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112-588: The term "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various Hellenistic states, ruling from regional capitals like Taxila , Sagala , Pushkalavati , and Alexandria in the Caucasus (now Bagram ). Other centers are only hinted at; e.g. Ptolemy 's Geographia and the nomenclature of later kings suggest that a certain Theophilus in the south of the Indo-Greek sphere of influence may also have been

224-460: A Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited the city via the Silk Road , had given its name's meaning as "cut-off head". With the help of a Jataka , he had interpreted it to be the place where Gautama Buddha —during a previous birth as Pusa or Chandaprabha —cut off his head to feed a hungry lion. This tradition still persists with the area in front of Sirkap (also meaning "cut-off head"), which

336-471: A Magnesian Greek . His son, Demetrius I , founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek ethnicity at least by his father. A marriage treaty was arranged for the same Demetrius with a daughter of the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III . The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is sometimes less clear. For example, Artemidoros (80 BC) was supposed to have been of Indo-Scythian descent, although he

448-561: A World Heritage Site . By some accounts, the University of ancient Taxila is considered to be one of the earliest universities or education centre in South Asia. Other scholars do not consider it to have been a university in the modern sense, in that the teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in

560-610: A Seleucid princess, in accordance with contemporary Greek practices to form dynastic alliances. An Indian Puranic source, the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana , described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek (" Yavana ") princess, daughter of Seleucus, before accurately detailing early Mauryan genealogy: " Chandragupta married with a daughter of Suluva , the Yavana king of Pausasa . Thus, he mixed

672-526: A blow from which the city would never recover. From 500 CE to 540 CE, the city languished after falling under the control of the Hunnic Empire ruled by Mihirakula . Mihirakula presided over some destruction of Buddhist sites, monasteries and Hindu temples across northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Xuanzang visited India between 629 and 645 CE. Taxila which was desolate and half-ruined

784-671: A clear technological change from the Period I material. Seven radiocarbon dates were also taken from the earlier and later Period II/Kot Diji, and seem to show this phase dates from the mid-late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE. Gandhara was an ancient Indo-Aryan kingdom of western South Asia whose existence was attested during the Iron Age . The capital of the kingdom was in Taxila. The first major settlement at Taxila, in Hathial mound,

896-456: A composite and powerful army made up of Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas , Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), Parasikas (Persians) and Bahlikas (Bactrians) who took Pataliputra . In 305 BC, Seleucus I led an army to the Indus , where he encountered Chandragupta . The confrontation ended with a peace treaty, and "an intermarriage agreement" ( Epigamia , Greek: Ἐπιγαμία), meaning either

1008-568: A danger to both; and that if they admitted them into the country, it would certainly be utterly barbarised. Following the departure of the Seleucid army, the Bactrian kingdom seems to have expanded. In the west, areas in north-eastern Iran may have been absorbed, possibly as far as into Parthia , whose ruler had been defeated by Antiochus the Great . These territories possibly are identical with

1120-508: A distinctive type of highly burnished pottery that shows clear signs of the use of woven baskets in the manufacturing process and the application of a slurry to the exterior surface. Periods IA and II at Sarai Khola seem to show continuity from Period I, with the appearance of red burnished wares. However, Kot Diji -style wares were found in greater numbers, and the Kot Diji-style forms show signs of having been wheel-thrown, marking

1232-656: A dynastic marriage or an agreement for intermarriage between Indians and Greeks. Accordingly, Seleucus ceded his eastern territories to Chandragupta, possibly as far as Arachosia and received 500 war elephants (which played a key role in Seleucus's victory at the Battle of Ipsus ): The Indians occupy in part some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived

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1344-484: A great centre of learning with world-famous teachers. The Jatakas mention non-Buddhist institutions and teachers in Taxila. They show the predominance of Vedic and technical disciplines including law, medicine, and military science. The Takkasila Jataka, more commonly known as the Telapatta Jataka, tells the tale of a prince of Benares who is told that he would become the king of Takkasila if he could reach

1456-747: A great proselytizer in the line of the traditional Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism, directing his efforts towards the Indian and the Hellenistic worlds from around 250 BC. According to the Edicts of Ashoka , set in stone, some of them written in Greek, he sent Buddhist emissaries to the Greek lands in Asia and as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts name each of the rulers of the Hellenistic world at

1568-594: A gymnastic and equestrian contest there. On Alexander's death, in 323 BCE, the province and much of the once Achaemenid territories would pass to his general Seleucus I Nicator and founder of the successor Seleucid Empire . By 303 BCE, the Seleucid Empire's satraps in South Asia had been formally annexed by the expanding Mauryan empire, following the Seleucid–Mauryan war , with the provincial capital and center of higher education at of Taxila now under

1680-888: A man". The Kidarites , vassals of the Hephthalite Empire are known to have invaded Taxila in c. 450 CE. Though repelled by the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta , the city would not recover- probably on account of the strong Hunnic presence in the area, breakdown of trade as well as the three-way war among Persia, the Kidarite State, and the Huns in Western Gandhara . The White Huns and Alchon Huns swept over Gandhāra and Punjab around 470 CE, causing widespread devastation and destruction of Taxila's famous Buddhist monasteries and stupas ,

