43-458: Mihirakula ( Gupta script : [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] , Mi-hi-ra-ku-la , Chinese: 摩酰逻矩罗 Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo ), sometimes referred to as Mihiragula or Mahiragula , was the second and last Alchon Hun king of northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent between 502 and 530 CE. He was a son of and successor to Toramana of Huna heritage. His father ruled the Indian part of
86-513: A Buddhist monk , as recorded in the Buddhist text Milinda Panha . Sagala became a major centre for Buddhism under his reign, and prospered as a major trading centre. Sagala is likely the city of Sakala ( Sanskrit : साकला ) mentioned in the Mahabharata , a Sanskrit epic of ancient India, as occupying a similar area as Greek accounts of Sagala. The city may have been inhabited by
129-578: A 200 feet high stupa next to it (compare Guanyin of Mount Xiqiao ). Around the capital, to its northwest and northeast, he describes some ruins as well as several other major ancient stupas from Ashoka's era, all over 200 feet. As per archeological findings, the Greco-Buddhist art disappeared after this period. The period followed a revival of hinduism and the numerous Shahi dynasties of this region did not patronize Buddhism. The 6th-century Alexandrian traveler Cosmas Indicopleustes states that
172-679: A coup and taken power in Sagala. After his release from Magadha, Mihirahula arrived in the kingdom of Kashmira, where the local king gave him a territory to govern. Mihirakula then usurped power over Kashmira. He assassinated the king of Kashmira, and thereafter annexed Gandhara after a surprise assassination of its king and a slaughter of all its ministers. He looted the country and carried the spoils to his capital. He killed more people and also demolished 1600 stupas and monasteries, states Xuanzang. Mihirakula's campaign of destruction and his attempt to regain his Bactria-encompassing empire came to an end after
215-467: A hearsay story about Mihirakula, who he says ruled several hundred years ago from his capital of Sagala (now Sialkot, Pakistan). This estimate is incorrect, as there is only about 100 year difference between Mihirakula rule and Xuanzang pilgrimage in India. Xuanzang states that after coming to power, Mihirakula asked Buddhist monasteries in his domain to send him a scholar to teach Buddhism. However, based on
258-532: A large elephant and cavalry-driven army. Mihirakula destroyed Buddhist sites, ruined monasteries, according to Sagar. Yashodharman, sometime between 525 and 532 CE, reversed Mihirakula's campaign and triggered the end of Mihirakula and the Alchon Huns . Mihirakula issued coins, like the Kushana era kings, showing Oesho or Shiva. This suggests that he may have patronized Shaivism , or just replaced his image in
301-525: A learned Buddhist scholar. Feeling insulted, he became anti-Buddhist and destroyed the monasteries in his kingdom. Mihirakula is believed to have patronized Shaivism tradition of Hinduism . The Rajatarangini calls him cruel, "a man of violent acts and resembling kala (death)", who ruled "the land then overrun by hordes of mlecchas (foreigners)." According to the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Song Yun , Mihirakula "does not believe in any religion",
344-499: A war against him. Mihirakula proceeded to invade eastern kingdoms including Magadha. He was defeated and captured by the Gupta king Narasimhagupta Baladitya. The Magadha king tried him and declared the right punishment for Mihirakula to be execution. However, Baladitya's mother intervened and argued against capital punishment. Mihirakula's life was thus spared. Meanwhile, during Mihirakula stay in prison, his associate had already completed
387-474: Is found in the memoir left by the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Song Yun , reputed to have met Mihirakula. He states that Mihirakula "does not believe in any religion", that the Brahmins who live in his kingdom and read their sacred texts do not like him, his people were exhausted and unhappy with his wars and destruction. The 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hsuan Tsang) left a travelogue. This text includes
430-565: Is most likely of Iranian origin and may have the meaning " Mithra 's Begotten", as translated by Janos Harmatta . In Sanskrit Mihira is Sun and Kula is Clan. According to Harold Walter Bailey : "A name like Toramana and his son's name Mihirakula interpreted by North Iranian (and not by Western Iranian) are clearly Iranian". According to Krishna Chandra Sagar, the Huna king Toramana was cruel and barbaric, his son Mihirakula even more so, during their rule. Mihirakula had conquered Sindh by 520 CE, had
