some researchers believe the name torii to have originally come from Sanskrit . With
12480-414: The daughters of a priest or a practitioner. They are subordinate to the priests in the shrine hierarchy. Their most important role is in the kagura dance, known as otome-mai . Miko receive only a small salary but gain respect from members of the local community and learn skills such as cooking, calligraphy, painting, and etiquette which can benefit them when later searching for employment or
12610-407: The early 20th century the government proclaimed that their accounts were factual. The Kojiki recounts that the universe started with ame-tsuchi , the separation of light and pure elements ( ame , "heaven") from heavy elements ( tsuchi , "earth"). Three kami then appeared: Amenominakanushi , Takamimusuhi no Mikoto , and Kamimusuhi no Mikoto . Other kami followed, including
12740-531: The end of the Kofun period (300 to 538 AD) and spread rapidly. Religious syncretization made kami worship and Buddhism functionally inseparable, a process called shinbutsu-shūgō . The kami came to be viewed as part of Buddhist cosmology and were increasingly depicted anthropomorphically . The earliest written tradition regarding kami worship was recorded in the 8th-century Kojiki and Nihon Shoki . In ensuing centuries, shinbutsu-shūgō
12870-514: The exception of the cross-beams, people also use shimenawa to decorate torii . The type of torii using only shimenawa as cross-beams is known as shimenawa torii , which consist of only two posts and a shimenawa ; these torii are intended to be temporary instead of permanent. In Japan, there are more than 20 different kinds of torii , varying from simple wood constructions to those made of concrete gates, typically used as gates to Shinto shrines. The style of torii
13000-680: The first and the last with "densely stratified texture" represent Izanagi and Izanami rocks respectively, and the middle section represents the space in-between. The National Married Couple Rocks Summit Liaison Council has been formed by 10 tourist spots in Japan that have married couple rocks or rocks for married couples, and is holding the National Married Couple Rocks Summit. 34°30′34″N 136°47′18″E / 34.50944°N 136.78833°E / 34.50944; 136.78833 Shinto Shinto ( Japanese : 神道 , romanized : Shintō )
13130-554: The idea that Shinto's origins were prehistoric and that it represented something like the "underlying will of Japanese culture". The prominent Shinto theologian Sokyo Ono, for instance, said kami worship was "an expression" of the Japanese "native racial faith which arose in the mystic days of remote antiquity" and that it was "as indigenous as the people that brought the Japanese nation into existence". Many scholars regard this classification as inaccurate. Earhart noted that Shinto, in having absorbed much Chinese and Buddhist influence,
13260-491: The individual to the larger social unit has long been a characteristic of the religion. Throughout Japanese history, the notion of saisei-itchi , or the union of religious authority and political authority, has long been prominent. In the modern world, Shinto has tended toward conservatism, as well as nationalism, an association that results in various Japanese civil liberties groups and neighboring countries regarding Shinto suspiciously. Particularly controversial has been
13390-612: The living, meaning that they must be pacified, usually through Buddhist rites but sometimes through enshrining them as a kami . Other Japanese supernatural figures include the tanuki , animal-like creatures who can take human form. Although the narratives differ in detail, the origin of the kami and of Japan itself are recounted in two 8th-century texts, Kojiki and Nihon Shoki . Drawing heavily on Chinese influence, these texts were commissioned by ruling elites to legitimize and consolidate their rule. Although never of great importance to Japanese religious life, in
13520-416: The mythological tale in which Izanagi immersed himself in the sea to purify himself after discovering his deceased wife; it was from this act that other kami sprang from his body. An alternative is immersion beneath a waterfall. Salt is often regarded as a purifying substance; some Shinto practitioners will for instance sprinkle salt on themselves after a funeral, while those running restaurants may put
13650-583: The past, there was also a " State Shinto ", in which Shinto beliefs and practices were closely interlinked with the Japanese state. In representing "a portmanteau term" for many varied traditions across Japan, the term "Shinto" is similar to the term " Hinduism ", used to describe varied traditions across South Asia. The term Shinto is often translated into English as "the way of the kami ", although its meaning has varied throughout Japanese history. Other terms are sometimes used synonymously with "Shinto"; these include kami no michi ( 神の道 , "the way of
13780-406: The priest approaches the kami so as to purify their car in the hope that this will prevent it from being involved in an accident; the kotsu anzen harai ("purification for road safety"). Similarly, transport companies often request purification rites for new buses or airplanes which are about to go into service. Before a building is constructed, it is common for either private individuals or