1792-529: A nickeliferous copper ore was the source from mines at Anarak . Copper-nickel would not be used again in coinage until the 19th century. The presence of Chinese people in the Indian subcontinent from ancient times is also suggested by the accounts of the " Ciñas " in the Mahabharata and the Manu Smriti . The Han dynasty explorer and ambassador Zhang Qian visited Bactria in 126 BC, and reported

1904-475: A number of monuments and other historical places of note in the area besides the four settlements at Bhir, Saraikala, Sirkap, and Sirsukh. They number 18 in all: In a 2010 report, Global Heritage Fund identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites most "on the Verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and war and conflict as primary threats. In 2017, it

2016-435: A pair of sandals, or an umbrella. In cases of poor students being unable to afford even that, they could approach the king, who would then step in and provide something. Not providing a poor student a means to supply his Guru's Dakshina was considered the greatest slur on a King's reputation. Examinations were treated as superfluous, and not considered part of the requirements to complete one's studies . The process of teaching

2128-670: A political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians , although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo-Parthians , the Kushans , and the Indo-Scythians , whose Western Satraps state lingered on encompassing local Greeks , up to 415 CE. Greeks first began to settle the Northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent during

2240-570: A quarter Greek." Also several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes , followed by Deimachus and Dionysius , were sent to reside at the Mauryan court. Presents continued to be exchanged between the two rulers. The intensity of these contacts is testified by the existence of a dedicated Mauryan state department for Greek ( Yavana ) and Persian foreigners, or the remains of Hellenistic pottery that can be found throughout northern India. On these occasions, Greek populations apparently remained in

2352-477: A reduced rate, while sea trade between Greek Egypt and Bactria developed. Diodotus was succeeded by his son Diodotus II , who allied himself with the Parthian Arsaces in his fight against Seleucus II : Soon after, relieved by the death of Diodotus, Arsaces made peace and concluded an alliance with his son, also by the name of Diodotus; some time later he fought against Seleucos who came to punish

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2464-596: A river bearing the same name and emptying into the Oxus ), and Darapsa, and several others. Among these was Eucratidia , which was named after its ruler. When the ruler of neighbouring Parthia , the former satrap and self-proclaimed king Andragoras , was eliminated by Arsaces , the rise of the Parthian Empire cut off the Greco-Bactrians from direct contact with the Greek world. Overland trade continued at

2576-702: A royal seat at one time. The kingdom was founded when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius I of Bactria invaded India from Bactria in about 200 BC. The Greeks to the east of the Seleucid Empire were eventually divided from the Graeco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdoms in the North Western Indian Subcontinent. During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined

2688-644: A system of tunnels and channels to the 990 MW Dehar Power Station on the Sutlej River , connecting both rivers. The Shahnehar canal takes off from the Shahnehar barrage/headwork which is located just downstream of Pong dam to supply water for irrigation needs and four cascading power houses at the canal drops before releasing water further downstream in the Beas river. These power stations, named Mukerian hydel (12 units), has 207 MW total generating capacity. At

2800-615: A three-year siege in the fortified city of Bactra (modern Balkh ), before Antiochus finally decided to recognize the new ruler, and to offer one of his daughters to Euthydemus's son Demetrius around 206 BC. Classical accounts also relate that Euthydemus negotiated peace with Antiochus III by suggesting that he deserved credit for overthrowing the original rebel Diodotus, and that he was protecting Central Asia from nomadic invasions thanks to his defensive efforts: ...for if he did not yield to this demand, neither of them would be safe: seeing that great hordes of Nomads were close at hand, who were

2912-596: Is a historic city, located on the Pothohar Plateau , in Punjab, Pakistan . Founded as a group of proper settlements around 1000 BCE, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , being one of the oldest settlements in South Asia. It has a population of over 136,900, as of 2023 ; and is administratively located in the Taxila Tehsil of Rawalpindi District , lying approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) northwest of

3024-462: Is a river in north India . The river rises in the Himalayas in central Himachal Pradesh , India, and flows for some 470 kilometres (290 mi) to the Sutlej River in the Indian state of Punjab . Its total length is 470 kilometres (290 mi) and its drainage basin is 20,303 square kilometres (7,839 sq mi) large. As of 2017, the river is home to a tiny isolated population of

3136-478: Is during this time that the city heavily features in classical Indian literature – both as a centre of culture as well as a militarised border city. Taxila's university remained in existence during the travels of Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited Taxila around 400 CE. He wrote that Taxila's name translated as "the Severed Head", and was the site of a story in the life of Buddha "where he gave his head to

3248-459: Is found in the Hathial section, which yielded pottery shards that date from as early as the late 2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. The Bhir Mound ruins at the site date from the 6th century BCE, and are adjacent to Hathial. The ruins of Sirkap date to the 2nd century BCE, and were built by the region's Greco-Bactrian kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great's invasion of

