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130-455: A steel block containing twenty-five 13 mm (.51 calibre) centre-fire cartridges was locked against the breech before firing. With the rotation of a crank, the 25 rounds were discharged in rapid succession. The sustainable firing rate of the Reffye mitrailleuse was 100 rounds per minute and its maximum range was about 2000 yards (1800 m), a distance that placed their batteries beyond

260-426: A 13 mm (.512 inch) centerfire cartridge, designed by Gaupillat, which represented the state of the art in ammunition design at the time. It was rather similar to an elongated modern shotgun shell: centerfire with a rimmed brass head and a dark blue hardened cardboard body. The 770-grain (50 g), 13 mm (0.512 inch) patched bullet was propelled by 185 grains (12 grams) of compressed black powder at

390-755: A battery executed captured Communards in the Bois de Boulogne , following the suppression of the Paris Commune . Similar incidents involving the Reffye mitrailleuse are reported to have taken place at the Caserne Lobau, a barracks in the center of Paris. A fairly large number of the French Army's Reffye mitrailleuses (268 altogether) survived the Franco-Prussian War. An additional 122 Reffye mitrailleuses, which had been captured during

520-399: A complex and expensive manufacturing process, explosive handling is simplified by avoiding the spinning process required to uniformly distribute priming explosive into the rim because of uncertainty about which angular segment of a rimfire cartridge rim will be struck by the firing pin. Larger caliber rimfire cartridges require greater volumes of priming explosive than centerfire cartridges, and

650-572: A far greater number of Prussian casualties than the Reffye mitrailleuses. However, about 100,000 Chassepot rifles were engaged in combat in contrast with fewer than 200 Reffye mitrailleuses used in battle at any given time. The Prussians and foreign observers were not impressed by the performance of the mitrailleuse. In the case of the Prussians, their views were undoubtedly coloured by propaganda. They had very few machine guns or volley guns of their own and, not least for reasons of maintaining morale in

780-577: A fired Berdan case and the larger single hole seen or felt inside a fired Boxer case. Berdan priming is less expensive to manufacture and is more commonly found in military-surplus ammunition made outside of the United States. Berdan primers are named after their American inventor, Hiram Berdan of New York who invented his first variation of the Berdan primer and patented it on March 20, 1866, in U.S. patent 53,388 . A small copper cylinder formed

910-461: A fired Berdan case and the larger single hole seen or felt inside a fired Boxer case. Berdan priming is less expensive to manufacture and is more commonly found in military-surplus ammunition made outside of the United States. Berdan primers are named after their American inventor, Hiram Berdan of New York who invented his first variation of the Berdan primer and patented it on March 20, 1866, in U.S. patent 53,388 . A small copper cylinder formed

1040-473: A greater moisture sensitivity and correspondingly shorter shelf life than normal noncorrosive primers. Since their introduction, lead-free primers have become better in their performance compared to early lead free primers. Tests comparing lead-free primers to lead-based primers conducted by the US Department of Defense (approx 2006), exposed significant differences (at the time) in reliability between

1170-410: A greater moisture sensitivity and correspondingly shorter shelf life than normal noncorrosive primers. Since their introduction, lead-free primers have become better in their performance compared to early lead free primers. Tests comparing lead-free primers to lead-based primers conducted by the US Department of Defense (approx 2006), exposed significant differences (at the time) in reliability between

1300-658: A handful of antiquated rimfire and pinfire cartridges for various firearm actions . An early form of centerfire ammunition, without a percussion cap, was invented between 1808 and 1812 by Jean Samuel Pauly . This was also the first fully integrated cartridge and used a form of obturation employing the cartridge itself. Another form of centerfire ammunition was invented by the Frenchman Clement Pottet in 1829; however, Pottet would not perfect his design until 1855. U.S. General Stephen Vincent Benét developed an internally primed center-fire cartridge that

1430-506: A large, specific shotgun primer that is based on the Boxer system, in that the primer contains the anvil against which the primary explosive is compressed by the firing pin and deformation of the primer cup. Shotgun primers are also used as a replacement to the percussion cap ignition system in some modern black-powder firearms, and in some cases as the actual cartridge, notably the 6mm Pipet . Primer actuated or piston primer cartridges use

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1560-454: A large, specific shotgun primer that is based on the Boxer system, in that the primer contains the anvil against which the primary explosive is compressed by the firing pin and deformation of the primer cup. Shotgun primers are also used as a replacement to the percussion cap ignition system in some modern black-powder firearms, and in some cases as the actual cartridge, notably the 6mm Pipet . Primer actuated or piston primer cartridges use

1690-431: A longer storage life than the non-corrosive type primers currently in use. Modern Boxer primers are almost always non-corrosive and non-mercuric. Determination of corrosive or non-corrosive characteristics based on the primer type should consider these final headstamp dates of corrosive ammunition production: Centerfire A centre-fire (or centrefire ) is a type of metallic cartridge used in firearms , where

1820-422: A machine gun, as well. Centre-fire A centre-fire (or centrefire ) is a type of metallic cartridge used in firearms , where the primer is located at the center of the base of its casing (i.e. "case head"). Unlike rimfire cartridges , the centerfire primer is typically a separate component seated into a recessed cavity (known as the primer pocket ) in the case head and is replaceable by reloading

1950-447: A magnum primer would be used for the larger charges or slower-burning powders used with large cartridges or heavy charges. Rifle, large and magnum primers increase the ignition energy delivered to the powder, by supplying a hotter, stronger and/or longer-lasting flame. Pistol cartridges often are smaller than modern rifle cartridges, so they may need less primer flame than rifles require. A physical difference between pistol and rifle primers

2080-447: A magnum primer would be used for the larger charges or slower-burning powders used with large cartridges or heavy charges. Rifle, large and magnum primers increase the ignition energy delivered to the powder, by supplying a hotter, stronger and/or longer-lasting flame. Pistol cartridges often are smaller than modern rifle cartridges, so they may need less primer flame than rifles require. A physical difference between pistol and rifle primers

2210-503: A muzzle velocity of 1,560 ft/s (480 m/s), three and a half times more powerful than Chassepot or Dreyse rifle ammunition. This was, by far, the most potent rifle caliber ammunition in existence at the time. The Montigny and Reffye mitrailleuse systems were not designed to function with paper cartridges such as the 11 mm Chassepot combustible paper cartridge . The 13 mm centerfire Reffye mitrailleuse cartridges were loaded into interchangeable steel breech blocks, unlike