13910-452: The purification is carried out with an o-nusa , a branch of evergreen to which strips of paper have been attached. The waving of the haraigushi is often followed by an additional act of purification, the shubatsu , in which the priest sprinkles water, salt, or brine over those assembled from a wooden box called the 'en-to-oke or magemono . The acts of purification accomplished, petitions known as norito are spoken to
14040-522: The ranks over the course of their careers. The number of priests at a particular shrine can vary; some shrines can have dozens, and others have none, instead being administered by local lay volunteers. Some priests administer to multiple small shrines, sometimes over ten. Priestly regalia is largely based on the clothes worn at the imperial court during the Heian period. It includes a tall, rounded hat known as an eboshi , and black lacquered wooden clogs known as asagutsu . The outer garment worn by
14170-419: The roof to wish them good luck for the upcoming year. Shimenawa are presented to the kami as a sacrifice in the shrine on New Year's day. Sumo , Japan's traditional national sport, still involves some elements of Shinto. Sumo matches are held in Shinto shrines, where the arena is demarcated by shimenawa . Moreover, the grand champion (whose name, Yokozuna, means "horizontal rope" and refers to
14300-452: The seat of the gods. Like shimenawa , kazari are also a New Year's decoration in Japan, consisting of a shimenawa decorated with items related to rice like rice-cakes. The purpose of the kazari is to bring good fortune to people. Kamidana are a reduced version of shimenawa used in daily life, and are thought to control rice, salt, and water which could bring people good luck. Therefore, it always appears in
14430-426: The secular', as inspiration in his work, using it to symbolise the boundary between 'the earth and heaven'. Taiwan 's Miaoli County began to produce shimenawa for export to Japan in 1998. In the late 1990s, Japanese manufacturers visited Taiwan and found the high quality of straw as well as the relatively low cost of producing it. However, as there were no local residents who knew how to make shimenawa ,
14560-613: The shrine is found. Shinto priests are known in Japanese as kannushi , meaning "proprietor of kami ", or alternatively as shinshoku or shinkan . Many kannushi take on the role in a line of hereditary succession traced down specific families. In contemporary Japan, there are two main training universities for those wishing to become kannushi , at Kokugakuin University in Tokyo and at Kogakkan University in Mie Prefecture . Priests can rise through
14690-406: The shrine. The shimenawa, composed of five separate strands which each weigh 40 kilograms, must be replaced several times a year in a special ceremony. The larger rock, said to be male, has a small torii at its peak. At dawn during the summer, the sun appears to rise between the two rocks. Mount Fuji is visible in the distance. At low tide, the rocks are not separated by water. Okitama Shrine
14820-485: The specific kami and occasion. Shimenawa Shimenawa ( 標縄/注連縄/七五三縄 , lit. 'enclosing rope') are lengths of laid rice straw or hemp rope used for ritual purification in the Shinto religion. Shimenawa vary in diameter from a few centimetres to several metres, and are often seen festooned with shide —traditional paper streamers. A space bound by shimenawa typically indicates
14950-528: The spirits considered to inhabit them being known as kodama . Cutting down these trees is thought to bring misfortune. In the case of stones considered to be inhabited by spirits, the stones are known as iwakura ( 磐座/岩座 ) . A variation of the shimenawa are worn in sumo wrestling by yokozuna (grand champions), during the entrance ceremony to debut as grand champion rank. In this instance, shimenawa used by yokozuna are seen as being living yorishiro (a vessel capable of housing
15080-449: The sun. The best stems are then chosen by hand in order to create shimenawa . Heihaku (also called mitegura or heimotsu ), a vertical wooden stick decorated with shide , cloth or metal called gohei , usually in red or white, which is used priests in Shinto. People put heihaku in front of honden doors. In a procession called shinkō-shiki [ ja ; simple ] , heihaku are seen as
15210-404: The term Shinto became increasingly popular from the 18th century. The term Shinto has been commonly used only since the early 20th century, when it superseded the term taikyō ('great religion') as the name for the Japanese state religion. Shinto is polytheistic , involving the veneration of many deities known as kami , or sometimes as jingi (神祇). In Japanese, no distinction
15340-859: The time of the Meiji Restoration . Some practitioners instead view Shinto as a "way", thus characterising it more as custom or tradition , partly as an attempt to circumvent the modern separation of religion and state and restore Shinto's historical links with the Japanese state. Moreover, many of the categories of religion and religiosity defined in Western culture "do not readily apply" to Shinto. Unlike religions familiar in Western countries, such as Christianity and Islam , Shinto has no single founder, nor any single canonical text. Western religions tend to stress exclusivity, but in Japan, it has long been considered acceptable to practice different religious traditions simultaneously. Japanese religion