3360-403: Is identified with kingdom of Taxila by some authors. By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be one of the earliest (or the earliest) universities in the world. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the religious instruction was provided on an individualistic basis. Others do not consider it a university in the modern sense, in that

3472-584: Is most famous for ruins of several settlements, the earliest dating from around 1000 BCE. It is also known for its collection of Buddhist religious monuments, including the Dharmarajika stupa , the Jaulian monastery, and the Mohra Muradu monastery. The main ruins of Taxila include four major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period, at three different sites. The earliest settlement at Taxila

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3584-462: Is now seen as a regular Indo-Greek king. Menander I Soter , being the most well known amongst the Indo-Greek kings, is often referred to simply as "Menander," despite the fact that there was indeed another Indo-Greek King known as Menander II. Menander I's capital was at Sagala in the Punjab (present-day Sialkot). Following the death of Menander, most of his empire splintered and Indo-Greek influence

3696-476: Is said to have been enthroned at Takshashila. The Ramayana describes Takshashila as a magnificent city famed for its wealth which was founded by Bharata, the younger brother of Rama . Bharata, who also founded nearby Pushkalavati , installed his two sons, Taksha and Pushkala, as the rulers of the two cities. In the Buddhist Jatakas, Taxila is described as the capital of the kingdom of Gandhara and

3808-635: The Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma . In his edicts, Ashoka mentions that he had sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek rulers as far as the Mediterranean ( Edict No. 13 ), and that he developed herbal medicine in their territories, for the welfare of humans and animals ( Edict No. 2 ). The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in

3920-663: The Chenab River at Uch near Bahawalpur to form the Panjnad River ; the latter in turn joins the Indus River at Mithankot . The water of the Beas river is allocated to India under the terms of the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan . The mean annual flow is 14.203 million acre feet (MAF). On 8 June 2014, 24 engineering students and one tour operator drowned when the flood gates of

4032-770: The Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to the Suez . Darius then returned to Persia via the Bolan Pass . The region continued under Achaemenid suzerainty under the reign of Xerxes I, and continued under Achaemenid rule for over a century. Taxila was sometimes ruled as part of the Gandhara kingdom (whose capital was Pushkalavati), particularly after the Achaemenid period, but Taxila sometimes formed its own independent district or city-state. During his invasion of

4144-477: The Indus Valley , Alexander the Great was able to gain control of Taxila ( Ancient Greek : Τάξιλα ) in 326 BCE without a battle, as the city was surrendered by its ruler, king Omphis (Āmbhi). Greek historians accompanying Alexander described Taxila as "wealthy, prosperous, and well governed". Arrian writes that Alexander was welcomed by the citizens of the city, and he offered sacrifices and celebrated

4256-476: The Indus dolphin . Rig-veda calls the river Vipāś , which means unfettered, in later Sanskrit texts it's been called Vipāśā विपाशा, Yāska identifies it with Argrikiya. According to legends, Veda Vyasa , the author of the Indian epic Mahabharata , is the eponym of the river Beas; he is said to have created it from its source lake, the Beas Kund. According to other legends, before Veda Vyasa,

4368-615: The Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area and immediately south of Haripur District , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . Old Taxila was for a time the capital city of ancient Gandhāra , situated on the eastern shore of the Indus River —the pivotal junction of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia ; it was possibly founded around 1000 BCE. The city was part of the Achaemenid empire's Hindush colony, between ~550 - 326 BCE. In 326 BCE,

4480-476: The Larji dam were opened. During 2023 monsoon , flooding in Beas caused substantial damages in the state of Himachal Pradesh. Damage to the state is estimated to be $ 1B, the loss of life is over 400, and little government relief is available to assist with social costs and recovery. On May 17, 2018, countless number of fishes and other aquatic animals were found dead in Beas river due to release of molasses from

4592-592: The Punjab were left to the rule of Porus and Taxiles , who were confirmed again at the Treaty of Triparadisus in 321 BC, and the remaining Greek troops in these satrapies were left under the command of Alexander's general Eudemus . After 321 BC Eudemus toppled Taxiles, until he left India in 316 BC. To the south, another general also ruled over the Greek colonies of the Indus: Peithon, son of Agenor , until his departure for Babylon in 316 BC. Around 322 BC,

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4704-587: The Seleucid Empire , a dynastic alliance or the recognition of intermarriage between Greeks and Indians were established (described as an agreement on Epigamia in Ancient sources), and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes , resided at the Mauryan court. Subsequently, each Mauryan emperor had a Greek ambassador at his court. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka converted to the Buddhist faith and became

4816-808: The Seres (Chinese) and the Phryni Several statuettes and representations of Greek soldiers have been found north of the Tien Shan , on the doorstep to China, and are today on display in the Xinjiang museum at Urumqi (Boardman). Greek influences on Chinese art have also been suggested ( Hirth , Rostovtzeff ). Designs with rosette flowers, geometric lines, and glass inlays, suggestive of Hellenistic influences, can be found on some early Han dynasty bronze mirrors. Numismatics also suggest that some technology exchanges may have occurred on these occasions:

4928-612: The Tirthankaras , visited Taxila millions of years ago. His footprints were subsequently consecrated by Bahubali who erected a throne and a dharmachakra ('wheel of the law') over them several miles in height and circumference. The region around Taxila was settled by the Neolithic era, with some ruins at Taxila dating to 1000 BCE. Ruins dating from the Early Harappan period around 1300 BCE have also been discovered in

5040-405: The 7th-century Buddhist monk. Unlike Pliny, these sources noted that the journey to Taxila from the Indus took three days and not two. Cunningham's subsequent explorations in 1863–64 of a site at Shah-dheri convinced him that his hypothesis was correct. Now as Hwen Thsang, on his return to China, was accompanied by laden elephants, his three days' journey from Takhshasila [ sic ] to

5152-490: The Apostle visited Gondophares IV around 46 CE, possibly at Taxila given that city was Gondophares' capital city. Around the year 50 CE, the Greek Neopythagorean philosopher Apollonius of Tyana allegedly visited Taxila, which was described by his biographer, Philostratus , writing some 200 years later, as a fortified city laid out on a symmetrical plan, similar in size to Nineveh . Modern archaeology confirms this description. Inscriptions dating to 76 CE demonstrate that

5264-460: The Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants. The details of the marriage agreement are not known, but since the extensive sources available on Seleucus never mention an Indian princess, it is thought that the marital alliance went the other way, with Chandragupta himself or his son Bindusara marrying

5376-443: The Bactrian satrapies of Tapuria and Traxiane . To the north, Euthydemus also ruled Sogdiana and Ferghana , and there are indications that from Alexandria Eschate the Greco-Bactrians may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar and Ürümqi in Chinese Turkestan , leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 220 BC. The Greek historian Strabo too writes that: they extended their empire even as far as

5488-415: The Beas is crossed by numerous ferries, many of which consist of inflated skins (darais). Near Reh in Kangra District it divides into three channels, which reunite after passing Mirthal, 300 metres (980 ft) above sea-level. On meeting the Sivalik Hills in Hoshiarpur , the river sweeps sharply northward, forming the boundary with Kangra District. Then bending round the base of the Sivalik Hills, it takes

5600-483: The Buddhists and the Yavanas. He ruled for 60 years. From him, Vindusara was born and ruled for the same number of years as his father. His son was Ashoka ." Chandragupta , however, followed Jainism until the end of his life. He got in his court for marriage the daughter of Seleucus Nicator , Berenice ( Suvarnnaksi ), and thus, he mixed the Indians and the Greeks. His grandson Ashoka , as Woodcock and other scholars have suggested, "may in fact have been half or at least

5712-433: The Chinese people, and placing great value on the rich produce of China A number of Chinese envoys were then sent to Central Asia, triggering the development of the Silk Road from the end of the 2nd century BC. The Indian emperor Chandragupta , founder of the Mauryan dynasty , had re-conquered northwestern India upon the death of Alexander the Great around 322 BC. However, contacts were kept with his Greek neighbours in

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5824-505: The Greco-Bactrians were the first in the world to issue cupro-nickel (75/25 ratio) coins, an alloy technology only known by the Chinese at the time under the name "White copper" (some weapons from the Warring States period were in copper-nickel alloy). The practice of exporting Chinese metals, in particular iron, for trade is attested around that period. Kings Euthydemus, Euthydemus II, Agathocles and Pantaleon made these coin issues around 170 BC and it has alternatively been suggested that

5936-401: The Greek and Indian languages and symbols , as seen on their coins, and blended Greek and Indian ideas, as seen in the archaeological remains. The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of Greco-Buddhist art . The ethnicity of the Indo-Greek may also have been hybrid to some degree. Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius,

6048-511: The Greeks (described as Yona or Yavana in Indian sources) may then have participated, together with other groups, in the uprising of Chandragupta Maurya against the Nanda dynasty , and gone as far as Pataliputra for the capture of the city from the Nandas. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus , and according to these accounts, this alliance gave Chandragupta

6160-414: The Indian parts of the Persian empire. In the fourth century BC, Alexander the Great defeated and conquered the Persian empire. In 326 BC, this included the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent as far as the Hyphasis River . Alexander established satrapies and founded several settlements, including Bucephala ; he turned south when his troops refused to go further east. The Indian satrapies of

6272-436: The Indus at Utakhanda , or Ohind, must necessarily have been of the same length as those of modern days, and, consequently, the site of the city must be looked for somewhere in the neighbourhood of Kâla-ka-sarâi . This site is found near Shah-dheri , just one mile to the north-east of Kâla-ka-sarâi , in the extensive ruins of a fortified city, around which I was able to trace no less than 55 stupas, of which two are as large as