2340-560: A need to develop better short- and medium-range infantry support weapons. During the period from 1871 to the 1890s, a variety of new European- and American-designed manual machine guns were adopted by many European armies. Large numbers of Gatling guns were purchased from the United States and were used by Western European powers in colonial wars in Africa , India, and Asia . Twenty-five Gatling guns also saw active service in French hands during

2470-644: A preliminary report entitled Note sur le Canon à balles to the Emperor Napoleon III . Full-scale manufacture began in September 1865, in great secrecy, under the leadership of Lieutenant-Colonel Verchère de Reffye (1821–1880). Assembly and some manufacturing took place at the workshops in Meudon but many parts came from the private industrial sector. Production was slow due to limited funding (the army had already spent much of its five-year budget on

2600-405: A primer in the form of a blank to contain the propellant within an empty cartridge, or in some cases as a piston to unlock the bolt and operate the weapon. These types of rounds are rarely used and are mostly found on spotting rifles . Primer manufacture and insertion is the most dangerous part of small arms ammunition production. Sensitive priming compounds have claimed many lives including

2730-405: A primer in the form of a blank to contain the propellant within an empty cartridge, or in some cases as a piston to unlock the bolt and operate the weapon. These types of rounds are rarely used and are mostly found on spotting rifles . Primer manufacture and insertion is the most dangerous part of small arms ammunition production. Sensitive priming compounds have claimed many lives including

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2860-411: A regular artillery piece. The mitrailleuse's barrel could also be moved sideways while firing, to the right and left, in order to adjust for range and provide lateral sweeping fire if needed. The lateral sweep was narrow, however, thus most effective at far distances only. The weapon's field of fire was so narrow that Prussian soldiers were often hit by several bullets at once. During an early engagement of

2990-542: A sub-machine gun. The word also survived in Romania, where the generic term for a machine gun is mitralieră . In Slovenian , Croatian and Serbian it is mitraljez , and in Albanian a machine gun is referred to as mitraloz . In Greek , mydraliovolo (μυδραλιοβόλο) is a—now somewhat archaic—term for a machine gun. The word mitrailleuse is surely the source for the modern Italian term: Mitragliatrice , describing

3120-541: A tetrazine compound . Most United States manufacturers adopted the PA-101 military standard for their civilian production of Boxer primers. Manufacturers subsequently offered more powerful magnum primers for uniform ignition of civilian long-range or big-game cartridges with significantly greater powder capacity than required for standard infantry weapons. Other explosives used in primers can include lead azide , potassium perchlorate , or diazodinitrophenol (DDNP). New on

3250-488: A tetrazine compound . Most United States manufacturers adopted the PA-101 military standard for their civilian production of Boxer primers. Manufacturers subsequently offered more powerful magnum primers for uniform ignition of civilian long-range or big-game cartridges with significantly greater powder capacity than required for standard infantry weapons. Other explosives used in primers can include lead azide , potassium perchlorate , or diazodinitrophenol (DDNP). New on

3380-432: Is normally used well within its effective range of 1,100 m (1,200 yards), compared to its maximum range of 3,725 m (4,074 yards). The mitrailleuse, by contrast, was often used at the outer edges of its range and without the benefit of optical range finding equipment. These deficiencies in the operational usage of the Reffye mitrailleuse proved disastrous in the Franco-Prussian War. Mitrailleuses were used in many of

3510-428: Is rather involved. The used primer must be removed, usually by hydraulic pressure, pincer, or lever that pulls the primer out of the bottom. A new primer is carefully seated against the anvil, and then the powder and a bullet are added. From the 1880s to the 1940s, many smaller European armies were reloading their ammo for economical reasons, and for that reason they adopted the system known as either Austrian or after

3640-428: Is rather involved. The used primer must be removed, usually by hydraulic pressure, pincer, or lever that pulls the primer out of the bottom. A new primer is carefully seated against the anvil, and then the powder and a bullet are added. From the 1880s to the 1940s, many smaller European armies were reloading their ammo for economical reasons, and for that reason they adopted the system known as either Austrian or after

3770-645: Is reported to have been used by the Mexican Federal Forces against the Yaqui Indian forces in Sonora, then under the command of Cajemé José Maria Leyba, a prominent leader of that tribe from 1874 to 1887. Three mitrailleuse were used in March, 1886, with two mitrailleuse under the command of the forces of Generals Leiva and Carillo, and one under the command of General Camano. In September 1926,

3900-414: Is safer to handle because explosive priming compound in a protruding rim is more likely to be triggered by impact if a rimfire cartridge is dropped or pinched. The stronger base of a centerfire cartridge is able to withstand higher chamber pressures which in turn gives bullets greater velocity and energy. While centerfire cartridge cases require a complex and expensive manufacturing process, explosive handling

4030-405: Is simplified by avoiding the spinning process required to uniformly distribute priming explosive into the rim because of uncertainty about which angular segment of a rimfire cartridge rim will be struck by the firing pin. Larger caliber rimfire cartridges require greater volumes of priming explosive than centerfire cartridges, and the required volume may cause undesirably higher pressure spikes during

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4160-583: Is slightly more complex to manufacture, since the primer is in two parts in addition to the pressure-sensitive compound, but automated machinery producing the more complex primers by the hundreds of millions has eliminated that as a practical problem. And while the primer has one additional step needed during the manufacturing process, the cartridge case is simpler to make, use, and reload. Early primers were manufactured with various dimensions and performance. Some standardization has occurred where economies of scale benefit ammunition manufacturers. Boxer primers for

4290-583: Is slightly more complex to manufacture, since the primer is in two parts in addition to the pressure-sensitive compound, but automated machinery producing the more complex primers by the hundreds of millions has eliminated that as a practical problem. And while the primer has one additional step needed during the manufacturing process, the cartridge case is simpler to make, use, and reload. Early primers were manufactured with various dimensions and performance. Some standardization has occurred where economies of scale benefit ammunition manufacturers. Boxer primers for

4420-421: Is the thickness of the primer's case; since pistol cartridges usually operate at lower pressure levels than most rifles, their primer cups are thinner, softer, and easier to ignite, while rifle primers are thicker and stronger, requiring a harder impact from the firing pin . Despite the names pistol and rifle , the primer used depends on the cartridge, not the firearm; a few high-pressure pistol cartridges like