473-421: Is plenty of evidence that he did not and that it continued to grow and thrive in and around northwest Indian subcontinent for many centuries after Mihirakula's death. Mihirakula was cruel, but his cruelty did not discriminate based on religion, nor did it destroy or reverse Buddhism in the northwest. The travelogue of Xuanzang states that initially Mihirakula was interested in learning about Buddhism , and asked
SECTION 10
#1732766292253516-847: The Saka , or Scythians , from Central Asia who had migrated into the Subcontinent. The region was noted in the Mahabharata for the "loose and Bacchanalian" women who lived in the woods there. The city was said to have been located in the Sakaladvipa region between the Chenab and Ravi rivers, now known as the Rechna Doab . The Anabasis of Alexander , written by the Roman-Greek historian Arrian , recorded that Alexander
559-634: The Hephthalite Empire . Mihirakula ruled from his capital of Sagala (modern-day Sialkot , Pakistan ). In around 520 CE, the Chinese monk Song Yun met with Mihirakula. According to the 7th-century travelogue of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim and student Xuanzang , Mihirakula ruled several hundreds of years before his visit, was initially interested in Buddhism, and sought a Buddhist teacher from monasteries in his domain. They did not send him
602-713: The 19th century), the Gurmukhī script for Punjabi , the Odia script , the Bengali-Assamese script and the Tibetan script . The Gupta script was descended from the Ashokan Brāhmī script , and is a crucial link between Brahmi and most other Brahmic scripts , a family of alphasyllabaries or abugidas . This means that while only consonantal phonemes have distinct symbols, vowels are marked by diacritics, with /a/ being
645-548: The 2nd century Ashokavadana , the king persecuted Buddhists: Sagala, renamed Euthydemia by the Greeks, was used as a capital by the Indo-Greek king Menander during his reign between 160 and 135 BC. Under Menander's rule, the city greatly prospered as a major trading centre renowned for its silk . Literary accounts suggests the Greeks and the local population of cities like Sagala lived in relative harmony, with some of
688-512: The Alchon Hun era in India. Medieval era Chinese Buddhist pilgrims depict the early 6th-century Mihirakula as a tyrant and persecutor of their religion. However, according to Jason Neelis – a scholar of Buddhist studies and religious history, all evidence including those in their travelogue suggests that, despite his rule in Punjab, Gandhara and Kashmir regions, there was "no negative impact on
731-647: The Aulikaras, states Neelis. This has perpetuated John Marshall's incorrect conjecture that "Mihirakula destroyed Buddhism in Gandhara", wiping out the Buddhist monasteries in the northwest. Later archaeological studies affirm that the major Buddhist monastery at Harwan – near Srinagar, Kashmir – was "built" during this period. According to Shōshin Kuwayama – a Buddhist history scholar, there is no evidence whatsoever that Mihirakula destroyed Buddhism in Gandhara, there
774-498: The Brahmins who live in his kingdom and read their sacred texts do not like him, his people were unhappy. The Buddhist texts record Mihirakula as extremely cruel and bad mannered, the one who destroyed Buddhist sites, ruined monasteries, killed monks. The Hindu kings Yashodharman and Gupta Empire rulers, between 525 and 532 CE, likely by 530 CE, reversed Mihirakula's campaign and ended the Mihirakula era. The name "Mihirakula"
817-689: The Great captured ancient Sialkot , recorded as Sagala , from the Cathaeans, who had entrenched themselves there. The city had been home to 80,000 residents on the eve of Alexander's invasion, but was razed as a warning against any other nearby cities that might resist his invasion. Following his overthrowing of the Mauryan Empire , Pushyamitra Shunga established the Shunga Empire and expanded northwest as far as Sagala. According to
860-452: The Greeks converting to Buddhism and adopting local traditions. Menander embraced Buddhism in Sagala, after an extensive debating with the Buddhist monk Nagasena , as recorded in the Buddhist text Milinda Panha . the text offers an early description of the city's cityscape and status as a prosperous trade centre with numerous green spaces. Following his conversion, Sialkot developed as a major centre for Buddhist thought. Ancient Sialkot
903-544: The Gupta Kings. Many of the Gupta Empire's coins bear inscriptions of legends or mark historic events. In fact, it was one of the first Indian Empires to do so, probably as a result of its unprecedented prosperity. Almost every Gupta king issued coins, beginning with its first king, Chandragupta I . The scripts on the coin are also of a different nature compared to scripts on pillars, due to conservatism regarding
SECTION 20
#1732766292253946-540: The Gupta period, even though there may be a lack of uniformity in the scripts. The surviving inscriptions of the Gupta script are mostly found on iron or stone pillars, and on gold coins from the Gupta Dynasty. One of the most important was the Prayagraj (Allahabad) Prasasti . Composed by Harisena , the court poet and minister of Samudragupta , it describes Samudragupta's reign, beginning from his accession to