6384-432: The Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known for its association with Chanakya, also known as Kautilya , the strategist who guided Chandragupta Maurya and assisted in the founding of the Mauryan empire. The Ayurvedic healer Charaka also studied at Taxila. He also started teaching at Taxila in the later period. Pāṇini, the grammarian who codified the rules that would define Classical Sanskrit , has also been part of

6496-433: The Taxila area, though the area was eventually abandoned after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilisation. The earliest settled occupation in Taxila Valley was found at Sarai Khola , located 2 km to the south-west of Taxila Museum , where three radiocarbon dates from Period I suggest the site was first occupied between the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BCE, with deposits of polished stone celts, chert blades and

6608-429: The Vipasa river was known as Saraswati . Rishi Vashishta , the great grandfather of Vyasa tried to jump into this river from an overlooking hillock, to sacrifice his soul. He tied himself with several cords to drown himself . However, the river altered form to become a sandbed, saving him. And in this course, the cords got broken, so Vashishta named the river Vipasa, which means cord-breaker. On account of this incident,

6720-400: The advantage of explaining why the Seleucid king Antiochus II issued very few coins in Bactria, as Diodotos would have become independent there early in Antiochus' reign. On the other hand, the low chronology, from the mid-240s BC, has the advantage of connecting the secession of Diodotus I with the Third Syrian War , a catastrophic conflict for the Seleucid Empire. Diodotus, the governor of

6832-423: The age of eight), and their secondary education in the Ashrams (between the ages of eight and twelve), and therefore came to Taxila chiefly to reach the ends of knowledge in specific disciplines. The sites of a number of important cities noted in ancient Indian texts were identified by scholars early in the 19th century. The lost city of Taxila, however, was not identified until later, in 1863-64. Its identification

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6944-507: The centuries, with many empires vying for its control. In the 2nd century BCE, Taxila was annexed by the Indo-Greek kingdom of Bactria . Indo-Greeks built a new capital, Sirkap, on the opposite bank of the river from Taxila. During this new period of Bactrian Greek rule, several dynasties (like Antialcidas ) likely ruled from the city as their capital. During lulls in Greek rule, the city managed profitably on its own, to independently control several local trade guilds, who also minted most of

7056-534: The city had come under Kushan rule by that time, after the city was captured from the Parthians by Kujula Kadphises , founder of the Kushan Empire . The great Kushan ruler Kanishka later founded Sirsukh , the most recent of the ancient settlements at Taxila. In the mid-fourth century CE, the Gupta Empire occupied the territories in Eastern Gandhara, establishing a Kumaratya's post at Taxila. The city became well known for its trade links, including silk, sandalwood, horses, cotton, silverware, pearls, and spices. It

7168-406: The city was conquered by Alexander the Great who gained control of the city without a battle since the city was immediately surrendered to the Macedonian Empire . This was followed successively by the Maurya Empire (~317 - ~200 BCE), the Indo-Greek Kingdom (~200 BCE - ~55 BCE), the Indo-Scythians (~80 BCE - ~30 CE), and the Kushan Empire (~ 30 CE - ~375 CE), who destroyed the existing city, in

7280-400: The city was founded by Bharata , the younger brother of the Hindu deity Rama , and named in honour of Bharata's son, Taksha. The city's modern name, however, is derived from the ancient Greek rendering noted in Ptolemy 's Geography . The Greek-language transcription of Taxila became universally favoured over time, and both the Sanskrit and Pali names fell out of use. Faxian ,

7392-411: The city within seven days without falling prey to the yakshinis who waylaid travellers in the forest. According to the Dipavamsa , one of Taxila's early kings was a Kshatriya named Dipankara who was succeeded by twelve sons and grandsons. Kuñjakarṇa , mentioned in the Avadanakalpalata , is another king associated with the city. In the Jain tradition, it is said that Rishabha , the first of

7504-488: The city's autonomous coinage. In about the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE, an Indo-Scythian king named Azilises had three mints, one of which was at Taxila, and struck coins with obverse legends in Greek and Kharoṣṭhī . The last Greek king of Taxila was overthrown by the Indo-Scythian chief Maues around 90 BCE. Gondophares , founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom , conquered Taxila around 20 BCE, and made Taxila his capital. According to early Christian legend, Thomas

7616-485: The city. In a 2010 report, the Global Heritage Fund identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites that were "on the verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and armed conflict as primary threats. However, significant preservation efforts have since been carried out by the Pakistani government , which has resulted in the site's recategorization as "well-preserved" by different international publications. Because of

7728-591: The community at Taxila. Jīvaka , the court physician of the Magadha emperor Bimbisara who once cured the Buddha, and the Buddhism-supporting ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some important personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied at Taxila. No external authorities like kings or local leaders subjected the scholastic activities at Taxila to their control. Each teacher formed his own institution, enjoying complete autonomy in work, teaching as many students as he liked and teaching subjects he liked without conforming to any centralised syllabus. Study terminated when