4550-421: Is the thickness of the primer's case; since pistol cartridges usually operate at lower pressure levels than most rifles, their primer cups are thinner, softer, and easier to ignite, while rifle primers are thicker and stronger, requiring a harder impact from the firing pin . Despite the names pistol and rifle , the primer used depends on the cartridge, not the firearm; a few high-pressure pistol cartridges like

4680-591: Is true that the French Army did not adopt an automatic machine gun until 1897, when they chose the Hotchkiss machine gun , later to be followed by the Hotchkiss M1914 machine gun . The French armed forces also adopted another automatic machine gun, the St. Étienne Mle 1907 . It has been suggested that the relative slowness displayed by the French services to adopt machine guns was the result of wariness occasioned by

4810-739: The .221 Fireball and .454 Casull use rifle primers, while lower-pressure pistol and revolver cartridges like the .32 ACP, .380 ACP, 9mm Parabellum, .38 Special, .357 Magnum, .44 Magnum, and .45 ACP, and traditional revolver cartridges like the .32-20, .44-40, and .45 Colt, also used in lever-action rifles, these cartridges would still be loaded with pistol primers. Virtually all cartridges used solely in rifles do, however, use rifle primers. Notable exceptions to this include .458 SOCOM and .50 Beowulf , which use large pistol standard and large pistol magnum primers, respectively. All modern shotgun shells (excluding specialized .22 caliber rimfire "snake loads" or birdshot cartridges) are centerfire. They use

4940-739: The .221 Fireball and .454 Casull use rifle primers, while lower-pressure pistol and revolver cartridges like the .32 ACP, .380 ACP, 9mm Parabellum, .38 Special, .357 Magnum, .44 Magnum, and .45 ACP, and traditional revolver cartridges like the .32-20, .44-40, and .45 Colt, also used in lever-action rifles, these cartridges would still be loaded with pistol primers. Virtually all cartridges used solely in rifles do, however, use rifle primers. Notable exceptions to this include .458 SOCOM and .50 Beowulf , which use large pistol standard and large pistol magnum primers, respectively. All modern shotgun shells (excluding specialized .22 caliber rimfire "snake loads" or birdshot cartridges) are centerfire. They use

5070-549: The American Civil War .) The ammunition plate or block had to be removed by hand before another loaded plate could be inserted. Unlike in the Gatling gun and later rapid-firing automatic weapons, the entire loading and firing process was manual. The mitrailleuse's major innovation was that it greatly increased the speed of these processes when compared to standard infantry rifles of the era. The different variants of

5200-482: The Battle of Gravelotte devastated massed Prussian infantry when they had quickly found the range on their targets, contributing to the exceptionally high Prussian death toll in that battle. Other examples of effective mitrailleuse fire have also been described for the battle of Mars-la-Tour . For the most part, however, mitrailleuses proved ineffective. It was concluded after the war that Chassepot rifle fire had caused

5330-540: The Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Smaller numbers of other designs, including the Gatling gun, were also purchased by the French government during the latter part of that conflict. The Reffye model had initially been built in small numbers and in secrecy: only about 200 were available at the beginning of the conflict. This also kept regular French field artillery in a neglected position in the eyes of French emperor Napoleon III , with dire consequences during

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5460-496: The primer is located at the center of the base of its casing (i.e. "case head"). Unlike rimfire cartridges , the centerfire primer is typically a separate component seated into a recessed cavity (known as the primer pocket ) in the case head and is replaceable by reloading the cartridge. Centerfire cartridges have supplanted the rimfire cartridge, with the exception of a few small calibers. The majority of today's handguns , rifles , and shotguns use centerfire ammunition, with

5590-399: The "primer pocket" of a Berdan-type cartridge case, where they fit slightly below flush with the base of the case. Inside the primer pocket is a small bump, the "anvil", that rests against the center of the cup, and usually two (or more) small holes by the sides of the anvil, which allow the flash from the primer to reach the interior of the case. Berdan cases are reusable, although the process

5720-399: The "primer pocket" of a Berdan-type cartridge case, where they fit slightly below flush with the base of the case. Inside the primer pocket is a small bump, the "anvil", that rests against the center of the cup, and usually two (or more) small holes by the sides of the anvil, which allow the flash from the primer to reach the interior of the case. Berdan cases are reusable, although the process

5850-479: The 1850s as a static weapon to defend the moats of fortresses. It was a 50-barrel needle fire, paper cartridge weapon which had been designed by a Captain T.H.J. Fafschamps . Then, after 1863, it was improved with only 37 barrels, 11×70mmR centerfire ammunition and the weapon's placement on a wheeled artillery carriage. This transformation was carried out as an industrial venture by Christophe and Joseph Montigny of Fontaine-l'Évêque near Brussels , who sought to sell

5980-467: The 1870–71 campaign, were all sold back to France by Germany through a London military surplus dealer in 1875. By 1885, many of the mitrailleuses in the overall remaining French inventory were designated to static point-defence duties, for the purpose of providing flanking fire in the moats of eastern French fortifications. The last surviving Reffye mitrailleuses were removed from several forts in eastern France as late as 1908 and scrapped. The mitrailleuse

6110-585: The 1890s however, European armies began to retire their Gatling guns and other manual machine guns in favor of fully automatic machine guns, such as the Maxim gun , the Colt–Browning M1895 , and, in 1897, the Hotchkiss machine gun . Such weapons became universal—and notorious—with the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. A machine gun is still referred to as a mitrailleuse in French, following

6240-544: The 1920s, but most military ammunition continued to use corrosive priming mixtures of established reliability. The various proprietary priming formulations used by different manufacturers produced some significantly different ignition properties until the United States issued military specifications for non-corrosive primers for 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge production. The PA-101 primers developed at Picatinny Arsenal used about 50% lead styphnate with lesser amounts of barium nitrate , antimony trisulfide, powdered aluminum and

6370-544: The 1920s, but most military ammunition continued to use corrosive priming mixtures of established reliability. The various proprietary priming formulations used by different manufacturers produced some significantly different ignition properties until the United States issued military specifications for non-corrosive primers for 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge production. The PA-101 primers developed at Picatinny Arsenal used about 50% lead styphnate with lesser amounts of barium nitrate , antimony trisulfide, powdered aluminum and