989-584: The Gupta script is considered a stylistic variation of Brahmi, though use of the Brahmi encoding is one approach. The study of Gupta coins began with the discovery of a hoard of gold coins in 1783. Many other such hoards have since been discovered, the most important being the Bayana (situated in Bharatpur district of Rajasthan ) hoard, discovered in 1946, which contained more than 2000 gold coins issued by
1032-520: The Hephthalites in India reached the zenith of its power under "Gollas", which is thought to be the same as Mihirakula from the last part of his name. Higher up in India, that is, farther to the north, are the White Huns. The one called Gollas when going to war takes with him, it is said, no fewer than two thousand elephants, and a great force of cavalry. He is the lord of India, and oppressing
1075-554: The central Indian king Yashodharman defeated him. According to Xuanzang, Mihirakula died a sudden death. After his death, the Buddhist scholars in this land declared that "he will fall in the deepest hell of incessant suffering and rotate [in the wheel of rebirth] without end" (Li Rongxi translation). According to Xuanzang's travelogue, despite Mihirakula destructive campaign during his rule, thousands of monasteries of different Buddhist schools – both Hinayana and Mahayana, as well as monks and scholars were thriving in northwestern regions of
1118-459: The coins that were to be accepted as currency, which would have prevented regional variations in the script from manifesting on the coinage. Moreover, space was more limited especially on their silver coins, and thus many of the symbols are truncated or stunted. An example is the symbol for /ta/ and /na/, which were often simplified to vertical strokes. Sagala Sagala , Sakala ( Sanskrit : साकला ), or Sangala ( Ancient Greek : Σάγγαλα )
1161-468: The growth of Buddhist monasteries" in these regions over previous centuries. Some early Indian studies, such as by D.C. Sircar, have incorrectly used coins or a questionable prashasti inscription of the Aulikaras (unrelated to Mihirakula) to declare him a Shaiva ruler, and declare him as selectively persecuting the Buddhists. The Aulikara inscription is actually referring to Shiva as the family deity of
1204-402: The implied pronunciation when the diacritic is not present. In fact, the Gupta script works in exactly the same manner as its predecessor and successors, and only the shapes and forms of the graphemes and diacritics are different. Through the 4th century, letters began to take more cursive and symmetric forms, as a result of the desire to write more quickly and aesthetically. This also meant that
1247-410: The law of Buddha, and he commanded that one among the priests of superior talent should wait on him. Now it happened that none of the priests dared to attend to his command. Those who had few desires and were content, did not care about distinction; those of superior learning and high renown despised the royal bounty (glitter). At this time there was an old servant in the king's household who had long worn
1290-415: The monks to send him a teacher; the monks sent him a novice servant for the purpose. He felt insulted. This incident is said to have turned Mihirakula virulently anti-Buddhist. Historian Upinder Singh has raised some questions over the anti-Buddhist reputation of Mihirakula while considering these episodes of violence:- Was this reputation based on actual religious persecution? Or was Mihirakula cast into
1333-594: The people forces them to pay tribute. The Gwalior inscription issued in the 15th regnal year created by Matricheta in a Surya temple, mentions Mihirakula. It confirms that Mihirakula rule extended to Gwalior . In 528 Mihirakula suffered a defeat in the Battle of Sondani by the Aulikara dynasty King Yashodharman , an event that is partly the subject of the Mandasor pillar inscription of Yasodharman. The defeat ended
Mihirakula - Misplaced Pages Continue
1376-440: The priests there were men of illustrious ability; after what has happened today what further respect can I have for the priesthood ?" He then issued an edict to destroy all the priests through the five Indies (lit. 五印度国 "the five countries of India"), to overthrow the law of Buddha, and leave nothing remaining. The cruel deeds and the news of destruction by Mihirakula spread to other Indian kingdoms. The king of Magadha announced
1419-403: The religious garments. He was of distinguished ability and able to enter on discussion, -and was very eloquent. The priests put him forward in answer to the royal appeal. The king said, " I have a respect for the law of Buddha, and I invited from far any renowned priest (to come and instruct me), and now the congregation have put forward this servant to discuss with me. I always thought that amongst