7840-444: The confluence with the Sutlej river, Harike barrage was constructed to divert the combined water flows of both rivers to irrigation canals to serve Rajasthan and Punjab areas. The river rises 4,361 metres (14,308 ft) above sea-level on the southern face of Rohtang Pass in Kullu . It traverses the Mandi District and enters the Kangra District at Sandhol, 590 metres (1,940 ft) above sea-level. During its lower course

7952-599: The control of Chandragupta Maurya . His advisor, Kautilya/Chanakya , was said to have taught at Taxila's university. Under the reign of Ashoka the Great , Chandragupta's grandson, the city was made a great seat of Buddhist learning, though the city was home to a minor rebellion during this time. Taxila was founded in a strategic location along the ancient "Royal Highway" that connected the Mauryan capital at Pataliputra in Bihar , with ancient Peshawar, Puṣkalāvatī, and onwards towards Central Asia via Kashmir , Bactria, and Kāpiśa . Taxila thus changed hands many times over

8064-490: The duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him. Alexander had also established several colonies in neighbouring Bactria , such as Alexandria on the Oxus (modern Ai-Khanoum ) and Alexandria of the Caucasus (medieval Kapisa , modern Bagram ). After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Bactria came under the control of Seleucus I Nicator , who founded the Seleucid Empire . The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

8176-762: The east between the Oxus River, which forms the boundary between the Bactrians and the Sogdians, and the Iaxartes River. And the Iaxartes forms also the boundary between the Sogdians and the nomads. Euthydemus was attacked by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III around 210 BC. Although he commanded 10,000 horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost a battle on the Arius and had to retreat. He then successfully resisted

8288-564: The extensive preservation efforts and upkeep, Taxila is one of Punjab's popular tourist spots , attracting up to one million tourists every year. In ancient times, Taxila was known as Takṣaśilā in Sanskrit (per IAST ) and as Takkhasilā in Pali . The city's Sanskrit name translates to "City of Cut Stone" or "Rock of Taksha" in reference to a story in the Ramayana that states that

8400-613: The first century CE, to build their own on a site to the north of the ruins. Owing to its strategic location, Taxila has changed hands many times over the centuries, with many polities vying for its control. When the great ancient trade routes connecting these regions ceased to be important, the city sank into insignificance and was finally destroyed in the 5th century by the invading Hunas . In mid-19th century British India , ancient Taxila's ruins were rediscovered by British archaeologist Alexander Cunningham and extensively excavated by Sir John Marshall . In 1980, UNESCO designated Taxila as

8512-475: The great Manikyala tope, twenty eight monasteries, and nine temples. Taxila's archaeological sites lie near modern Taxila about 35 km (22 mi) northwest of the city of Rawalpindi . The sites were first excavated by John Marshall , who worked at Taxila over a period of twenty years from 1913. The vast archaeological site includes neolithic remains dating to 3360 BCE, and Early Harappan remains dating to 2900–2600 BCE at Sarai Kala . Taxila, however,

8624-403: The great Rishi opted to settle near the river, and made it a residence for some years. Thereby, it became known as Vashisht (after Vashishta). We can find Vashishta Brahmarishi Temple in this village. Ancient Greeks called it Hyphasis ( Greek : Ύφασης ), Plinius called it Hypasis, an approximation to the vedic Vipāś . Other classical names are Hynais, Bipasis, Bibasis. In modern times,

8736-865: The king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas , the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma . Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of Ashoka's emissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religious exchanges between the two cultures: Taxila Taxila ( Punjabi , Urdu : ٹيکسلا ; Punjabi pronunciation: [ʈɛksɪlaː] ), historically known as Takshashila ,

8848-444: The level of sophistication of the urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria and Parthia, who became interested in developing commercial relationships with them: The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Ferghana ( Dayuan ) and the possessions of Bactria ( Daxia ) and Parthia ( Anxi ) are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of

8960-587: The limit and glory of his expedition. According to the Kavyamimansa of Rajasekhara , the kingdom-territories of the Gurjara-Pratihara monarch Mahipala I extended as far as the upper course of the river Beas in the north-west. In the 20th century, the river was developed under the Beas Project for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation purposes. The second-phase Pong Dam

9072-529: The local king Sophagasenus : He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus (the Caucasus Indicus or Paropamisus: mod. Hindú Kúsh ) and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus

9184-445: The long and arduous journey they had to undergo, on account of the excellence of the learned teachers there, all recognised as authorities on their respective subjects. The admission to Takshashila was not only limited to the students belonging to the elite class, some evidence mentions the sons of kings, nobles, merchants, tailors, and even fishermen getting education at Takshashila. Taxila had great influence on Hindu culture and

9296-408: The northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Mauryan rule. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka , who had converted to the Buddhist faith declared in the Edicts of Ashoka , set in stone, some of them written in Greek, that Greek populations within his realm also had converted to Buddhism: Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas , the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas,

9408-735: The old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century. It has been suggested that at its height, Taxila exerted a sort of "intellectual suzerainty " over other centres of learning in India and its primary concern was not with elementary, but higher education. Generally, a student entered Taxila at the age of sixteen. The ancient and the most revered scriptures, and the Eighteen Silpas or Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science . Students came to Taxila from far-off places such as Kashi , Kosala and Magadha, in spite of