6500-716: The British recorded having seized several mitrailleuses. None of these seemed to have been used in combat. Even the Kingdom of Dahomey had some of these guns. The long-term effects of the mitrailleuse's poor performance have been the subject of some dispute among historians. In Machine Guns: An Illustrated History , J. Willbanks argues that the weapon's ineffectiveness in the Franco-Prussian War resulted in long-standing opposition among European armies to adopting machine gun weapons, particularly in Continental Europe . It

6630-413: The Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Their field use was discontinued by the French Army after 1871. After the Gatling gun was replaced in service by newer recoil- or gas-operated weapons, multi-barrelled weapons fell into disuse for many decades. Some examples were developed during the interwar years but only as prototypes or were rarely used. The word mitrailleuse became the generic term for a machine gun in

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6760-406: The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. Several variants of the mitrailleuse concept were developed, with common elements to all of their designs. They were characterized by a number of rifled barrels clustered together and mounted on a conventional artillery chassis or (in the case of one model) a tripod. The ammunition was secured in a single block and placed into the breech, behind the open ends of

6890-535: The Franco-Prussian War, at Forbach in Alsace on August 6, 1870, a Prussian general officer (General Bruno von François) was brought down by a very closely spaced volley of four bullets. According to the Prussian regimental record, those four mitrailleuse bullets had been fired from 600 meters away. French artillery attempted to rectify this problem by developing special ammunition capable of firing three bullets from

7020-527: The Franco-Prussian war, in early 1871. They performed particularly well at an engagement at Le Mans in western France. Furthermore, the French armed services purchased, for their navy and eastern fortifications, a large number of manual, rapid fire 37 mm multi-barrel guns (so-called Hotchkiss "canon-revolvers") made in France after 1879 by the firm of American expatriate Benjamin B. Hotchkiss . By

7150-611: The French language because of its early appearance in the field of weapons, although the mitrailleuse was manually operated. The first "mitrailleuse" was a manually fired 50-barrel volley gun . It was developed in Belgium in 1851 by Belgian Army Captain Fafschamps , who made a rough prototype and drawings of his invention. The system was improved during the 1850s by Louis Christophe and the Belgian engineer Joseph Montigny , with

7280-763: The George Roth factory in Vienna which patented it in 1902 even though it was known from the early-to-mid 1880s, where the anvil had a single fire hole right at its center. Meanwhile, Colonel Edward Mounier Boxer , of the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich, England, was working on a primer cap design for cartridges, patenting it in England on October 13, 1866, and subsequently received a U.S. patent for his design on June 29, 1869, in U.S. patent 91,818 . Boxer primers are similar to Berdan primers with one major difference,

7410-533: The George Roth factory in Vienna which patented it in 1902 even though it was known from the early-to-mid 1880s, where the anvil had a single fire hole right at its center. Meanwhile, Colonel Edward Mounier Boxer , of the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich, England, was working on a primer cap design for cartridges, patenting it in England on October 13, 1866, and subsequently received a U.S. patent for his design on June 29, 1869, in U.S. patent 91,818 . Boxer primers are similar to Berdan primers with one major difference,

7540-582: The Mexican military, at first just under General Miguel Pina, made preparations to use the mitrailleuse against the Yaqui people in Sonora, then led by their military chief Luis Matus (Matius in some later accounts), and his lieutenant, Albin Cochemea. The 1st, 8th, and 18th infantry battalions prepared to bring a more modern state of warfare against the indigenous inhabitants of Vicam and other Yaqui pueblos along

7670-470: The Mle 1866 Chassepot rifle), forcing Napoleon III to pay for development and manufacture out of secret funds. The new weapon was thoroughly tested in 1868 at the military firing range at Satory, near Versailles , in conditions of great secrecy. Due to a fear of spies, test guns were concealed in tents while being fired at distant targets. The mitrailleuse performed mechanically with remarkable efficiency and much

7800-497: The Montigny mitrailleuse, whose ammunition was held by the cartridge base in plates. When firing the mitrailleuse, three breech blocks were kept in continuous use: one being fired, one being pressed down on the extractor and one being loaded from a single pre-packaged 25-round box. Adjusting the elevation of the mitrailleuse in accordance to the distance to the designated target was performed with an elevating screw identical to that on

7930-440: The United States market come in different sizes, based on the application. The types/sizes of primers are: Examples of uses: Primer size is based on the primer pocket of the cartridge, with standard types available in large or small diameters. The primer's explosive charge is based on the amount of ignition energy required by the cartridge design; a standard primer would be used for smaller charges or faster-burning powders, while

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8060-440: The United States market come in different sizes, based on the application. The types/sizes of primers are: Examples of uses: Primer size is based on the primer pocket of the cartridge, with standard types available in large or small diameters. The primer's explosive charge is based on the amount of ignition energy required by the cartridge design; a standard primer would be used for smaller charges or faster-burning powders, while

8190-496: The barrels. All of the barrels were loaded simultaneously by a manual closing lever or large horizontal screw. A second lever could be worked rapidly (or in some models, a crank could be turned) to fire each barrel in succession. This earned the weapon its French nickname of moulin à café (coffee grinder). (A very similar name was earned by the hand-cranked, mechanically loaded, continuous-firing, " coffee mill gun " in America during

8320-680: The bore and empty cartridge case after firing. The mercury was largely absorbed in the smokey fouling with black-powder loads. Mercury coated the interior of brass cases with smokeless powder loads, and the higher pressures of smokeless powder charges forced the mercury into grain boundaries between brass crystals where it formed zinc and copper amalgams weakening the case so it became unsuitable for reloading. The United States Army discontinued use of mercuric priming mixtures in 1898 to allow arsenal reloading of fired cases during peacetime. Frankford Arsenal FA-70 primers used potassium chlorate as an oxidizer for lead(II) thiocyanate , to increase

8450-680: The bore and empty cartridge case after firing. The mercury was largely absorbed in the smokey fouling with black-powder loads. Mercury coated the interior of brass cases with smokeless powder loads, and the higher pressures of smokeless powder charges forced the mercury into grain boundaries between brass crystals where it formed zinc and copper amalgams weakening the case so it became unsuitable for reloading. The United States Army discontinued use of mercuric priming mixtures in 1898 to allow arsenal reloading of fired cases during peacetime. Frankford Arsenal FA-70 primers used potassium chlorate as an oxidizer for lead(II) thiocyanate , to increase