1462-485: The reputation of his father and his own, the monks and scholars did not go. They sent a novice. This angered Mihirakula. He then ordered the destruction of the Buddhist religion: Some centuries ago there was a king called Mihirakula (摩酰逻矩罗, Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo ), who established his authority in this town and ruled over India. He was of quick talent, and naturally brave. He subdued all the neighbouring provinces without exception. In his intervals of leisure he desired to examine
1505-462: The role of a cruel anti-Buddhist king because one of his arch political opponents, king Baladitya of Magadha (sometimes identified with a later Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta ), at whose hands he apparently suffered a crushing defeat, was an ardent patron of the Buddhist sangha? The interesting thing is that ninth- and tenth-century Jaina texts describe Mihirakula as a wicked, oppressive tyrant who
1548-455: The script became more differentiated throughout the Empire, with regional variations which have been broadly classified into three, four or five categories; however, a definitive classification is lacking, because even in a single inscription, there may be variation in how a particular symbol is written. In this sense, the term Gupta script should be taken to mean any form of writing derived from
1591-413: The subcontinent when he visited (629–645 CE), including the countries of Udyana, Balura, Taksasila, Gandhara, Kashmira and Rajapura. He studied for months in several of these places, and two years in a Kashmira monastery. Even in the 6th-century capital Sagala of Mihirakula, Xuanzang's 7th-century travelogue states that there is a monastery with more than hundred monks studying Hinayana Buddhism, along with
1634-689: The throne as the second king of the Gupta Dynasty and including his conquest of other kings. It is inscribed on the Allahabad pillar of Ashoka . The Gupta alphabet is composed of 37 letters: 32 consonants with the inherent ending "a" and 5 independent vowels. In addition diacritics are attached to the consonants in order to change the sound of the final vowel (from the inherent "a" to other sounds such as i, u, e, o, au ...). Consonants can also be combined into compounds, also called conjunct consonants (for example sa+ya are combined vertically to give "sya"). The Unicode Standard does not explicitly state that
1677-609: The traditional Kushana-style way of making coins at the mints. Other scholars state that there are many legends surrounding this era and historical facts are difficult to ascertain. Except for rare Kashmiri texts such as Rajatarangini , he is hardly acknowledged and never praised in Hindu texts. The 12th-century Rajatarangini includes him as one of the kings in regional history, then calls him cruel, "a man of violent acts and resembling kala (death)", who ruled "the land then overrun by hordes of mlecchas (foreigners)." Contradictory evidence
1720-566: Was a city in modern day Pakistan , which was the predecessor of the modern city of Sialkot that is located in what is now Pakistan 's northern Punjab province. The city was the capital of the Madra Kingdom and it was razed in 326 BC during the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great . In the 2nd century BC, Sagala was made capital of the Indo-Greek kingdom by Menander I . Menander embraced Buddhism after extensive debating with
1763-465: Was anti- Jaina . Are the textual references evidence of active political persecution and violence? Or are they merely expressions of resentment at a lack of royal patronage and support? Are they recastings of political conflicts into religious molds? Singh considers the symbolism on his coinage (some of his copper coins have a bull on the reverse with the inscription "The bull should be victorious"), and some inscriptions, as possible evidence that Mihirakula
Mihirakula - Misplaced Pages Continue
1806-469: Was inclined toward Shaivism . She adds that this and other material evidence is "confusing" yet significant that "such perceptions of violent royal persecution and oppression on religious lines existed". Even if the accounts of Mihirakula persecution is true or exaggerated, it was against the general trends of royal religious policy of that period. Gupta script The Gupta script (sometimes referred to as Gupta Brahmi script or Late Brahmi script )
1849-514: Was used for writing Sanskrit and is associated with the Gupta Empire of the Indian subcontinent , which was a period of material prosperity and great religious and scientific developments. The Gupta script was descended from Brāhmī and gave rise to the Śāradā and Siddhaṃ scripts. These scripts in turn gave rise to many of the most important Indic scripts, including Devanāgarī (the most common script used for writing Sanskrit since
#252747