9520-538: The presence of Chinese products in the Bactrian markets: "When I was in Bactria ( Daxia )", Zhang Qian reported, "I saw bamboo canes from Qiong and cloth made in the province of Shu (territories of southwestern China). When I asked the people how they had gotten such articles, they replied, "Our merchants go buy them in the markets of Shendu (India)." Upon his return, Zhang Qian informed the Chinese emperor Han Wudi of

9632-591: The propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka such as Dharmaraksita , or the teacher Mahadharmaraksita , are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (" Yona ", i.e., Ionian) Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa , XII). It is also thought that Greeks contributed to the sculptural work of the Pillars of Ashoka , and more generally to the blossoming of Mauryan art. Some Greeks (Yavanas) may have played an administrative role in

9744-588: The rebels, and he prevailed: the Parthians celebrated this day as the one that marked the beginning of their freedom Euthydemus , a Magnesian Greek according to Polybius and possibly satrap of Sogdiana , overthrew Diodotus II around 230 BC and started his own dynasty. Euthydemus's control extended to Sogdiana, going beyond the city of Alexandria Eschate founded by Alexander the Great in Ferghana : "And they also held Sogdiana, situated above Bactriana towards

9856-490: The region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that of Sirsukh , which was built by rulers of the Kushan empire, who ruled from nearby Purushapura (modern Peshawar ). Taxila was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 in particular for the ruins of the four settlement sites which "reveal the pattern of urban evolution on the Indian subcontinent through more than five centuries". The serial site includes

9968-596: The region of Gandhara . In later Buddhist texts, the 4th - 3rd century BCE Jatakas , it is specified that Taxila was the city where Aruni and his son Shvetaketu each had received their education. One of the earliest mentions of Taxila is in Pāṇini 's Aṣṭādhyāyī , a Sanskrit grammar treatise dated to the 4th century BCE. Much of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata , is a conversation between Vaishampayana (a pupil of

10080-501: The river has also been called Bias or Bejah. The Beas River marks the easternmost border of Alexander the Great 's conquests in 326 BC. It was one of the rivers which created problems in Alexander's invasion of India. His troops mutinied here in 326 BC, refusing to go any further. Alexander shut himself in his tent for three days, but when his men did not change their desires he gave in, raising twelve colossal altars to mark

10192-536: The rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE. In 516 BCE, Darius I embarked on a campaign to conquer Central Asia , Ariana and Bactria , before marching onto what is now Afghanistan and northern Pakistan . Emperor Darius spent the winter of 516-515 BCE in the Gandhara region surrounding Taxila, and prepared to conquer the Indus Valley , which he did in 515 BCE, after which he appointed Scylax of Caryanda to explore

10304-539: The sage, Vyasa ) and King Janamejaya . It is traditionally believed that the story was first recited by Vaishampayana at the behest of Vyasa during the snake sacrifice performed by Janamejaya at Takshashila. The audience also included Ugrashravas , an itinerant bard, who would later recite the story to a group of priests at an ashram in the Naimisha Forest from where the story was further disseminated. The Kuru Kingdom 's heir, Parikshit (grandson of Arjuna)

10416-435: The social, intellectual and moral atmosphere there. Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for money, and hence any stipulation that fees ought to be paid was vigorously condemned . Financial support came from the society at large, as well as from rich merchants and wealthy parents . Though the number of students studying under a single Guru sometimes numbered in the hundreds, teachers did not deny education even if

10528-535: The southerly direction, separating the districts of Gurdaspur and Hoshiapur. After touching the Jalandhar district for a short distance, the river forms the boundary between Amritsar and Kapurthala . Finally the Beas joins the river Sutlej at the south-western boundary of Kapurthala district of Punjab after a total course of 470 kilometres (290 mi). The chief tributaries are Bain, Banganga, Luni and Uhal. The Sutlej continues into Pakistani Punjab and joins

10640-408: The student was poor; free boarding and lodging was provided, and students had to do manual work in the household . Paying students, such as princes, were taught during the day, while non-paying ones were taught at night. Gurudakshina was usually expected at the completion of a student's studies, but it was essentially a mere token of respect and gratitude - many times being nothing more than a turban,

10752-432: The teacher was satisfied with the student's level of achievement. In general, specialisation in a subject took around eight years, though this could be lengthened or shortened in accordance with the intellectual abilities and dedication of the student in question. In most cases the "schools" were located within the teachers' private houses, and at times students were advised to quit their studies if they were unable to fit into

10864-461: The teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda university in eastern India. Taxila became a noted centre of learning (including the religious teachings of Historical Vedic Religion and Buddhism ) at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students from around

10976-519: The territories ruled by Ashoka: the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana King/ Governor named Tushaspha was in charge in the area of Girnar , Gujarat , mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir. Again in 206 BC, the Seleucid emperor Antiochus led an army to the Kabul valley, where he received war elephants and presents from