8580-421: The cartridge, but it makes fired primers vastly easier to remove for reloading , as a single, centered rod pushed through the flash hole from the open end of the case will eject the two-piece primer from the primer cup. A new primer, anvil included, is then pressed into the case using a reloading press or hand-tool. Boxer priming is universal for US-manufactured civilian factory ammunition. Boxer-primed ammunition

8710-421: The cartridge, but it makes fired primers vastly easier to remove for reloading , as a single, centered rod pushed through the flash hole from the open end of the case will eject the two-piece primer from the primer cup. A new primer, anvil included, is then pressed into the case using a reloading press or hand-tool. Boxer priming is universal for US-manufactured civilian factory ammunition. Boxer-primed ammunition

8840-417: The cartridge. Centerfire cartridges have supplanted the rimfire cartridge, with the exception of a few small calibers. The majority of today's handguns , rifles , and shotguns use centerfire ammunition, with the exception of some .17 caliber , .20 caliber , and .22 caliber rimfire handgun and rifle cartridges , a few small-bore/gauge shotgun shells (intended mainly for use in pest control ), and

8970-561: The completion of the 37-barrel Montigny mitrailleuse in 1863. From 1859, Joseph Montigny proposed his design to Napoleon III , which led to the development of the French Reffye mitrailleuse, which was designed by Jean-Baptiste Verchère de Reffye in collaboration with Montigny, and which was adopted by the French Army in 1865. Initially kept under wraps as a secret weapon, it was widely used in battle by French artillery during

9100-469: The complex firing mechanism was vulnerable to damage at the hands of inexperienced crews. Fouling of the mechanism by black powder combustion residues and thus difficulties in closing the breech were reported as a problem after prolonged firings. In a few instances where the Reffye mitrailleuses were put to good use, they showed that they could have a significant impact. Captain Barbe's mitrailleuse battery at

9230-420: The demand for them no longer exceeded manufacturing costs, and they became obsolete. The identifying feature of centerfire ammunition is the primer which is a metal cup containing a primary explosive inserted into a recess in the center of the base of the cartridge. The firearm firing pin crushes this explosive between the cup and an anvil to produce hot gas and a shower of incandescent particles to ignite

9360-420: The demand for them no longer exceeded manufacturing costs, and they became obsolete. The identifying feature of centerfire ammunition is the primer which is a metal cup containing a primary explosive inserted into a recess in the center of the base of the cartridge. The firearm firing pin crushes this explosive between the cup and an anvil to produce hot gas and a shower of incandescent particles to ignite

9490-444: The disastrous French defeat in the Battle of Sedan , French war powers fell into the hand of a republican government led by Léon Gambetta . He vigorously organized national defense and the continued manufacture of war equipment. Most of the conventional weapon manufacturing was located in provincial France, but some mitrailleuse repair and even construction continued inside Paris during the city's four-month siege . The manufacture of

9620-426: The exception of some .17 caliber , .20 caliber , and .22 caliber rimfire handgun and rifle cartridges , a few small-bore/gauge shotgun shells (intended mainly for use in pest control ), and a handful of antiquated rimfire and pinfire cartridges for various firearm actions . An early form of centerfire ammunition, without a percussion cap, was invented between 1808 and 1812 by Jean Samuel Pauly . This

9750-503: The face of a new weapon technology, they scorned the effectiveness of the mitrailleuse. They nonetheless saw the weapon as a threat and Prussian artillery always made it a priority to engage and destroy mitrailleuse batteries. The weapon's characteristic "snarling rasp" does appear to have made some impression—the Prussian troops called the mitrailleuse the Höllenmaschine ("Hell/Infernal Machine") Its failure to have much effect in

9880-510: The failure of the mitrailleuse. There is some evidence for that suggestion, as the Maxim gun had repeatedly been tested by the French armed services ever since its inception. In the immediate aftermath of the war, the French put a much greater emphasis on improving their field artillery. The failure of French artillery during the 1870–71 campaign served as a strong incentive to fast track the De Bange field artillery piece (1877) and eventually

10010-528: The field led to a belief that rapid-fire weapons were useless. United States Army General William Babcock Hazen , who observed the war, commented that "The French mitrailleuse had failed to live up to expectations. The Germans hold it in great contempt, and it will hardly become a permanent military arm." Strictly speaking, manually operated volley guns such as the Reffye mitrailleuse were a technological dead-end, and they were soon replaced by fully automatic machine guns. After Napoleon III's abdication following

10140-479: The founder of the famous British Eley ammunition firm. Modern commercial operations use protective shielding between operators and manufacturing equipment. Early primers used the same mercury fulminate used in 19th century percussion caps . Black powder could be effectively ignited by hot mercury released upon decomposition. Disadvantages of mercuric primers became evident with smokeless powder loadings. Mercury fulminate slowly decomposed in storage until

10270-479: The founder of the famous British Eley ammunition firm. Modern commercial operations use protective shielding between operators and manufacturing equipment. Early primers used the same mercury fulminate used in 19th century percussion caps . Black powder could be effectively ignited by hot mercury released upon decomposition. Disadvantages of mercuric primers became evident with smokeless powder loadings. Mercury fulminate slowly decomposed in storage until

10400-407: The ignition process. Reducing the amount of priming explosive will greatly diminish the ignition reliability of rimfire cartridges, and increase the probability of a malfunction such as a misfire or hang fire . Economies of scale are achieved through interchangeable primers for a wide variety of centerfire cartridge calibers. The expensive individual brass cases can be reused after replacing

10530-507: The insufficiency of grapeshot. Having been developed by the artillery they were, naturally, manned by artillerymen and attached to artillery groups equipped with regular four-pounder field guns. Each mitrailleuse battery comprised six guns, each with a crew of six. One man on the front right fired the gun while another man on the front left swiveled the gun sideways for sweeping fire. The four other men attended to aiming, loading, and unloading. Auguste Verchère de Reffye himself consistently viewed