15470-484: The view of visitors, and may be hidden inside boxes so that even the priests do not know what they look like. Kami are deemed capable of both benevolent and destructive deeds; if warnings about good conduct are ignored, the kami can mete out punishment, often illness or sudden death, called shinbatsu . Some kami , referred to as the magatsuhi-no-kami or araburu kami , are regarded as malevolent and destructive. Offerings and prayers are given to
15600-519: The work to other Southeast Asian countries, particularly Vietnam , for a lower cost production. Later in 2005, a large number of shimenawa orders were transferred back to Taiwan because buyers in Japan found that the quality of shimenawa produced in Vietnam was poorer compared to those produced in Taiwan. The craftsmen in Taiwan harvest the straw to make shimenawa , while Japanese manufacturers provide samples or finished products to
15730-461: The world itself" as being "divine". This perspective has been characterised as being animistic . In Japan, kami have been venerated since prehistory. During the Yayoi period they were regarded as being formless and invisible, later coming to be depicted anthropomorphically under Buddhist influence. Now, statues of the kami are known as shinzo . Kami are usually associated with
15860-470: The world over time and has become familiar in the form of married couple's bowls, etc. At the same time, it is deeply related to the belief in child-rearing and child-bearing in the framework of family , such as householder and home. The ' Iwana' are deeply related to the belief in child-bearing, child-rearing, and the treasure of children. These ideas of rock-building belief , Omote-Taiwanai and matrimonial belief (also called matrimonial harmony, which
15990-447: Was "not a unified, monolithic entity that has a single center and system all its own". Different types of Shinto have been identified. "Shrine Shinto" refers to the practices centred around shrines, and "Domestic Shinto" to the ways in which kami are venerated in the home. Some scholars have used the term "Folk Shinto" to designate localised Shinto practices, or practices outside of an institutionalised setting. In various eras of
16120-445: Was "often used" in "reference to kami worship and related theologies, rituals and practices". Various scholars have referred to practitioners of Shinto as Shintoists , although this term has no direct translation in the Japanese language . Scholars have debated at what point in history it is legitimate to start talking about Shinto as a specific phenomenon. The scholar of religion Ninian Smart suggested that one could "speak of
16250-408: Was "one single, broad definition of Shinto" that could be put forward, it would be that "Shinto is a belief in kami ", the supernatural entities at the centre of the religion. The Japanologist Helen Hardacre wrote that "Shinto encompasses doctrines, institutions, ritual, and communal life based on kami worship", while the scholar of religion Inoue Nobutaka observed that the term "Shinto"
16380-400: Was "too complex to be labelled simply [as an] indigenous religion". In the early 21st century it became increasingly common for practitioners to call Shinto a nature religion , which critics saw as a strategy to disassociate the tradition from controversial issues surrounding militarism and imperialism. Shinto displays substantial local variation; the anthropologist John K. Nelson noted it
16510-461: Was adopted by Japan's Imperial household. During the Meiji era (1868 to 1912), Japan's nationalist leadership expelled Buddhist influence from kami worship and formed State Shinto , which some historians regard as the origin of Shinto as a distinct religion. Shrines came under growing government influence, and citizens were encouraged to worship the emperor as a kami . With the formation of
16640-407: Was banned, straw began to be used instead as the raw material of shimenawa . During the process of production, the straw stems are harvested between 70 and 80 days of growth, as beyond this, the quality of the fibre decreases as the plant starts to produce its seeds. After the shimenawa straw is collected by machine, it is heated for more than 10 hours, to avoid the stems being dried by
16770-412: Was enshrined as the kami Hachiman , believed to be a protector of Japan and a kami of war. In Japanese culture, ancestors can be viewed as a form of kami . In Western Japan, the term jigami is used to describe the enshrined kami of a village founder. In some cases, living human beings were also viewed as kami ; these were called akitsumi kami or arahito-gami . In
16900-418: Was possibly first used as a Buddhist term to refer to non-Buddhist deities. Among the earliest known appearances of the term Shinto in Japan is in the 8th-century text, Nihon Shoki . Here, it may be a generic term for popular belief, or alternatively reference Taoism, as many Taoist practices had recently been imported from mainland Asia. In these early Japanese uses, the word Shinto did not apply to
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