11088-520: The thousand cities of Bactria ( Latin : Theodotus, mille urbium Bactrianarum praefectus ), defected and proclaimed himself king; all the other people of the Orient followed his example and seceded from the Macedonians. The new kingdom, highly urbanized and considered one of the richest of the Orient ( opulentissimum illud mille urbium Bactrianum imperium "The extremely prosperous Bactrian empire of

11200-463: The thousand cities" Justin, XLI,1), was to further grow in power and engage into territorial expansion to the east and the west: The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerful on account of the fertility of the country that they became masters, not only of Ariana , but also of India , as Apollodorus of Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander... Their cities were Bactra (also called Zariaspa, through which flows

11312-534: The time of the Persian Achaemenid empire . Darius the Great conquered the area, but along with his successors also conquered much of the Greek world, which at the time included all of the western Anatolian peninsula . When Greek villages rebelled under the Persian yoke, they were sometimes ethnically cleansed, by relocation to the far side of the empire. Thus there came to be many Greek communities in

11424-562: The time. The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (4,000 miles) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy , Antigonos , Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas , the Pandyas , and as far as Tamraparni . Some of the Greek populations that had remained in northwestern India apparently converted to Buddhism: Here in

11536-627: Was announced that Thailand would assist in conservation efforts at Taxila, as well as at Buddhist sites in the Swat Valley . Taxila is located 32 km (20 mi) north-west of the Pakistani capital Islamabad . The city is located approximately 549 metres (1,801 ft) above sea level . Taxila features a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen : Cwa) Beas River The Beas River ( Punjabi pronunciation: [be.jäːsᵊ] ; Hindustani pronunciation: [bjɑːs] )

11648-416: Was completed in 1974 followed by the first-phase 140 kilometres (87 mi) upstream, Pandoh Dam in 1977. The Pong Dam served initially to primarily provide irrigation below Talwara but was soon developed as well for power generation; its power station with six turbines has now been upgraded to 396 MW installed capacity. Initially, the installed capacity was 360 MW . The Pandoh Dam diverts the river through

11760-672: Was considerably reduced. Many new kingdoms and republics east of the Ravi River began to mint new coinage depicting military victories. The most prominent entities to form were the Yaudheya Republic, Arjunayanas , and the Audumbaras . The Yaudheyas and Arjunayanas both are said to have won "victory by the sword". The Datta dynasty and Mitra dynasty soon followed in Mathura . The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as

11872-440: Was critical and thorough- unless one unit was mastered completely, the student was not allowed to proceed to the next . No convocations were held upon completion, and no written "degrees" were awarded, since it was believed that knowledge was its own reward. Using knowledge for earning a living or for any selfish end was considered sacrilegious. Students arriving at Taxila usually had completed their primary education at home (until

11984-430: Was established around 1000 BCE. By 900 BCE, the city was already involved in regional commerce, as the discovered pottery shards reveal trading ties between the city and Puṣkalāvatī . Later, Taxila was inhabited at Bhir Mound , dated to some time around the period 800-525 BCE with these early layers bearing grooved red burnished ware. Archaeological excavations show that the city may have grown significantly during

12096-483: Was founded when Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria (and probably the surrounding provinces) seceded from the Seleucid Empire around 250 BC. The preserved ancient sources (see below) are somewhat contradictory and the exact date of Bactrian independence has not been settled. Somewhat simplified, there is a high chronology (c. 255 BC) and a low chronology (c. 246 BC) for Diodotos' secession. The high chronology has

12208-588: Was known in the 19th century as Babur Khana ('House of Tiger'), alluding to the place where Gautama Buddha had offered his head. In addition, a hill range to south of the Taxila Valley is called Margala ( lit.   ' cut-off throat ' ). In Vedic texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana , it is mentioned that the Vedic philosopher Uddalaka Aruni (c. 7th century BCE) had travelled to

12320-574: Was made difficult partly due to errors in the distances recorded by Pliny in his Naturalis Historia which pointed to a location somewhere on the Haro river , two days march from the Indus . Alexander Cunningham , the founder and the first director-general of the Archaeological Survey of India , noticed that this position did not agree with the descriptions provided in the itineraries of Chinese pilgrims and in particular, that of Xuanzang,

12432-467: Was replaced by the Hindu Shahi dynasty which was overthrown by Mahmud of Ghazni with the defeat of Trilochanpala . Al-Usaifan's king during the reign of Al-Mu'tasim is said to have converted to Islam by Al-Biladhuri and abandoned his old faith due to the death of his son despite having priests of a temple pray for his recovery. Said to be located between Kashmir, Multan and Kabul, al-Usaifan

12544-479: Was visited by him in 630 CE, and found most of its sangharamas still ruined and desolate. Only a few monks remained there. He adds that the kingdom had become a dependency of Kashmir with the local leaders fighting amongst themselves for power. He noted that it had some time previously been a subject of Kapisa . By the ninth century, it became a dependency of the Kabul Shahis. The Turki Shahi dynasty of Kabul

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