10660-407: The location of the anvil. In a Boxer primer, the anvil is a separate stirrup piece that sits inverted in the primer cup that provides sufficient resistance to the impact of the firing pin as it indents the cup and crushes the pressure-sensitive ignition compound. The primer pocket in the case head has a single flash-hole in its center. This positioning makes little or no difference to the performance of

10790-407: The location of the anvil. In a Boxer primer, the anvil is a separate stirrup piece that sits inverted in the primer cup that provides sufficient resistance to the impact of the firing pin as it indents the cup and crushes the pressure-sensitive ignition compound. The primer pocket in the case head has a single flash-hole in its center. This positioning makes little or no difference to the performance of

10920-449: The major engagements of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), but their small numbers greatly restricted their effectiveness. Their flawed usage was a serious problem on the battlefield. While the mitrailleuses were inherently accurate, in a ballistic sense, they were often unable to zero in on targets quickly enough at great distances. Individual 25 round salvos were also too tightly grouped and lacked lateral dispersion. To make matters worse,

11050-407: The market in the late 1990s are lead-free primers (see green bullet ), to address concerns over the lead and other heavy-metal compounds found in older primers. The heavy metals, while small in quantity, are released in the form of a very fine soot. Some indoor firing ranges are moving to ban primers containing heavy metals due to their toxicity. Lead-free primers were originally less sensitive and had

11180-407: The market in the late 1990s are lead-free primers (see green bullet ), to address concerns over the lead and other heavy-metal compounds found in older primers. The heavy metals, while small in quantity, are released in the form of a very fine soot. Some indoor firing ranges are moving to ban primers containing heavy metals due to their toxicity. Lead-free primers were originally less sensitive and had

11310-469: The mid 1880s. The centerfire cartridge was improved by Béatus Beringer, Benjamin Houllier, Gastinne Renette, Smith & Wesson, Charles Lancaster , Jules-Félix Gévelot, George Morse, Francois Schneider, Hiram Berdan and Edward Mounier Boxer . Centerfire cartridges are more reliable for military purposes because the thicker metal cartridge cases can withstand rougher handling without damage, and

11440-538: The mitrailleuse and its ammunition was resumed under the direction of De Reffye in the coastal city of Nantes in western France. An additional 122 mitrailleuses were manufactured in Nantes to replace the nearly 200 mitrailleuses that had already been destroyed or captured. After the armistice with Prussia in May 1871, one of the last recorded uses of Reffye mitrailleuses was by troops under the command of Adolphe Thiers , when

11570-541: The mitrailleuse as an artillery weapon: The use of the Mitrailleuse no longer has anything in common with that of normal cannon, the employment and task of this piece deeply modify artillery tactics… Very few officers understand the use of this weapon which, however, is only dangerous by the manner one uses it… The partisans of the mitrailleuse are found among the young who crewed them during the war; but there are far fewer among superior officers. The battlefield use of

11700-405: The mitrailleuse as artillery was a fatally flawed concept. To avoid being hit by Dreyse rifle fire, the mitrailleuse batteries were systematically deployed beyond about 1,400 m (1,500 yards) from the Prussian lines. Although the maximum range of the mitrailleuses was 3,400 m (3,700 yards), the distances at which they were typically engaged rarely exceeded 2,000 m (2100 yards) which

11830-445: The mitrailleuse concept were distinguished by their number of barrels and their different calibers, as the following table summarizes. Most variants of the mitrailleuse were mounted on an artillery-style carriage. This made them heavy and cumbersome to handle on the battlefield, with gun and carriage weighing up to 900 kg (2,000 lb). The mitrailleuse's dependence on manual loading meant that its firing rate depended greatly on

11960-414: The mitrailleuses were deployed together with the older "Napoleon" muzzle loaded field guns (" canon obusier de 12 ") used by the French Army during the Franco-Prussian War. The mitrailleuse crews are on record of having generally objected to being placed in proximity to regular artillery batteries. The mitrailleuse is best known for its service with the French Army but in fact it was first used in Belgium in

12090-475: The new weapon to the rest of Europe. The French military became interested in the Christophe and Montigny mitrailleuse in 1863 and the French Army's Artillery Committee undertook an investigation into the possible adoption of the Belgian weapon. However it was decided to do otherwise and to create a proprietary mitrailleuse weapon by sole French industrial means. In May 1864, General Edmond Le Bœuf submitted

12220-439: The official name of the Reffye mitrailleuse in the French Army was " le Canon à Balles ", a designation that translates literally as: "cannon that fires bullets": Comparing the fire of the Mitrailleuse to that of the rifle is misunderstanding the role of the Mitrailleuse. This weapon must begin to fire with effectiveness only at ranges where the rifle no longer carries. It must, for the great ranges of 1000 to 2500 metres compensate

12350-591: The pattern set by the adoption of the Mitrailleuse Hotchkiss in 1897. The FN 5.56 mm NATO machine gun, the Minimi , derives its name from the term Mini-Mitrailleuse , "small machine gun". Submachine guns may be called mitraillettes , the diminutive of mitrailleuse , although they are also called pistolets mitrailleurs ("mitrailleuse pistols"). In Dutch as spoken in the Netherlands,

12480-414: The powder charge. Berdan and Boxer cartridge primers are both considered "centerfire" and are not interchangeable at the primer level; however, the same weapon can fire either Berdan- or Boxer-primed cartridges if the overall dimensions are the same. The two primer types are almost impossible to distinguish by looking at the loaded cartridge, though the two (or more) flash-holes can be seen or felt inside

12610-414: The powder charge. Berdan and Boxer cartridge primers are both considered "centerfire" and are not interchangeable at the primer level; however, the same weapon can fire either Berdan- or Boxer-primed cartridges if the overall dimensions are the same. The two primer types are almost impossible to distinguish by looking at the loaded cartridge, though the two (or more) flash-holes can be seen or felt inside

12740-482: The primary explosive gases had heated the powder grains. Artillery charges frequently included a smaller quantity of black powder to be ignited by the primer, so incandescent potassium carbonate would spread fire through the smokeless powder. Potassium chlorate was added to mercury fulminate priming mixtures so incandescent potassium chloride would have a similar effect in small arms cartridges. Priming mixtures containing mercury fulminate leave metallic mercury in

12870-482: The primary explosive gases had heated the powder grains. Artillery charges frequently included a smaller quantity of black powder to be ignited by the primer, so incandescent potassium carbonate would spread fire through the smokeless powder. Potassium chlorate was added to mercury fulminate priming mixtures so incandescent potassium chloride would have a similar effect in small arms cartridges. Priming mixtures containing mercury fulminate leave metallic mercury in

13000-551: The primer, gunpowder and projectile. Handloading reuse is an advantage for rifles using obsolete or hard-to-find centerfire cartridges such as the 6.5×54mm Mannlicher–Schönauer , or larger calibers such as the .458 Lott , for which ammunition can be expensive. The forward portion of some empty cases can be reformed for use as obsolete or wildcat cartridges with similar base configuration. Modern cartridges larger than .22 caliber are mainly centerfire. Actions suitable for larger caliber rimfire cartridges declined in popularity until

13130-551: The primer, gunpowder and projectile. Handloading reuse is an advantage for rifles using obsolete or hard-to-find centerfire cartridges such as the 6.5×54mm Mannlicher–Schönauer , or larger calibers such as the .458 Lott , for which ammunition can be expensive. The forward portion of some empty cases can be reformed for use as obsolete or wildcat cartridges with similar base configuration. Modern cartridges larger than .22 caliber are mainly centerfire. Actions suitable for larger caliber rimfire cartridges declined in popularity until

13260-502: The priming compound either failed to react to the firing pin fall or extinguished prior to igniting the powder charge. A hang fire is a perceptible delay between the fall of the firing pin and discharge of the firearm. In extreme cases, the delay might be sufficient to be interpreted as a misfire, and the cartridge could fire as the action was being opened or the firearm pointed in an inappropriate direction. Incandescent particles were found most effective for igniting smokeless powder after

13390-502: The priming compound either failed to react to the firing pin fall or extinguished prior to igniting the powder charge. A hang fire is a perceptible delay between the fall of the firing pin and discharge of the firearm. In extreme cases, the delay might be sufficient to be interpreted as a misfire, and the cartridge could fire as the action was being opened or the firearm pointed in an inappropriate direction. Incandescent particles were found most effective for igniting smokeless powder after

13520-530: The pronunciation is similar. In Norway, the term nowadays is used to refer to a machine gun (the MG3 , labeled as mitr-3 , to be specific) mounted on a tripod. This is similar to the German term Schweres Maschinengewehr , which refers to a regular machine gun mounted on a tripod (since the introduction of General purpose machine guns ). In Turkish the term mitralyöz , which is apparently derived from mitrailleuse ,

13650-419: The propellant. This system worked well, allowing the option of installing a cap just before use of the propellant-loaded cartridge, as well as permitting reloading the cartridge for reuse. Difficulties arose in practice because pressing in the cap from the outside tended to cause a swelling of the copper cartridge shell, preventing reliable seating of the cartridge in the chamber of the firearm. Berdan's solution

13780-419: The propellant. This system worked well, allowing the option of installing a cap just before use of the propellant-loaded cartridge, as well as permitting reloading the cartridge for reuse. Difficulties arose in practice because pressing in the cap from the outside tended to cause a swelling of the copper cartridge shell, preventing reliable seating of the cartridge in the chamber of the firearm. Berdan's solution

13910-405: The reach of Prussian Dreyse needle rifle fire. Reffye mitrailleuses were deployed in six-gun batteries and were manned by gunners as a form of special artillery. Although innovative and capable of good ballistic performance, the Reffye mitrailleuse was a tactical failure because its basic concept and operational use were flawed. Only 210 Reffye mitrailleuses were in existence at the beginning of

14040-450: The remaining energy was insufficient for reliable ignition. Decreased ignition energy with age had not been recognized as a problem with black-powder loadings because black powder could be ignited by as little energy as a static electricity discharge. Smokeless powder often required more thermal energy for ignition. Misfires and hang fires became common as the remaining priming compound sputtered in old primers. A misfire would result if

14170-450: The remaining energy was insufficient for reliable ignition. Decreased ignition energy with age had not been recognized as a problem with black-powder loadings because black powder could be ignited by as little energy as a static electricity discharge. Smokeless powder often required more thermal energy for ignition. Misfires and hang fires became common as the remaining priming compound sputtered in old primers. A misfire would result if

14300-479: The required volume may cause undesirably higher pressure spikes during the ignition process. Reducing the amount of priming explosive will greatly diminish the ignition reliability of rimfire cartridges, and increase the probability of a malfunction such as a misfire or hang fire . Economies of scale are achieved through interchangeable primers for a wide variety of centerfire cartridge calibers. The expensive individual brass cases can be reused after replacing

14430-586: The river. By October 5, after intense fighting, the remaining Yaqui soldiers had retreated to the mountains above the river, and the Mexican forces decided to mount a vast offensive against them. More than 12,000 Mexican Federal troops, under the command of General Obregon, General Abundio-Gomez, and General Manzo, directed the operations against the remaining Yaqui forces, using munitions that included 8mm mitrailleuse, and aeroplanes carrying poison gas . Following their campaign against Arabi Pasha in Egypt during 1882,

14560-407: The same cartridge for short-range point-defence . In summary, the Reffye mitrailleuse was rarely used to deliver sweeping fire at close range like modern machine guns. The mitrailleuse six-gun batteries had been designed to deliver fire on targets too distant to be reached with Chassepot infantry rifles or artillery grapeshot . To fulfill this role, at least during the early weeks of the campaign,

14690-530: The sensitivity of potassium chlorate, and antimony trisulfide , as an abrasive, with minor amounts of trinitrotoluene . These corrosive primers leave a residue of potassium chloride salt in the bore after a cartridge is fired. These hygroscopic salt crystals will hold moisture from a humid atmosphere and cause rusting. These corrosive primers can cause serious damage to the gun unless the barrel and action are cleaned carefully after firing. Civilian ammunition manufacturers began offering non-corrosive primers in

14820-530: The sensitivity of potassium chlorate, and antimony trisulfide , as an abrasive, with minor amounts of trinitrotoluene . These corrosive primers leave a residue of potassium chloride salt in the bore after a cartridge is fired. These hygroscopic salt crystals will hold moisture from a humid atmosphere and cause rusting. These corrosive primers can cause serious damage to the gun unless the barrel and action are cleaned carefully after firing. Civilian ammunition manufacturers began offering non-corrosive primers in

14950-412: The shell of the cartridge, and the primer cap was pressed into a recess in the outside of the closed end of the cartridge opposite the bullet. In the end of the cartridge beneath the primer cap was a small vent-hole, as well as a small teat-like projection or point (this was to be known as an anvil later on) fashioned from the case, such that the firing pin could crush the primer against the anvil and ignite

15080-412: The shell of the cartridge, and the primer cap was pressed into a recess in the outside of the closed end of the cartridge opposite the bullet. In the end of the cartridge beneath the primer cap was a small vent-hole, as well as a small teat-like projection or point (this was to be known as an anvil later on) fashioned from the case, such that the firing pin could crush the primer against the anvil and ignite

15210-459: The skill of its operators. A skillfully manned Reffye mitrailleuse could sustain four volleys (100 rounds) per minute in ordinary operation and reach five volleys (125 rounds) per minute during emergencies. The rapidity of discharge of each individual volley (25 rounds) was controlled by the gunner's action on a small manual crank on the right side of the breech. The weapon's 25 barrels were not discharged all at once, but in rapid succession. Because it

15340-433: The thicker metal cartridge cases can withstand rougher handling without damage, and is safer to handle because explosive priming compound in a protruding rim is more likely to be triggered by impact if a rimfire cartridge is dropped or pinched. The stronger base of a centerfire cartridge is able to withstand higher chamber pressures which in turn gives bullets greater velocity and energy. While centerfire cartridge cases require

15470-624: The two primer types, when used in 7.62×51mm ammunition. In these tests, lead-free primers were proven to be not as reliable as lead-based primers. The lead-free primers exhibited poor performance as far as peak blast pressure, which consequently resulted in poor ignition. Popularity of non-corrosive alternatives is still low, as primer reliability is paramount. Most lead-free primers are sourced through Russia (MUrom?)or South Korea (PMC). European and eastern military or surplus ammunition often uses corrosive or slightly-corrosive Berdan primers because they work reliably even under severe conditions, and have

15600-624: The two primer types, when used in 7.62×51mm ammunition. In these tests, lead-free primers were proven to be not as reliable as lead-based primers. The lead-free primers exhibited poor performance as far as peak blast pressure, which consequently resulted in poor ignition. Popularity of non-corrosive alternatives is still low, as primer reliability is paramount. Most lead-free primers are sourced through Russia (MUrom?)or South Korea (PMC). European and eastern military or surplus ammunition often uses corrosive or slightly-corrosive Berdan primers because they work reliably even under severe conditions, and have

15730-484: The well-known Canon de 75 modèle 1897 field gun. At a normal 15 shells per minute rate of fire, one single 75 mm gun could deliver 4,350 lethal shrapnel balls within one minute, up to 6 km away, versus the 75 bullets per minute that were delivered at up to 2 km distance by one Reffye mitrailleuse. Evidently, weapon system efficiency had increased by two orders of magnitude in 30 years. Despite such improvements in longer-range artillery, there still remained

15860-475: The word mitrailleur is widely used as a synonym for machinegeweer (machine gun). Obviously, this word is derived from the original mitrailleuse by changing the gender of the French word. In Dutch-speaking parts of Belgium, however, the word mitrailleur is rarely used, largely because it is regarded as poor French. The term is also used in Norwegian . Although spelled slightly differently as mitraljøse ,

15990-426: Was adopted by the U.S. Army Ordnance Department starting in 1868, ultimately being phased out in the mid 1880s. The centerfire cartridge was improved by Béatus Beringer, Benjamin Houllier, Gastinne Renette, Smith & Wesson, Charles Lancaster , Jules-Félix Gévelot, George Morse, Francois Schneider, Hiram Berdan and Edward Mounier Boxer . Centerfire cartridges are more reliable for military purposes because

16120-455: Was also the first fully integrated cartridge and used a form of obturation employing the cartridge itself. Another form of centerfire ammunition was invented by the Frenchman Clement Pottet in 1829; however, Pottet would not perfect his design until 1855. U.S. General Stephen Vincent Benét developed an internally primed center-fire cartridge that was adopted by the U.S. Army Ordnance Department starting in 1868, ultimately being phased out in

16250-407: Was expected of it in a combat situation. A total of 215 mitrailleuses and five million rounds of ammunition had been manufactured by July 1870, but only 190 were operational and available for field service when war with Prussia broke out. The French Army used the mitrailleuse as an artillery weapon, rather than an infantry support weapon—a role later filled by the machine gun. As a matter of fact,

16380-533: Was less than the reach of French field artillery. However accurate fire at 1500 yards was always extremely difficult to achieve with the typical open sights present on the mitrailleuse. For instance, mitrailleuse bullet impacts on the ground could not be observed in the far distance unless enemy ranks had been disrupted by hits from them. It may be noted that modern machine guns are typically used at ranges far shorter than their maximum range—the M60 machine gun , for instance,

16510-427: Was so heavy (1,500 lbs), the Reffye mitrailleuse did not recoil during firing and thus did not need to be re-sighted on its target after each volley. This essential absence of recoil during firings was promoted by Reffye as a considerable advantage over conventional field artillery. Each regular battery of Reffye mitrailleuses lined up six guns firing together, more or less side by side. The Reffye mitrailleuse used

16640-469: Was to change to brass shells, and to further modify the process of installing the primer cap into the cartridge, as noted in his second Berdan Primer patent of September 29, 1868, in U.S. patent 82,587 . Berdan primers have remained essentially the same functionally to the present day. Berdan primers are similar to the caps used in the caplock system, being small metal cups with pressure-sensitive explosive in them. Modern Berdan primers are pressed into

16770-469: Was to change to brass shells, and to further modify the process of installing the primer cap into the cartridge, as noted in his second Berdan Primer patent of September 29, 1868, in U.S. patent 82,587 . Berdan primers have remained essentially the same functionally to the present day. Berdan primers are similar to the caps used in the caplock system, being small metal cups with pressure-sensitive explosive in them. Modern Berdan primers are pressed into

16900-573: Was widely used as a synonym for machine guns before becoming an archaic term. Currently, makineli tüfek (machine rifle) is considered the accepted term. A related word, metralhadora , is used in Portuguese . Although it is derived from the French mitrailleuse , its pronunciation is different. It describes any automatic firearm. Similarly, in Spanish ametralladora is the word for a machine gun, metralleta , connected to French mitraillette for

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